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91-718: The area was vaguely defined and shifted over time but generally was described as bordered to the south by the Balcones Fault , just north of San Antonio , Texas, continuing north along the Cross Timbers to encompass a northern area that included the Cimarron River and the upper Arkansas River east of the Rocky Mountains . Comanchería was bordered along the west by the Mescalero Ridge and

182-527: A continental collision. Although long since worn away in Texas, the roots of these ancient mountains still exist, buried beneath thousands of feet of sediment . These buried Ouachita Mountains may still be an area of weakness that becomes a preferred site for faulting when stress exists in the Earth's crust . The Balcones Fault has remained inactive for nearly 15 million years, with the last activity being during

273-573: A few Cheyenne, as their horses were fresh. This was the first battle that the Cheyenne fought against the US Army. Casualties were few on each side; J.E.B. Stuart , then a young lieutenant, was shot in the breast while attacking a Cheyenne warrior with a sabre. The troops continued on and two days later burned a hastily abandoned Cheyenne camp; they destroyed lodges and the winter supply of buffalo meat. Sumner continued to Bent's Fort . To punish

364-754: A peace conference in San Antonio in March 1840 set off a series of bloody reprisals and battles. Hundreds of Comanches descended upon and destroyed the towns of Victoria and Linnville in 1840. Although the Texans demonstrated they could defeat the Comanche at the Battle of Plum Creek , military campaigns emptied their treasury in what became the Texas–Indian Wars , and Texas became more accommodating. In 1844,

455-830: A retaliatory attack with about 1000 warriors on Camp Rankin, a stage station and fort at Julesburg . The Indians made numerous raids along the South Platte, both east and west of Julesburg, and raided the fort again in early February. They captured much loot and killed many European Americans. Most of the Indians moved north into Nebraska on their way to the Black Hills and the Powder River. (See Battle of Julesburg , Battle of Mud Springs , Battle of Rush Creek , Powder River Expedition , Battle of Platte Bridge ) Black Kettle continued to desire peace and did not join in

546-573: A source of fresh water and a place for human settlement. The Balcones Fault Zone is a demarcation line for certain ecological systems and for species distributions, e.g., the California fan palm ( Washingtonia filifera ) is the only species of palm tree native to the continental United States west of the Balcones Fault. Cheyenne The Cheyenne ( / ʃ aɪ ˈ æ n / shy- AN ) are an Indigenous people of

637-566: A unified tribe. The Cheyenne tribes today descend from two related tribes, the Tsétsėhéstȧhese / Tsitsistas (Cheyenne proper) and Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o (better known as Suhtai or Sutaio). The latter merged with the Tsétshéstȧhese in the mid-19th century. Their oral history relays that both tribal peoples are characterized, and represented by two cultural heroes or prophets who received divine articles from their god Ma'heo'o, whom

728-630: Is Sáhea'eo'o , a word that sounds similar to the Lakota word Šahíya . Another of the common etymologies for Cheyenne is "a bit like the [people of an] alien speech" (literally, "red-talker"). According to George Bird Grinnell , the Lakota had referred to themselves and fellow Siouan -language bands as "white talkers", and those of other language families, such as the Algonquian Cheyenne, as "red talkers" ( Šahíyena ). The etymology of

819-555: Is kept in the vonȧhéome (old term) or hóhkėha'éome (new term) ("Sacred Hat Lodge, Sacred Hat Tepee"). Erect Horns gave them the accompanying ceremonies and the Sun Dance . His vision convinced the tribe to abandon their earlier sedentary agricultural traditions to adopt nomadic Plains horse culture . They replaced their earth lodges with portable tipis and switched their diet from fish and agricultural produce, to mainly bison and wild fruits and vegetables. Their lands ranged from

910-419: Is the Cheyenne prophet who predicted the coming of the horse, the cow, the white man, and other new things to the Cheyenne. He was named for motsé'eonȯtse ( sweetgrass ), one of the sacred plant medicines used by many Plains peoples in ceremonies. The Maahótse (Sacred Arrows) are symbols of male power. The Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e (Sacred Buffalo Hat) is the symbol of female power. The Sacred Buffalo Hat and

1001-545: Is the Contrary Warrior Society, most notable for riding backward into battle as a sign of bravery. All six societies and their various branches exist among the Southern and Northern Cheyenne nations in present times. Warriors used a combination of weapons from war clubs , tomahawks , and bows and arrows, and lances to firearms acquired through raiding and trade. The enemies of the Cheyenne included

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1092-520: The Apsáalooke (Óoetaneo'o – "crow (bird) people"), Shoshone (Sósone'eo'o), Blackfeet (Mo'ȯhtávėhahtátaneo'o, same literal meaning), Interior Salish and Kuntenai (Kȧhkoestséataneo'o – "flat-headed-people"), Nez Perce (Otaesétaneo'o – "pierced nose people"), Arikara , Gros Ventre (Hestóetaneo'o – "beggars for meat", "spongers" or Mȯhónooneo'o – lit. "scouting all over ones"), Assiniboine , and Plains Cree (Vóhkoohétaneo'o – "rabbit people") to

1183-764: The Black Hills of South Dakota and the Powder River Country of present-day Montana and Wyoming, they introduced the horse culture to Lakota people around 1730. The main group of Cheyenne, the Tsêhéstáno, was once composed of ten bands that spread across the Great Plains from southern Colorado to the Black Hills in South Dakota. They fought their historic enemies, the Crow and later (1856–79)

1274-860: The Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes in Oklahoma , and the Northern Cheyenne , who are enrolled in the Northern Cheyenne Tribe of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in Montana . The Cheyenne language belongs to the Algonquian language family . Over the past 400 years, the Cheyenne have changed their lifestyles from Great Lakes woodlands to Northern Plains and by the mid-19th century,

1365-617: The Colorado Gold Rush , European-American settlers moved into lands reserved for the Cheyenne and other Plains Indians. Travel greatly increased along the Emigrant Trail along the South Platte River and some emigrants stopped before going on to California. For several years there was peace between settlers and Indians. The only conflicts were related to the endemic warfare between the Cheyenne and Arapaho of

1456-526: The Colorado War . General warfare broke out and Indians made many raids on the trail along the South Platte, which Denver depended on for supplies. The Army closed the road from August 15 until September 24, 1864. On November 29, 1864, the Colorado Militia attacked a Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment under Chief Black Kettle , although it flew a flag of truce and indicated its allegiance to

1547-578: The Comancheros (Pueblo and New Mexico traders) acted as intermediaries. The Ciboleros also competed against the Comanche in the context of bison hunting. The Comanche language became the Lingua franca of the Southern Plains. Balcones Fault The Balcones Fault or Balcones Fault Zone is an area of largely normal faulting in the U.S. state of Texas that runs roughly from

1638-627: The Kiowa and Kiowa-Apache , along with the Comanche. In the northwest of the Comancheria lived the opposing Ute and Shoshone , to the northeast settled the enemy and powerful Osage and in the north the also antagonistic Pawnee . In addition, in and adjacent to the Comancheria settled the allied Wichita , Tawakoni , Waco , and Hasinai . In the east lived the Caddo and later the Cherokee . In

1729-646: The Mississippi River and Mille Lacs Lake . Their economy was based on the collection of wild rice and hunting, especially of bison , which lived in the prairies 70 to 80 miles west of the Cheyenne villages. According to tribal history, during the 17th century, the Cheyenne were driven by the Assiniboine (Hóheeheo'o) from the Great Lakes region to present-day Minnesota and North Dakota , where they established villages. The most prominent of

1820-725: The Neogene period. This activity was related to subsidence of the Texas Coastal Plain , most likely from the large amount of sediment deposited on it by Texas rivers. The Balcones Fault is in one of the lowest-risk zones for earthquakes in the United States. The surface expression of the fault is the Balcones Escarpment, which forms the eastern boundary of the Texas Hill Country and

1911-614: The Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation . Tribal enrollment figures, as of late 2014, indicate that there are approximately 10,840 members, of which about 4,939 reside on the reservation. Approximately 91% of the population are Native Americans (full or part race), with 72.8% identifying themselves as Cheyenne. Slightly more than one-quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English. The Southern Cheyenne , known in Cheyenne as Heévâhetaneo'o meaning "Roped People", together with

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2002-902: The Pecos River , continuing north along the edge of the Spanish settlements in Santa Fe de Nuevo México . It also included West Texas , the Llano Estacado , the Texas Panhandle , the Edwards Plateau (including the Texas Hill Country ), Eastern New Mexico , western Oklahoma including the Oklahoma Panhandle and the Wichita Mountains , southeastern Colorado and southwestern Kansas . Before

2093-651: The Republican River . The Indian agent at Fort Laramie negotiated with the Cheyenne to reduce hostilities, but the Secretary of War ordered the 1st Cavalry Regiment (1855) to carry out a punitive expedition under the command of Colonel Edwin V. Sumner . He went against the Cheyenne in the spring of 1857. Major John Sedgwick led part of the expedition up the Arkansas River , and via Fountain Creek to

2184-550: The South Platte River . Sumner's command went west along the North Platte to Fort Laramie, then down along the Front Range to the South Platte. The combined force of 400 troops went east through the plains searching for Cheyenne. Under the influence of the medicine man White Bull (also called Ice) and Grey Beard (also called Dark), the Cheyenne went into battle believing that strong spiritual medicine would prevent

2275-536: The Texas Revolution asserting independence from Mexico in 1836, the Comanche had to deal with the Republic of Texas . Texas's first President, Sam Houston , was knowledgeable about Indians and favored a policy of accommodation with the Comanche. Continued Comanche raids led to the election in 1838 of Mirabeau B. Lamar who favored a more aggressive approach. The massacre of 12 Comanche chiefs attending

2366-708: The United States Army . In the mid-19th century, the bands began to split, with some bands choosing to remain near the Black Hills, while others chose to remain near the Platte Rivers of central Colorado. With the Arapaho , the Cheyenne pushed the Kiowa to the Southern Plains. In turn, they were pushed west by the more numerous Lakota . The Northern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne either as Notameohmésėhese, meaning "Northern Eaters" (or simply as Ohmésėhese meaning "Eaters"), live in southeastern Montana on

2457-635: The 1750s to the 1850s, the Comanches were the dominant group in the Southwest and developed a form of imperialism . Confronted with Spanish, Mexican, and U.S. outposts on their periphery in New Mexico, Texas, Louisiana, and Mexico, they worked to increase their own safety, prosperity and power. According to Hämäläinen, disease was the single most dangerous threat to Native Americans. The Comanche managed to avoid disease, which gave them an upper hand over

2548-570: The Apaches and other tribes in this area. Along with this, the Comanche were able to exchange goods with Europeans. The main thing exchanged for that gave them power was horses. Horses gave the Comanches more military power, and allowed them to hunt more buffalo . The Comanches used this military power to obtain more supplies and labor from the Americans , Mexicans , and Indians through thievery, tribute, and kidnappings. Although powered by violence,

2639-863: The Cheyenne and Arapaho territory on the Great Plains between the North Platte River and the Arkansas. This territory included what is now Colorado, east of the Front Range of the Rockies and north of the Arkansas River; Wyoming and Nebraska , south of the North Platte River; and extreme western Kansas . In April 1856, an incident at the Platte River Bridge (near present-day Casper, Wyoming ), resulted in

2730-416: The Cheyenne further west, and they, in turn, pushed the Kiowa to the south. By 1776, the Lakota had overwhelmed the Cheyenne and taken over much of their territory near the Black Hills . In 1804, Lewis and Clark visited a surviving Cheyenne village in what is now North Dakota. Such European explorers learned many different names for the Cheyenne and did not realize how the different sections were forming

2821-486: The Cheyenne homeland is Tsistano . The Cheyenne of Montana and Oklahoma speak the Cheyenne language , known as Tsėhésenėstsestȯtse (common spelling: Tsisinstsistots). Approximately 800 people speak Cheyenne in Oklahoma. There are only a handful of vocabulary differences between the two locations. The Cheyenne alphabet contains 14 letters. The Cheyenne language is one of the larger Algonquian-language group. Formerly,

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2912-744: The Cheyenne, he distributed their annuities to the Arapaho. He intended further punitive actions, but the Army ordered him to Utah because of an outbreak of trouble with the Mormons (this would be known as the Utah War ). The Cheyenne moved below the Arkansas into Kiowa and Comanche country. In the fall, the Northern Cheyenne returned to their country north of the Platte. Starting in 1859 with

3003-423: The Comanche dealt with rivals on their northern and eastern borders. In 1835, they met with a delegation of U.S. soldiers and eastern Indians in the Wichita Mountains of Oklahoma and concluded a peace agreement. The agreement permitted eastern Indians and the U.S. to hunt on Comanche lands and did not restrain the Comanche and their Kiowa and Wichita allies from making war on Mexico. With their eastern flank secured by

3094-435: The Comanche empire was primarily an economic construction, rooted in an extensive commercial network that facilitated long-distance trade. Dealing with subordinate Indians, the Comanche spread their language and culture across the region. By the early 1830s, the Comanche began to run out of resources in Comancheria. At this time, they had been conducting raids deep into Mexico and would take what they got back to Comancheria. In

3185-428: The Comanche expanded out of present-day Wyoming in the early 18th century, the lands that became known as Comancheria were home to a multitude of tribes—most notably the Apaches . Much of the region had previously been known as Apacheria . Some historians have begun to consider Comancheria, at the peak of its power, as an empire . This concept was based on ideas developed by Pekka Hämäläinen who argues that from

3276-455: The Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache ended in 1840 when the tribes allied with each other. The new alliance allowed the Cheyenne to enter the Llano Estacado in the Texas and Oklahoma panhandles and northeastern New Mexico to hunt bison and trade. Their expansion in the south and alliance with the Kiowa led to their first raid into Mexico in 1853. The raid ended in disaster with heavy resistance from Mexican lancers, resulting in all but three of

3367-510: The Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache to fight invading settlers and US soldiers. The Arapaho were present with the Cheyenne at the Sand Creek Massacre when a peaceful encampment of mostly women, children, and the elderly were attacked and massacred by US soldiers. Both major divisions of the Cheyenne, the Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne were allies to the Arapaho who like the Cheyenne are split into northern and southern divisions. The Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho were assigned to

3458-431: The Council Bluff in Nebraska, the commission had successful negotiations with the Otoe , the Pawnee and the Omaha . Increased traffic of emigrants along the related Oregon , Mormon and California trails, beginning in the early 1840s, heightened competition with Native Americans for scarce resources of water and game in arid areas. With resource depletion along the trails, the Cheyenne became increasingly divided into

3549-407: The Great Plains . The Cheyenne comprise two Native American tribes, the Só'taeo'o or Só'taétaneo'o (more commonly spelled as Suhtai or Sutaio ) and the Tsétsėhéstȧhese (also spelled Tsitsistas , [t͡sɪt͡shɪstʰɑs] ); the tribes merged in the early 19th century. Today, the Cheyenne people are split into two federally recognized nations : the Southern Cheyenne , who are enrolled in

3640-422: The Indians. In 1841, Governor Manuel Armijo was ordered by the Mexican central government to join a military campaign against the Comanche, but Armijo declined. "To declare war on the Comanches would bring complete ruin to the Department of New Mexico." In 1844, New Mexican officials learned of but did nothing to prevent a Comanche raid on Chihuahua. With their western flank secured by an unthreatening New Mexico,

3731-503: The Kiowa, Comanche, Ute , Plains Apache , Osage , Wichita , various Apache tribes, and Navajo . Many of the enemies the Cheyenne fought were only encountered occasionally, such as on a long-distance raid or hunt. Some of their enemies, particularly the Eastern Plains tribe such as the Pawnee and Osage would act as Indian Scouts for the US Army, providing valuable tracking skills and information regarding Cheyenne habits and fighting strategies to US soldiers. Some of their enemies such as

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3822-510: The Lakota would later in their history become their strong allies, helping the Cheyenne fight against the United States Army during Red Cloud's War and the Great Sioux War of 1876 . The Comanche, Kiowa and Plains Apache became allies of the Cheyenne towards the end of the Indian wars on the Southern Plains, fighting together during conflicts such as the Red River War . The Cheyenne and Arapaho formed an alliance around 1811 that helped them expand their territories and strengthen their presence on

3913-460: The Missouri River, the Cheyenne came into contact with the neighboring Mandan , Hidatsa (Tsé-heše'émâheónese, "people who have soil houses "), and Arikara people (Ónoneo'o), adopting many of their cultural characteristics. They were first of the later Plains tribes to move into the Black Hills and Powder River Country . About 1730, they introduced the horse to Lakota bands (Ho'óhomo'eo'o). Conflict with migrating Lakota and Ojibwe people forced

4004-439: The Missouri, they negotiated treaties of friendship and trade with tribes of the upper Missouri, including the Arikara , the Cheyenne, the Crow, the Mandan , the Ponca , and several bands of the Lakota and Dakota. At that time, the US had competition on the upper Missouri from British traders, who came south from Canada. The treaties acknowledged that the tribes lived within the United States, vowed perpetual friendship between

4095-403: The North Platte and Yellowstone rivers. The groups became the Southern Cheyenne, or Sówoníă (Southerners), and the Northern Cheyenne, or O'mǐ'sǐs (Eaters). The two divisions maintained regular and close contact. In the southern portion of their territory, the Cheyenne and Arapaho warred with the allied Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache. Numerous battles were fought including a notable fight along

4186-403: The Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne, where they could have adequate territory for sustenance. During the California Gold Rush , emigrants brought in cholera . It spread in mining camps and waterways due to poor sanitation. The disease was generally a major cause of death for emigrants, about one-tenth of whom died during their journeys. Perhaps from traders, the cholera epidemic reached

4277-415: The Plains Indians in 1849, resulting in severe loss of life during the summer of that year. Historians estimate about 2,000 Cheyenne died, one-half to two-thirds of their population. There were significant losses among other tribes as well, which weakened their social structures. Perhaps because of severe loss of trade during the 1849 season, Bent's Fort was abandoned and burned. In 1846, Thomas Fitzpatrick

4368-509: The Plains, the government officials "assigned" territories to each tribe and had them pledge mutual peace. In addition, the government secured permission to build and maintain roads for European-American travelers and traders through Indian country on the Plains, such as the Emigrant Trail and the Santa Fe Trail , and to maintain forts to guard them. The tribes were compensated with annuities of cash and supplies for such encroachment on their territories. The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 affirmed

4459-442: The Sacred Arrows together form the two great covenants of the Cheyenne Nation. Through these two bundles, Ma'heo'o assures continual life and blessings for the people. The Só'taeo'o prophet Tomȯsévėséhe ("Erect Horns") received the Ésevone (aka Is'siwun – " Sacred (Buffalo) Hat Bundle ") at Tȯhóonévose (″Stone Hammer Mountain″) near the Great Lakes in the present state of Minnesota. The Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e (Sacred Buffalo Hat)

4550-433: The Smoky Hill and Republican basins, between the Arkansas and the South Platte, where there were plentiful buffalo. Efforts to make a wider peace continued, but in the spring of 1864, John Evans , governor of Colorado Territory, and John Chivington , commander of the Colorado Volunteers, a citizens militia , began a series of attacks on Indians camping or hunting on the plains. They killed any Indian on sight and initiated

4641-497: The Southern Arapaho, form the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes , in western Oklahoma. Their combined population is 12,130, as of 2008 . In 2003, approximately 8,000 of these identified themselves as Cheyenne, although with continuing intermarriage it has become increasingly difficult to separate the tribes. The Cheyenne called themselves Tsétsêhéstâhese (more commonly as the Tsitsistas ; singular: Tsétsêhéstaestse ), which translates to "those who are like this". The Suhtai, also called

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4732-469: The Só'taeo'o (Só'taétaneo'o) or Suhtai (Sutaio) bands of Southern and Northern Cheyenne spoke Só'taéka'ėškóne or Só'taenėstsestȯtse , a language so close to Tsėhésenėstsestȯtse (Cheyenne language), that it is sometimes termed a Cheyenne dialect. The earliest written record of the Cheyenne was in the mid-17th century, when a group of Cheyenne visited the French Fort Crevecoeur , near present-day Peoria, Illinois . The Cheyenne at this time lived between

4823-445: The Só'taeo'o called He'emo. The Tsétsėhéstȧhese / Tsitsistas prophet Motsé'eóeve (Sweet Medicine Standing, Sweet Root Standing, commonly called Sweet Medicine) received the Maahótse ( (Sacred) Arrows Bundle ) at Nóávóse (″medicine(sacred)-hill″, name for Bear Butte , northwest of Rapid City, South Dakota, which they carried when they waged tribal-level war and were kept in the maahéome (Arrow Lodge or Arrow Tepee). He organized

4914-524: The Só'taeo'o, Só'taétaneo'o, Sutaio (singular: Só'taétane) traveled with the Tsétsêhéstâhese and merged with them after 1832. The Suhtai had slightly different speech and customs from the Tsétsêhéstâhese. The name "Cheyenne" derives from the Lakota Sioux exonym Šahíyena meaning "little Šahíya ". The identity of the Šahíya is not known, but many Great Plains tribes assume that it means Cree or another people who spoke an Algonquian language related to Cree and Cheyenne. The Cheyenne name for Ojibwe

5005-411: The Texans and the Comanches came to an agreement which recognized Comanche lands and left Comancheria intact. The agreements with the United States and neighboring tribes, as well as the hiatus in the struggle with Texas, freed up the Comanche to make unrestrained war on the Mexican provinces south of the Rio Grande. The 1830s demonstrated that the Texans, the United States, and neighboring tribes all had

5096-408: The US and the tribes, and, recognizing the right of the United States to regulate trade, the tribes promised to deal only with licensed traders. The tribes agreed to forswear private retaliation for injuries, and to return stolen horses or other goods or compensate the owner. The commission's efforts to contact the Blackfoot and the Assiniboine were unsuccessful. During their return to Fort Atkinson at

5187-425: The US government forced them onto reservations. At the time of their first European contact in the 16th century, the Cheyenne lived in what is now Minnesota . They were close allies of the Arapaho and loosely aligned with the Lakota . By the early 18th century, they were forced west by other tribes across the Missouri River and into North and South Dakota , where they adopted the horse culture . Having settled

5278-423: The US government. The Sand Creek massacre , as it came to be known, resulted in the death of between 150 and 200 Cheyenne, mostly unarmed women and children. The survivors fled northeast and joined the camps of the Cheyenne on the Smoky Hill and Republican rivers. There warriors smoked the war pipe, passing it from camp to camp among the Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho. In January 1865, they planned and carried out

5369-436: The Washita River in 1836 with the Kiowa which resulted in the death of 48 Cheyenne warriors of the Bowstring society. In summer 1838, many Cheyenne and Arapaho attacked a camp of Kiowa and Comanche along Wolf Creek in Oklahoma resulting in heavy losses from both sides. Among the losses were White Thunder (keeper of the Medicine Arrows and Owl Woman's father), Flat-War-Club (Cheyenne), and Sleeping Wolf (Kiowa). Conflict with

5460-575: The ability to invade Comancheria and attack the Comanche homeland; Mexico, by contrast, was rich in horses and unable to counterattack due to distance and the fact that, after 1836, any Mexican military expedition against Comanches would have had to pass through Texas, a republic whose independence Mexico did not recognize. In attacking Mexico, the Comanche seemed motivated by opportunity, economics and revenge – their animosity toward non-Comanches sharpened by decades of war and reprisals. Thus, their raids on Mexico became increasingly bloody and destructive. To

5551-426: The already established Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming with their former enemies the Shoshone . In the summer of 1825, the tribe was visited on the Upper Missouri River by a US treaty commission consisting of General Henry Atkinson and Indian agent Benjamin O'Fallon , accompanied by a military escort of 476 men. General Atkinson and his fellow commissioner left Fort Atkinson on May 16, 1825. Ascending

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5642-455: The ancient Cheyenne villages is Biesterfeldt Village , in eastern North Dakota along the Sheyenne River . They first reached the Missouri River in 1676. A more recent analysis of early records posits that at least some of the Cheyenne remained in the Mille Lac region of Minnesota until about 1765, when the Ojibwe defeated the Dakota with firearms — pushing the Cheyenne, in turn, to the Minnesota River, where they were reported in 1766. On

5733-402: The band was hostile or friendly. Historians believe that Chief Black Kettle, head of the band, was not part of the war party but the peace party within the Cheyenne nation. But, he did not command absolute authority over members of his band and the European Americans did not understand this. When younger members of the band took part in raiding parties, European Americans blamed the entire band for

5824-414: The enforcement of laws within the nation. Each of the six distinct warrior societies of the Cheyenne took turns leadering the nation. The four original military societies of the Cheyenne were the Swift Fox Society, Elk Horn Scrapper or Crooked Lance Society, Shield Society, and the Bowstring Men Society. The fifth society is split between the Crazy Dog Society and the famous Dog Soldiers . The sixth society

5915-455: The government's orders, some of its members had been linked to raiding into Kansas by bands operating out of the Indian Territory . Custer claimed 103 Cheyenne "warriors" and an unspecified number of women and children killed whereas different Cheyenne informants named between 11 and 18 men (mostly 10 Cheyenne, 2 Arapaho, 1 Mexican trader) and between 17 and 25 women and children killed in the village. There are conflicting claims as to whether

6006-404: The keeper of the bundle demanded the keeper Broken Dish give up the bundle; he agreed but his wife did not and desecrated the Sacred Hat and its contents; a ceremonial pipe and a buffalo horn were lost. In 1908 a Cheyenne named Three Fingers gave the horn back to the Hat. The pipe came into possession of a Cheyenne named Burnt All Over who gave it to Hattie Goit of Poteau, Oklahoma who in 1911 gave

6097-417: The late 1840s; causing their population to plunge from 20,000 to just a few thousand by the 1870s. The Comanche resolved most of the challenges facing them in the 1830s with adroit diplomacy. Their strategy was flexible. With New Mexico, a Mexican province to their west, they enjoyed friendly trading relations. New Mexico was more of an asset than a threat to the Comanches, and the New Mexicans avoided war with

6188-401: The mid 1830s, the Comanche formed a colony in Mexico called the Bolson colony. Conditions in this colony were similar to how they were in Comancheria when it was winter in the north. Eventually, there was a drought, and Comancheria and the Bolson colony struggled. Along with this, the Comanche empire collapsed after their villages were repeatedly decimated by epidemics of smallpox and cholera in

6279-538: The name Tsitsistas (Tsétsėhéstȧhese), which the Cheyenne call themselves, is uncertain. According to the Cheyenne dictionary offered online by Chief Dull Knife College , there is no consensus and various origins and translation of the word have been proposed. Grinnell's record is typical and states, "They call themselves Tsistsistas [sic, Tsitsistas is the correct pronunciation], which the books commonly give as meaning "people". It most likely means related to one another, similarly bred, like us, our people, or us. The term for

6370-436: The north and west of Cheyenne territory. By the help of the Medicine Arrows (the Mahuts), the Cheyenne tribe massacred a Crow camp in 1820 . To the east of Cheyenne Territory they fought with the Lakota , Dakota , Pawnee , Ponca , Kaw , Iowa , Ho-Chunk , and Omaha (Onéhao'o). The Pawnee captured the Cheyenne's Sacred Arrows during an attack on a hunting camp around 1830. South of Cheyenne territory they fought with

6461-460: The pipe to the Oklahoma Historical Society. In 1997 the Oklahoma Historal Society negotiated with the Northern Cheyenne to return the pipe to the tribal keeper of the Sacred Medicine Hat Bundle James Black Wolf. After being pushed south and westward by the Lakota, the Cheyenne began to establish new territory. Around 1811, the Cheyenne formally allied with the Arapaho people (Hetanevo'eo'o), which would remain strong throughout their history and into

6552-587: The plains and the Utes of the mountains. US negotiations with Black Kettle and other Cheyenne favoring peace resulted in the Treaty of Fort Wise : it established a small reservation for the Cheyenne in southeastern Colorado in exchange for the territory agreed to in the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851. Many Cheyenne did not sign the treaty, and they continued to live and hunt on their traditional grounds in

6643-538: The plains. Like the Cheyenne, the Arapaho language is an Algonquian language , although the two languages are not mutually intelligible. The Arapaho remained strong allies with the Cheyenne and helped them fight alongside the Lakota and Dakota during Red Cloud's War and the Great Sioux War of 1876, also known commonly as the Black Hills War. On the Southern Plains, the Arapaho and Cheyenne allied with

6734-484: The present. The alliance helped the Cheyenne expand their territory that stretched from southern Montana, through most of Wyoming, the eastern half of Colorado, far western Nebraska, and far western Kansas. By 1820, American traders and explorers reported contact with Cheyenne at present-day Denver, Colorado , and on the Arkansas River. The Cheyenne likely hunted and traded in Denver much earlier. They may have migrated to

6825-529: The same reservation in Oklahoma Indian Territory and remained together as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes after the reservation was opened to American settlement and into modern times. The Northern Arapaho were to be assigned a reservation of their own or share one with the Cheyenne; however, the US federal government failed to provide them with either and placed them on

6916-424: The second raid or in the plan to go north to the Powder River country. He left the large camp and returned with 80 lodges of his tribesmen to the Arkansas River, where he intended to seek peace with the US. Four years later, on November 27, 1868, George Armstrong Custer and his troops attacked Black Kettle's band at the Battle of Washita River . Although his band was camped on a defined reservation, complying with

7007-490: The soldiers' guns from firing. They were told that if they dipped their hands in a nearby spring, they had only to raise their hands to repel army bullets. Hands raised, the Cheyenne surrounded the advancing troops as they advanced near the Solomon River . Sumner ordered a cavalry charge and the troops charged with drawn sabers; the Cheyenne fled. With tired horses after long marches, the cavalry could not engage more than

7098-481: The south for winter. The Hairy Rope band is reputed to have been the first band to move south, capturing wild horses as far south as the Cimarron River Valley. In response to the construction of Bent's Fort by Charles Bent , a non-Native trader and ally, a large portion of the tribe moved further south and stayed around the area. The other part of the tribe continued to live along the headwaters of

7189-627: The southeast settled the erstwhile allies, but after the expulsion of the Apaches of the Plains, rival Tonkawa . In the north, the Southern Cheyenne Arapaho , forced the Comanche to acknowledge the Arkansas River as their northern border. Moreover, the Comanche undertook extensive commercial enterprises to the Pueblo in New Mexico and to the Spanish settlements around San Antonio. In this trade of guns, horses, captives and other goods

7280-537: The southwest part of the state near Del Rio to the north-central region near Dallas along Interstate 35 . The Balcones Fault zone is made up of many smaller features, including normal faults , grabens , and horsts . One of the obvious features is the Mount Bonnell Fault. The location of the fault zone may be related to the Ouachita Mountains , formed 300 million years ago during

7371-526: The specific coups required to become a war chief. Specific warrior societies evolved. Each society had selected leaders who would invite those that they saw worthy enough to their society lodge for initiation into the society. Often, societies would have minor rivalries; however, they might work together as a unit when warring with an enemy. Military societies played an important role in Cheyenne government. Society leaders were often in charge of organizing hunts and raids as well as ensuring proper discipline and

7462-465: The structure of Cheyenne society, their military or war societies led by prominent warriors, their system of legal justice, and the Council of Forty-four peace chiefs. The latter was formed from four véhoo'o (chiefs or leaders) of the ten principal manaho ( bands ) and an additional four ″Old Man″ meetings to deliberate at regular tribal gatherings, centered around the Sun Dance . Sweet Medicine

7553-506: The treaty with the U.S., the Comanches next concluded a peace agreement in 1840 with the southern Cheyenne and Arapaho pressing on them from the north. It was highly favorable to the Cheyenne and Arapaho. They were permitted to reside and hunt on the buffalo and horse-rich Comanche lands and, in addition, the affluent Comanches gave them gifts, including as many as six horses to every Cheyenne and Arapaho man. The Comanche welcome to these two tribes, their southern bands numbering perhaps 4,000,

7644-508: The upper Missouri River into what is now Wyoming , Montana, Colorado, and South Dakota. The Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e ("Sacred Buffalo Hat") is kept among the Northern Cheyenne and Northern Só'taeo'o. The Tséá'enōvȧhtse (″Sacred (Buffalo) Hat Keeper″ or ″Keeper of the Sacred (Buffalo) Hat″) must belong to the Só'taeo'o (Northern or Southern alike). In the 1870s tribal leaders became disenchanted with

7735-474: The war party being killed. To the north, the Cheyenne allied with the Lakota, which allowed them to expand their territory into part of their former lands around the Black Hills. By heading into the Rocky Mountains, they managed to escape the 1837–39 smallpox epidemics that swept across the plains from white settlements but were greatly affected by the 1849 cholera epidemic. Contact with Euro-Americans

7826-435: The west, southwest and southeast of the Comancheria stretched the vast territories of the various hostile Apache groups, partially overlapping and forming a kind of no man's land, which was heavily contested between the two peoples. Moreover, the Comanche had to pass through the dangerous Apacheria on their way down to Mexico for raiding and recross it with plunder. The Oklahoma and Texas panhandles were inhabited by their allies,

7917-482: The western boundary of the Texas Coastal Plain, and consists of cliffs and cliff-like structures. Subterranean features such as Wonder Cave and numerous other smaller caves are found along the fault zone. Many cities are located along this fault zone. Springs such as San Pedro Springs , Comal Springs , San Marcos Springs , Barton Springs , and Salado Springs are found in the fault zone and provide

8008-526: The wounding of a Cheyenne warrior. He returned to the Cheyenne on the plains. During the summer of 1856, Indians attacked travelers along the Emigrant Trail near Fort Kearny. In retaliation, the US Cavalry attacked a Cheyenne camp on Grand Island in Nebraska . They killed ten Cheyenne warriors and wounded eight or more. Cheyenne parties attacked at least three emigrant settler parties before returning to

8099-471: Was appointed US Indian agent for the upper Arkansas and Platte River . His efforts to negotiate with the Northern Cheyenne, the Arapaho and other tribes led to a great council at Fort Laramie in 1851. Treaties were negotiated by a commission consisting of Fitzpatrick and David Dawson Mitchell, US Superintendent of Indian Affairs , with the Indians of the northern plains . To reduce intertribal warfare on

8190-511: Was both an acknowledgment that they were formidable rivals and also that the Comanche were short on men and resources to maintain their control over Comancheria. South and southeast of Comancheria were the fast-growing Anglo-American communities in the Mexican territory of Texas. In the 1820s and 1830s most Comanche raids were in the southern parts of Texas and affected the largely Hispanic population around San Antonio, Laredo and Goliad . After

8281-553: Was mostly light, with most contact involving mountain men, traders, explorers, treaty makers, and painters. Like many other Plains Indian nations, the Cheyenne were a horse and warrior people who developed as skilled and powerful mounted warriors. A warrior in Cheyenne society is not a fighter but also a protector, provider, and leader. Warriors gained rank in Cheyenne society by performing and accumulating various acts of bravery in battle known as counting coups . The title of war chief could be earned by any warrior who performs enough of

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