Fort McKeen
129-727: The Great Sioux War of 1876 , also known as the Black Hills War , was a series of battles and negotiations that occurred in 1876 and 1877 in an alliance of Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne against the United States . The cause of the war was the desire of the US government to obtain ownership of the Black Hills . Gold had been discovered in the Black Hills, settlers began to encroach onto Native American lands, and
258-409: A $ 60-million land-rights settlement in 2008. The Lakota are among tribal nations that have taken actions, participated in occupations, and proposed independence movements, particularly since the era of rising activism since the mid to late 20th century. They filed land claims against the federal government for what they defined as illegal taking of the Black Hills in the nineteenth century. In 1980,
387-665: A competition for resources, and also because some settlers had encroached on their lands. The Fort Laramie Treaty acknowledged Lakota sovereignty over the Great Plains in exchange for free passage for European Americans on the Oregon Trail for "as long as the river flows and the eagle flies". The U.S. government did not enforce the treaty restriction against unauthorized settlement, and Lakota and other bands attacked settlers and even emigrant trains as part of their resistance to this encroachment. Public pressure increased for
516-506: A decade earlier. During the 1860s, Lakota leaders enjoyed wide support from their bands for the fighting. By contrast, in 1876–77, nearly two-thirds of all Lakota had settled at Indian agencies to accept rations and gain subsistence. Such bands did not support or participate in the fighting. The deep political divisions within the Lakota continued well into the early reservation period, affecting native politics for several decades. In 1889–90,
645-594: A few Oglala (led by He Dog .) In the late spring of 1876 a second, much larger campaign was launched. From Fort Abraham Lincoln marched the Dakota Column, commanded by General Alfred Terry , with 15 companies or about 570 men, including Custer and all 12 companies of the Seventh Cavalry. The Montana Column, commanded by Colonel John Gibbon , departed Fort Ellis . General Crook commanded a third column that departed Fort Fetterman to head north. The plan
774-525: A few days and then released. Accounts of these events differ to some degree. The later Indian enthusiast George Bird Grinnell was invited to join the Black Hills expedition as a collector of birds and fossils. Grinnell rode together with Luther H. North , brother to the leader of the Pawnee scouts. "Lute talked Pawnee fluently, and this was a password to the good graces of all the Rees [Arikara]." Once,
903-634: A good joke by the Indians." Meanwhile, in the council lodges of the non-treaty bands, Lakota leaders seriously discussed the notification for return. Short Bull , a member of the Soreback Band of the Oglala , later recalled that many of the bands had gathered on the Tongue River. "About one hundred men went out from the agency to coax the hostiles to come in under pretense that the trouble about
1032-747: A large village of Miniconjou under Touch the Clouds , near Short Pine Hills on the Little Missouri River . After several days of councils, they agreed to go in and surrender at the Spotted Tail Agency. Spotted Tail's delegation continued on to the Little Powder River, where they met with Miniconjou, Sans Arc, Oglala and a few Northern Cheyenne, including leaders such as Black Shield, Fast Bull, Lame Deer , and Roman Nose . Most of these bands also agreed to go in to
1161-550: A large village on the west bank of the Little Bighorn. The US troops were seriously beaten in the Battle of the Little Bighorn and nearly 270 men were killed, including Custer. Custer split his forces just prior to the battle and his immediate command of five cavalry companies was annihilated without any survivors. Two days later, a combined force consisting of Colonel Gibbon's column, along with Terry's headquarters staff and
1290-536: A located enemy camp. Custer followed Red Star to a nearby hill where the Crow scouts had discovered the Lakota camp in the distance. Custer preferred to wait and station his troops around the camp during the night but the Crow convinced Custer that the Lakota were well aware of the presence of the Army and Custer readied his troops for a quick attack. The 22 Arikara present assembled, and the experienced warriors encouraged
1419-572: A priority. Although he ordered Custer to protect the Arikara "same as white settlers", the Lakota attacked on June 13 and killed five men along with the Mandan Foolish Head. The later U.S. scout Running Wolf gives the names of the killed Arikara as Bear-Turning, Little Crow, Standing Bear, Black Shirt and the former U.S. scout Bear-Going-in-Woods. The expedition set off with a number of young Santee Sioux serving as scouts beside
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#17327728119971548-722: A scout went a long way round to offer Grinnell and North water, and when in camp, some scouts came to watch Grinnell skinning the bird specimens he had collected, and discuss the day's events. In 1876, the second chief Son of the Star informed a number of Arikara in the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation about an expedition against some Sioux commanded by "Long Hair" or Custer. The father of Young Hawk, Forked Horn, enlisted immediately and said his son would go as well. They started from Fort Berthold and camped over night at Fort Stevenson. Big John, an Arikara scout,
1677-538: A sovereign nation with property rights over thousands of square miles in South Dakota, North Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming and Montana. The group stated that they do not act for or represent the tribal governments "set up by the BIA or those Lakota who support the BIA system of government". "The Lakota Freedom Delegation" did not include any elected leaders from any of the tribes. Means had previously run for president of
1806-670: A spring campaign against the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne who had refused to come in, a number of diplomatic efforts were underway in an effort to end the war. After the defeat at the Battle of the Little Bighorn in June 1876, Congress responded by attaching what the Sioux call the "sell or starve" rider (19 Stat. 192 ) to the Indian Appropriations Act of 1876 (enacted August 15, 1876) which cut off all rations for
1935-417: A total hostile Indian population of about 7,000, which might include as many as 2,000 warriors. The number of warriors participating in the Battle of the Little Bighorn is estimated at between 900 and 2,000. The Indians had advantages in mobility and knowledge of the country, but all Indians were part-time warriors. In spring, they were partially immobilized by the weakness of their horses which had survived
2064-472: A total of 6,000 registered members. They are recognized as First Nations but are not considered "treaty Indians". As First Nations they receive rights and entitlements through the Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada department. But because they are not recognized as treaty Indians, they did not participate in the land settlement and natural resource revenues. The Dakota rejected
2193-489: A uniform, firearm and drew rations. Scout duties ranged from carrying mail between commands to tracking down traditional enemies perceived as hostile by the Army in far ranging military campaigns. Detailed to secure the horses in located enemy camps, the scouts were often the first to engage in battle. The Arikara took part when the Army protected survey crews in the Yellowstone area in the early 1870s. They participated in
2322-633: A withdrawal of the Lakota Sioux from all treaties with the United States government. These activists had no standing under any elected tribal government. Official Lakota tribal leaders issued public responses to the effect that, in the words of Rosebud Lakota tribal chairman Rodney Bordeaux, "We do not support what Means and his group are doing and they don't have any support from any tribal government I know of. They don't speak for us." Means declared "The Republic of Lakotah", defining it as
2451-458: Is not my country; it does not concern me, and I want nothing to do with it. I was not born there ... If it is such a good country, you ought to send the white men now in our country there and let us alone." Although the chiefs were unsuccessful in finding a peaceful solution, they did not join Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull in the warfare that followed. Later that year, a US commission
2580-725: Is the most storied of the many encounters between the US Army and mounted Plains Indians . Despite the Indian victory, the Americans leveraged national resources to force the Indians to surrender, primarily by attacking and destroying their encampments and property. The Great Sioux War took place under US Presidents Ulysses S. Grant and Rutherford B. Hayes . The Agreement of 1877 (19 Stat. 254 , enacted February 28, 1877) officially annexed Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations. The Cheyenne had migrated west to
2709-687: The American Civil War increasing illegal settlement by whites on the Plains resulted in war again with the Lakota. The Black Hills were considered sacred by the Lakota, and they objected to mining . Between 1866 and 1868 the U.S. Army fought the Lakota and their allies along the Bozeman Trail over U.S. forts built to protect miners traveling along the trail. Oglala Chief Red Cloud led his people to victory in Red Cloud's War . In 1868,
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#17327728119972838-674: The Battle of Wolf Mountain . In the months that followed, his troops fought the Lakota at Clear Creek, Spring Creek and Ash Creek. Miles' continuous campaigning pushed a number of the Northern Cheyenne and Lakota to either surrender or slip across the border into Canada. Miles later commanded the US Army during the Spanish–American War. The Agreement of 1877 (19 Stat. 254 , enacted February 28, 1877) officially took away Sioux land and permanently established Indian reservations. While military leaders began planning
2967-529: The Battle of the Little Bighorn at the Crow Indian Reservation (1868 boundaries). Custer attacked an encampment of several tribes, which was much larger than he realized. Their combined forces, led by Chief Crazy Horse , killed 258 soldiers, wiping out the entire Custer battalion and inflicting more than 50% casualties on the regiment. Although the Lakota beat Custer's army, the Lakota and their allies did not get to enjoy their victory over
3096-816: The Black Hills (the Paha Sapa ), then the territory of the Cheyenne . Ten years later, the Oglála and Brulé also crossed the Missouri. Under pressure from the Lakota, the Cheyenne moved west to the Powder River country. The Lakota made the Black Hills their home. Initial United States contact with the Lakota during the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806 was marked by a standoff. Lakota bands refused to allow
3225-602: The Black Hills and Powder River Country before the Lakota and introduced them to horse culture about 1730. By the late 18th century, the growing Lakota tribe had begun expanding its territory west of the Missouri River . They pushed out the Kiowa and formed alliances with the Cheyenne and Arapaho to gain control of the rich buffalo hunting grounds of the northern Great Plains . The Black Hills, located in present-day western South Dakota , became an important source to
3354-507: The Cheyenne River Reservation , one of the poorest communities in the United States . Unemployment , addiction , alcoholism , and suicide are all challenges for Lakota on the reservation. The name Lakota comes from the Lakota autonym, Lakota "feeling affection, friendly, united, allied". The early French historic documents did not distinguish a separate Teton division, instead grouping them with other "Sioux of
3483-638: The Great Sioux War of 1876 and developed into Colonel George Armstrong Custer 's "… most loyal and permanent scouts …". Nearly 150 Arikara enlisted at different times from 1868 until the end of the Indian Wars in the area. They served "bravely and honorably". The experience of the scouts motivates some present-day Arikara people to carry on the tradition and enter military service. There are abundant historical examples of Native Americans joining with whites to fight against other tribes. On
3612-477: The Horsemeat March toward mining settlements to find food. On September 9, 1876, an advance company from his column en route to Deadwood to procure supplies stumbled across a small village at Slim Buttes, which they attacked and looted. Crazy Horse learned of the assault on the village and the next day led a counter-attack, which was repulsed. After reaching Camp Robinson , Crook's forces disbanded. In
3741-550: The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988. They operate with the federal government. These relationship are negotiated and contested. Most Lakota tribal members are also citizens of the United States. They can vote in local, state/provincial and federal elections. They are represented at the state and national level by officials elected from the political districts of their respective states and Congressional Districts. Tribal members living both on and off
3870-512: The Missouri River . However, the great smallpox epidemic of 1772–1780 destroyed three-quarters of the members of these tribes. The Lakota crossed the river into the drier, short-grass prairies of the High Plains. These newcomers were the Saône, well-mounted and increasingly confident, who spread out quickly. In 1765, a Saône exploring and raiding party led by Chief Standing Bear discovered
3999-617: The Mound Builder civilization during the 9th–12th centuries CE. Lakota legend and other sources state they originally lived near the Great Lakes : "The tribes of the Dakota before European contact in the 1600s lived in the region around Lake Superior . In this forest environment, they lived by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild rice. They also grew some corn, but their locale was near the limit of where corn could be grown." In
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4128-589: The Springfield model 1873 , a single-shot, breech-loading rifle which gave the soldiers a large advantage in range over most Indian firearms. Grant and his administration began to consider alternatives to the failed diplomatic venture. In early November 1875, Lieutenant General Philip Sheridan , commander of the Division of the Missouri , and Brigadier General George Crook , commander of the Department of
4257-705: The Wood Mountain First Nation reserve, near Wood Mountain Regional Park in Saskatchewan, Canada. Arikara scouts Yellowstone Expedition of 1873 Great Sioux War Arikara scouts were enlisted men from the Arikara Nation serving in the U.S. Army at different frontier posts in present-day North Dakota from 1868 to 1881. The enlistment period was six months with re-enlistment possible. Each scout received
4386-945: The Wounded Knee Massacre . Today, the Lakota are found mostly in the five reservations of western South Dakota: Lakota also live on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation in northeastern Montana , the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation of northwestern North Dakota, and several small reserves in Saskatchewan and Manitoba . During the Minnesota and Black Hills wars, their ancestors fled for refuge to "Grandmother's [i.e. Queen Victoria's] Land" (Canada). Large numbers of Lakota live in Rapid City and other towns in
4515-421: The "hostiles", thus starting The Great Sioux War of 1876–77. While General Terry stalled, General Crook immediately launched the first strike. He dispatched Colonel Joseph J. Reynolds with six companies of cavalry, who located a village of about 65 lodges and attacked on the morning of March 17, 1876. Crook accompanied the column but did not play any command role. His troops initially took control of and burned
4644-477: The "kidnapping" of Lakota children from their homes by the state of South Dakota's Department of Social Services (D.S.S.). It was noted by NPR that over half of the children in foster care in South Dakota were of Native descent. Lakota activists such as Madonna Thunder Hawk and Chase Iron Eyes , along with the Lakota People’s Law Project , have alleged that Lakota grandmothers are illegally denied
4773-408: The Arikara scouts rode up and struck a single man in the village with their horse whip. Cautiously, a few returning hunters visited the camp of the whites. Upon their return, a mounted Lakota tried to take a Santee scout's firearm, but failed and fled, with he or his horse hit by a shot. Neither the hunter nor the fleeing camp was overtaken by the pursuing Arikara. An old Lakota was held captive for
4902-419: The Arikara, and Bloody Knife along with Lean Bear taking lead roles. Some of the 22 members in the scout group, as recalled by Strikes Two and Bear's Belly, were Enemy Heart, Young Hawk, Goose and Red Horse. The scouts rode ahead of the columns and guarded their flanks, so that they were "covering much country". One morning the Arikara discovered a small hunting camp of Oglala Lakota in the Black Hills. All
5031-481: The Army and the scouts were attacked by hundreds of Lakota, with the tribesmen shouting at one another through breaks in rifle fire. In the summer of 1874, Arikara scouts guided an exploring and gold seeking expedition from Fort Abraham Lincoln (formerly Fort McKeen, moved further to the south) to the Black Hills in the Great Sioux Reservation . Because the Black Hills are considered sacred to
5160-661: The Black Hills in violation of the Fort Laramie Treaty. This trickle turned into a flood as thousands of miners invaded the Hills before the gold rush was over. Organized groups came from states as far away as New York , Pennsylvania , and Virginia . Initially, the United States Army struggled to keep miners out of the region. In December 1874, for example, a group of miners led by John Gordon from Sioux City, Iowa , managed to evade Army patrols and reached
5289-625: The Black Hills region for their exclusive use. It also provided for a large "unceded territory" in Wyoming and Montana, the Powder River Country , as Cheyenne and Lakota hunting grounds. On both the reservation and the unceded territory, white men were forbidden to trespass, except for officials of the U.S. government. The growing number of miners and settlers encroaching in the Dakota Territory , however, rapidly nullified
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5418-418: The Black Hills was to be settled," he said. "...All the hostiles agreed that since it was late [in the season] and they had to shoot for tipis [i.e., hunt buffalo] they would come in to the agency the following spring." As the deadline of January 31 passed, the new Commissioner of Indian Affairs, John Q. Smith , wrote that "without the receipt of any news of Sitting Bull's submission, I see no reason why, in
5547-502: The Black Hills, and in metro Denver . Lakota elders joined the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO) to seek protection and recognition for their cultural and land rights. Legally and by treaty classified as a "domestic dependent nation" within the United States, the federally recognized Lakota tribes are represented locally by officials elected to councils for the several reservations and communities in
5676-498: The Black Hills, where they spent three months before the Army ejected them. Such evictions, however, increased political pressure on the Grant Administration to secure the Black Hills from the Lakota. In May 1875, Sioux delegations headed by Spotted Tail , Red Cloud , and Lone Horn traveled to Washington, D.C. in an eleventh-hour attempt to persuade President Ulysses S. Grant to honor existing treaties and stem
5805-518: The Cavalry for similar reasons as the Arikara. The area ahead was traditionally Crow territory, and acknowledged as such by the Lakota in the 1851 Treaty of Fort Laramie . Since then, the Lakota had taken over the eastern Crow land, including more recently the Bighorn River area in the Crow Indian Reservation , created on May 7, 1868. By now, they were "… menacing and often raiding
5934-414: The Cheyenne were a major force in warfare on the Plains. "No other group on the plains achieved such centralized tribal organization and authority." The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 , signed with the US by Lakota and Northern Cheyenne leaders following Red Cloud's War , set aside a portion of the Lakota territory as the Great Sioux Reservation . This comprised the western one-half of South Dakota, including
6063-646: The Crow in their reservation camps." First sergeant Bobtailed-Bull advanced up the Rosebud on one side of the river with a group of scouts, while Red Bear and Soldier directed another group on the opposite bank. Close behind came the mounted troops. By the end of the day, they came to the place of a recently moved Lakota camp. Signs and drawings left by the Lakota were understood to show Lakota confidence in case of battle. Bull and Red Star, along with other Arikara followed four Crow scouts in an advanced search. Lieutenant Charles Varnum joined as Army leader of
6192-598: The Dakota Column infantry, reached the area and rescued the US survivors of the Reno-Benteen fight. Gibbon then headed his forces to the east, chasing trails but unable to engage the Sioux and Cheyenne warriors in battle. Reinforced with the Fifth Cavalry, General Crook took to the field. Hooking up briefly with General Terry, he soon moved out on his own but did not find a large village. Running short on supplies, his column turned south and made what became called
6321-571: The Dakotas, Minnesota, and Nebraska. These tribes have government-to-government relationships with the United States federal government, primarily through the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of Interior. As semi-autonomous political entities, tribal governments have certain rights to independent of state laws. For instance, they may operate Indian gaming on their reservation based on
6450-576: The Great Sioux Reservation and were noncombatants. An Indian agent in November 1875 said the Indians living in the unceded areas numbered "a few hundred warriors." General Crook estimated that he might face up to 2,000 warriors. Most of the Sioux who remained in the unceded territory where the war would take place were Oglala and Hunkpapa , numbering about 5,500 in total. Added to this were about 1,500 Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho for
6579-408: The Indian agencies for council. Indian Inspector Erwin C. Watkins supported this option. "The true policy in my judgement," he wrote, "is to send troops against them in the winter, the sooner the better, and whip them into subjection." Concerned about launching a war against the Lakota without provocation, the government instructed Indian agents in the region to notify all Lakota and Sioux to return to
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#17327728119976708-410: The Lakota Sioux with an additional modifier, such as Sioux of the West, West Schious, Sioux des prairies, Sioux occidentaux, Sioux of the Meadows, Nadooessis of the Plains, Prairie Indians, Sioux of the Plain, Maskoutens-Nadouessians, Mascouteins Nadouessi, and Sioux nomades. Today many of the tribes continue to officially call themselves Sioux . In the 19th and 20th centuries, this was the name which
6837-399: The Lakota away. The scouts left the thicket, and flying a white flag, headed for a hill where they could see the flag of the U.S. troops. They managed to reach Major Marcus Reno 's forces, pursued by the returning Lakota. Here they received word that Bob-tailed Bull had been killed. Other scouts reached Reno's troops. A number stayed, while some drove around 40 captured horses towards
6966-423: The Lakota for lodge poles, plant resources and small game. By the early 19th century, the Northern Cheyenne became the first to wage tribal-level warfare. Because European Americans used many different names for the Cheyenne, the military may not have realized their unity. The US Army destroyed seven Cheyenne camps before 1876 and three more that year, more than any other tribes suffered in this period. From 1860 on,
7095-431: The Lakota people the White Buffalo Calf Pipe. Around 1730 Cheyenne people introduced the Lakota to horses , which they called šuŋkawakaŋ ("dog [of] power/mystery/wonder"). After they adopted horse culture , Lakota society centered on the buffalo hunt on horseback. In 1660 French explorers estimated the total population of the Sioux (Lakota, Santee , Yankton , and Yanktonai ) at 28,000. The Lakota population
7224-471: The Lakota, and were barred from white encroachment by treaty, many foresaw a Lakota attempt to halt the expedition. Accordingly, it was protected by both Infantry and Cavalry. George A. Custer was in command. The expedition was delayed from the outset. News reached Fort Abraham Lincoln of a large Lakota war party on its way to attack Like-a-Fishhook Village almost 100 miles outside the Great Sioux Reservation, and General Philip Sheridan made stopping this
7353-450: The Little Bighorn. They met in councils for several days. His effort would lead to a large contingent of Northern Cheyenne eventually surrendering at the Tongue River Cantonment . On April 13, a second delegation departed the Red Cloud Agency , led by the noted Oglala leader Red Cloud , with nearly 70 other members of various bands. This delegation met Crazy Horse 's people en route to the agency to surrender and accompanied them most of
7482-510: The Northern Cheyenne a northern reservation, the Northern Cheyenne Reservation in present-day southern Montana . Another strategy of the US Army was to place troops deep within the heartland of Lakota Territory. In the fall of 1876, Colonel Nelson A. Miles and his Fifth Infantry established Cantonment on Tongue River (later renamed Fort Keogh ) from which he operated throughout the winter of 1876–77 against any hostiles he could find. In January 1877, he fought Crazy Horse and many other bands at
7611-536: The Oglala Sioux tribe and twice been defeated. Several tribal governments – elected by tribal members – issued statements distancing themselves from the independence declaration. Some said that they were watching the independent movement closely. No elected tribal governments endorsed the declaration. The Lakota People made national news when NPR 's "Lost Children, Shattered Families" investigative story aired regarding issues related to foster care for Native American children. It exposed what many critics consider to be
7740-433: The Oglála and Miniconjou, and Siŋté Glešká ( Spotted Tail ) from the Brulé. Activists from the late twentieth century to present include Russell Means (Oglála), and William Hawk Birdshead (Hunkpapa, Oglala, Cheyenne, and Arapaho) Siouan language speakers may have originated in the lower Mississippi River region and then migrated to or originated in the Ohio Valley . They were agriculturalists and may have been part of
7869-501: The Plains Indians considered the war of 1876–77 to be "The Great Cheyenne War". Lakota people The Lakota ( [laˈkˣota] ; Lakota : Lakȟóta/Lakhóta ) are a Native American people. Also known as the Teton Sioux (from Thítȟuŋwaŋ ), they are one of the three prominent subcultures of the Sioux people, with the Eastern Dakota (Santee) and Western Dakota (Wičhíyena). Their current lands are in North and South Dakota . They speak Lakȟótiyapi —the Lakota language ,
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#17327728119977998-399: The Platte , were called to Washington, D.C. to meet with Grant and several members of his cabinet to discuss the Black Hills issue. They agreed that the Army should stop evicting trespassers from the reservation, thus opening the way for the Black Hills Gold Rush . In addition, they discussed initiating military action against the bands of Lakota and Northern Cheyenne who had refused to come to
8127-421: The Saône, who moved to the Lake Traverse area on the South Dakota–North Dakota–Minnesota border, and the Oglála-Sičháŋǧu, who occupied the James River valley. However, by about 1750 the Saône had moved to the east bank of the Missouri River , followed 10 years later by the Oglála and Brulé (Sičháŋǧu). The large and powerful Arikara , Mandan , and Hidatsa villages had long prevented the Lakota from crossing
8256-410: The Sioux and the Cheyenne refused to cede ownership. Traditionally, American military and historians place the Lakota at the center of the story, especially because of their numbers, but some Native Americans believe the Cheyenne were the primary target of the American campaign. Among the many battles and skirmishes of the war was the Battle of the Little Bighorn ; often known as Custer's Last Stand, it
8385-442: The Sioux in the north. They were pressured to relocate to the reservation of the Southern Cheyenne in Indian Territory . After a difficult council, they agreed to go. When they arrived at the reservation in present-day Oklahoma, conditions were very difficult: inadequate rations, no buffalo left alive near the reservation, and malaria. A portion of the Northern Cheyenne, led by Little Wolf and Dull Knife , attempted to return to
8514-483: The Sioux the U.S. army had a string of forts ringing the Great Sioux Reservation and unceded territory. The largest force arrayed against the Indians at one time was in summer 1876 and consisted of 2,500 soldiers deployed in the unceded territory and accompanied by hundreds of Indian scouts and civilians. Many of the soldiers were recent immigrants and inexperienced on the frontier and in Indian warfare. Cavalry soldiers were armed with .45 caliber, single-action revolvers and
8643-417: The Sioux until they terminated hostilities and ceded the Black Hills to the United States. As the winter wore on, rumors reached Camp Robinson that the northern bands were interested in surrendering. The commanding officer sent out a peace delegation. About 30 young men, mostly Oglala and Northern Cheyenne , departed from the Red Cloud Agency on January 16, 1877, to make the dangerous journey north. Among
8772-426: The Spotted Tail Agency to surrender. Crazy Horse was not in the camp, but his father gave a horse to a member of the delegation, as evidence that the Oglala war leader was ready to surrender. Not to be outdone by General Crook's diplomatic efforts, Colonel Miles sent out a peace initiative from his Tongue River Cantonment. Scout Johnny Brughier, aided by two captive Cheyenne women, found the Northern Cheyenne village on
8901-435: The Spotted Tail Agency. Crazy Horse surrendered with his band at Red Cloud on May 5. The respected Oglala leader Crazy Horse spent several months with his band at the Red Cloud Agency amidst an environment of intense politics. Fearing he was about to break away, the Army moved to surround his village and arrest the leader on September 4, 1877. Crazy Horse slipped away to the Spotted Tail Agency. The following day, Crazy Horse
9030-446: The Supreme Court ruled in their favor and decided in United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians to award US$ 122 million to eight bands of Sioux Indians as compensation for their Black Hills land claims . The Sioux have refused the money, because accepting the settlement would legally terminate their demands for return of the Black Hills. The money remains in a Bureau of Indian Affairs account, accruing compound interest . As of 2011,
9159-466: The U.S. Army for long. The U.S. Congress authorized funds to expand the army by 2,500 men. The reinforced U.S. Army defeated the Lakota bands in a series of battles, finally ending the Great Sioux War in 1877. The Lakota were eventually confined to reservations, prevented from hunting buffalo beyond those territories, and forced to accept government food distribution. They were largely distributed amongst North and South Dakota, as well as other places around
9288-592: The U.S. Army to punish them. On September 3, 1855, 700 soldiers under U.S. Brevet Major General William S. Harney avenged the Grattan massacre by attacking a Lakota village in Nebraska , killing about 100 men, women, and children. A series of short "wars" followed, and in 1862–1864, as Native American refugees from the " Dakota War of 1862 " in Minnesota fled west to their allies in Montana and Dakota Territory. After
9417-641: The US government applied to all Dakota/Lakota people. However, some tribes have formally or informally adopted traditional names: the Rosebud Sioux Tribe is also known as the Sičháŋǧu Oyáte (Brulé Nation), and the Oglala often use the name Oglála Lakȟóta Oyáte , rather than the English "Oglala Sioux Tribe" or OST. (The alternate English spelling of Ogallala is deprecated, even though it is closer to
9546-498: The United States signed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 , exempting the Black Hills from all white settlement forever. But four years later gold was discovered there, and prospectors descended on the area. The Lakota attacks on settlers and miners were met by military force conducted by such army commanders as Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer . General Philip Sheridan encouraged his troops to hunt and kill
9675-624: The United States. In 1877, some of the Lakota bands signed a treaty that ceded the Black Hills to the United States; however, the nature of this treaty and its passage were controversial. The number of Lakota leaders who backed the treaty is highly disputed. Low-intensity conflicts continued in the Black Hills. Fourteen years later, Sitting Bull was killed at Standing Rock reservation on December 15, 1890. The U.S. Army attacked Spotted Elk (aka Bigfoot)'s Minicoujou band of Lakota on December 29, 1890, at Pine Ridge, killing 153 Lakota (tribal estimates are higher), including numerous women and children, in
9804-717: The West," Santee and Yankton bands. The names Teton and Tetuwan come from the Lakota name thítȟuŋwaŋ , the meaning of which is obscure. This term was used to refer to the Lakota by non-Lakota Sioux groups. Other derivations and spelling variations include: ti tanka, Tintonyanyan, Titon, Tintonha, Thintohas, Tinthenha, Tinton, Thuntotas, Tintones, Tintoner, Tintinhos, Ten-ton-ha, Thinthonha, Tinthonha, Tentouha, Tintonwans, Tindaw, Tinthow, Atintons, Anthontans, Atentons, Atintans, Atrutons, Titoba, Tetongues, Teton Sioux, Teeton, Ti toan, Teetwawn, Teetwans, Ti-t’-wawn, Ti-twans, Tit’wan, Tetans, Tieton, and Teetonwan. Early French sources call
9933-536: The account has grown to over $ 1 billion. In September 2007, the United Nations passed a non-binding Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples . Canada, the United States, Australia, and New Zealand refused to sign. On December 20, 2007, a small group of people led by American Indian Movement activist Russell Means , under the name Lakota Freedom Delegation, traveled to Washington D.C. to announce
10062-410: The agencies. In late February, part of the delegation continued on to find the Northern Cheyenne, where they delivered the same message. The influential Brulé headman Spotted Tail also agreed to lead a peace delegation out to meet with the "hostiles". Departing his agency on February 12, 1877, with perhaps 200 people, Spotted Tail moved north along the eastern edge of the Black Hills. They soon found
10191-522: The apparent primary target being the Arikara scouts themselves. Due to the heavy losses, some scouts left the service. However, Arikara second chief Son of the Star still encouraged the men to enlist. Arikara scouts formed part of the forces assigned to protect crews surveying a route from Bismarck, North Dakota to Bozeman, Montana for the Northern Pacific Railway in 1873. The Dakota had attacked crew members and soldiers
10320-421: The buffalo as a means of "destroying the Indians' commissary." The allied Lakota and Arapaho bands and the unified Northern Cheyenne were involved in much of the warfare after 1860. They fought a successful delaying action against General George Crook 's army at the Battle of the Rosebud , preventing Crook from locating and attacking their camp. A week later they defeated the U.S. 7th Cavalry in 1876 at
10449-531: The confluence of Heart and Missouri Rivers, fought the Lakota in 1872. Although the latter had agreed "not to attack any persons" after the signing of the Fort Laramie treaty of 1868. On August 26, more than 100 Sioux attacked seven soldiers and two scouts outside the fort and the Arikara there were killed. The scouts were again involved in fights with the Lakota near the garrison on October 2, October 14 (with eight scouts taking part) and November 3, with
10578-461: The correct pronunciation.) The Lakota have names for their own subdivisions. The Lakota also are the most western of the three Sioux groups, occupying lands in both North and South Dakota. Today, one half of all enrolled Sioux live off reservations . Lakota reservations recognized by the U.S. government include: Some Lakota also live on other Sioux reservations in eastern South Dakota, Minnesota, and Nebraska: In addition, several Lakota live on
10707-743: The defeat at the Little Bighorn. Stationed initially at Camp Robinson, they formed the core of the Powder River Expedition that departed in October 1876 to locate the northern villages. On November 25, 1876, his column discovered and defeated a village of Northern Cheyenne in the Dull Knife Fight in Wyoming Territory . With their lodges and supplies destroyed and their horses confiscated, the Northern Cheyenne soon surrendered. They hoped to be allowed to remain with
10836-441: The depot on the Powder River, as ordered in case of defeat. As night fell, four scouts carrying a copy of the same message tried to break through the ring of Lakota surrounding Reno Hill, but were turned back. About noon the next day, the Lakota broke camp. Shortly after, some went down a ridge west of their abandoned location. Assuming them to be soldiers, Young Hawk and his father rode towards them. The two scouts returned to
10965-727: The discretion of the Hon. the Secretary of War, military operations against him should not commence at once." His superior, Secretary of the Interior Zachariah Chandler agreed, adding that "the said Indians are hereby turned over to the War Department for such action on the part of the Army as you may deem proper under the circumstances." On February 8, 1876, General Sheridan telegraphed Generals Crook and Terry, ordering them to commence their winter campaigns against
11094-519: The earth lodges. The next time the Lakota inflicted a blow so severe to the Pawnee would be in 1873, during the Massacre Canyon battle near Republican River. Nearly half a century later, after the United States had built Fort Laramie without permission on Lakota land, it negotiated the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851 to protect European-American travelers on the Oregon Trail . The Cheyenne and Lakota had previously attacked emigrant parties in
11223-413: The enemy. Some were retaken by the Lakota later. The fight grew more intense. During a general retreat, a number of Arikara and two Crow took shelter in a thick grove on the east side of the river. Here, Goose was shot in the hand, while the Crow scout White Swan was wounded in both the hand and leg. Lakota attempts to drive the scouts out into the open failed, and Custer's attack further north drew
11352-568: The explorers to continue upstream, and the expedition prepared for battle, which never came. Some bands of Lakota became the first indigenous people to help the United States Army in an inter-tribal war west of the Missouri, during the Arikara War in 1823. In 1843, the southern Lakota attacked the village of Pawnee Chief Blue Coat near the Loup in Nebraska, killing many and burning half of
11481-467: The first to parade at the departure from Fort Abraham Lincoln. On the way westward to the Yellowstone, scouts on high hills guarded the camp throughout the night, while those in camp were always near the tent of Custer, who would occasionally visit with them. The scouts served as mail carriers between the camp and the fort, and in addition to letters to the soldiers, Red Bear brought moccasins for
11610-582: The flow of miners into their territories. They met with Grant, Secretary of the Interior Columbus Delano , and Commissioner of Indian Affairs Edward Smith . The US leaders said that the Congress wanted to pay the tribes $ 25,000 for the land and have them relocate to Indian Territory (in present-day Oklahoma ). The delegates refused to sign a new treaty with these stipulations. Spotted Tail said, "You speak of another country, but it
11739-587: The government dispatched the Custer Expedition to examine the Black Hills. The Lakota were alarmed at his expedition. Before Custer's column had returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln , news of their discovery of gold was telegraphed nationally. The presence of valuable mineral resources was confirmed the following year by the Newton–Jenney Geological Expedition . Prospectors, motivated by the economic panic of 1873 , began to trickle into
11868-561: The government proposed that the route of the Northern Pacific Railroad would cross through the last of the great buffalo hunting grounds. In addition, the US Army had carried out several devastating attacks on Cheyenne camps before 1876. The number of Indian combatants in the war is disputed with estimates ranging from 900 up to 4,000 warriors. The seven bands of the Lakota Sioux in the 1870s numbered perhaps 15,000 men, women, and children, but most of them were living on
11997-418: The hilltop and reported the location of the party. An officer told them, "Now let us go and look for Custer's body." On the battlefield, a soldier directed the scouts to the dead body of an Arikara in a grove, possibly that of Bloody Knife. The body of Little Brave, who had also been killed was never found. Young Hawk led a pony with the wounded Goose on a travois to the steamboat Far West stationed at
12126-495: The individual reservations are eligible to vote in periodic elections for that tribe. Each tribe has its own requirements for citizenship, as well its own constitution, bylaws, and elections. or articles of incorporation . Most follow a multi-member tribal council model, with a chairman or president elected at-large , directly by the voters. Nine bands of Dakota and Lakota reside in Manitoba and southern Saskatchewan , with
12255-591: The late 16th and early 17th centuries, Dakota-Lakota speakers lived in the upper Mississippi Region in territory now organized as the states of Minnesota , Wisconsin , Iowa , and the Dakotas . Conflicts with Anishnaabe and Cree peoples pushed the Lakota west onto the Great Plains in the mid- to late-17th century. Early Lakota history is recorded in their winter counts ( Lakota : waníyetu wówapi ), pictorial calendars painted on hides, or later recorded on paper. The 'Battiste Good winter count' records Lakota history to 900 CE when White Buffalo Calf Woman gave
12384-514: The leaders, holding them responsible for failing to turn in individuals arriving in camp from hostile bands. The US sent another commission to the agencies. According to historian Colin Calloway, "Congress passed a law extinguishing all Lakota rights outside the Great Sioux Reservation." Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie and his Fourth Cavalry were transferred to the Department of the Platte following
12513-436: The long winter on limited forage. Much of summer and fall they spent hunting buffalo to feed their families. About one half of the Indian warriors were armed with guns, ranging from repeating rifles to antiquated muskets, and one half with bows and arrows . The short, stout Indian bow was designed to be used from horseback and was deadly at short range, but nearly worthless against a distant or well-fortified enemy. Ammunition
12642-399: The most prominent members of this delegation was a young Oglala named Enemy Bait (better known later as George Sword). He was the son of the prominent headman Brave Bear. The delegation found Crazy Horse on the Powder River, but found no indication that he was prepared to surrender. Other Oglala camps nearby, however, were more willing to hear the message and seriously consider surrendering at
12771-582: The mouth of the Little Bighorn River. The first Arikara scouts reached the Infantry camp at the Powder. When they recounted what had happened, all the soldiers doubted them. Some scouts continued carrying mail during the following days, while other worked to locate the scattering Lakota. In September, General George Crook and his men were in dire need of supplies when they followed
12900-487: The north in the fall of 1877 in the Northern Cheyenne Exodus . They succeeded in reaching the north. After they divided into two bands, that led by Dull Knife was captured and imprisoned in an unheated barracks at Fort Robinson without food or water. When the Cheyenne escaped on January 9, 1878, many died at US Army hands in the subsequent Fort Robinson massacre . Eventually the US government granted
13029-418: The northern plains, 700 Yankton, Yanktonai and Lakota people were the first to aid the U.S. Army in an attack on two adjoining Arikara villages in South Dakota in 1823. In 1868, Osage scouts found Cheyenne chief Black Kettle 's camp, leading to the Battle of Washita River . To commanders of the frontier Army, the need for native scouts with special skills not easily found among ordinary soldiers
13158-474: The possibility of the Lakota's signing away the Black Hills, Colonel John E. Smith noted that this was "the only portion [of their reservation] worth anything to them". He concluded that "nothing short of their annihilation will get it from them". As a result, Cheyenne and Lakota began moving west into land belonging to smaller tribes. Most battles in the coming war would be fought "on lands those Indians had taken from other tribes since 1851". The resulting effect
13287-531: The protections. The US government could not keep settlers out. By 1872, territorial officials were considering harvesting the rich timber resources of the Black Hills, to be floated down the Cheyenne River to the Missouri, where new plains settlements needed lumber. The geographic uplift area suggested the potential for mineral resources. When a commission approached the Red Cloud Agency about
13416-483: The reservation by January 31, 1876, or face potential military action. The US agent at Standing Rock Agency expressed concern that this was insufficient time for the Lakota to respond, as deep winter restricted travel. His request to extend the deadline was denied. General Sheridan considered the notification exercise a waste of time. "The matter of notifying the Indians to come in is perhaps well to put on paper," he commented, "but it will in all probability be regarded as
13545-457: The right to foster their own grandchildren. They are working to redirect federal funding away from the state of South Dakota's D.S.S. to new tribal foster care programs. This would be a historic shift away from the state's traditional control over Lakota foster children. A short film, Lakota in America , was produced by Square. The film features Genevieve Iron Lightning, a young Lakota dancer on
13674-527: The rise of the Ghost Dance movement found a large majority of its followers among the non-agency bands who had fought in the Great Sioux War. While much more numerous in total population, the bands of the Lakota generally were independent and made separate decisions about warfare. Many bands did ally with the Cheyenne, and there was intermarriage between the tribes. An alternative view is that
13803-402: The river south of the Lakota camp along with the troops under Major Reno. Red Star, Boy Chief and Strikes Two escaped with 28 Lakota horses. When skirmishing began, both scouts and soldiers dismounted and formed a line. Bloody Knife joined, wearing a black handkerchief with blue stars given him by Custer, and informed Young Hawk and the other scouts that a number of horses had been taken from
13932-497: The scouts from their wives at the garrison. Skilled hunters like Strikes Two and Goose each earned more than 100 dollars during the expedition by selling specific cuts of game at fixed prices to the soldiers. Slowed by the advance of the accompanying wagon train , the Cavalry separated from it at the confluence of the Yellowstone and the Powder rivers. The infantry, along with scouts such as Tall Bear and Black Porcupine, guarded
14061-421: The scouts, along with Charley Reynolds . The Crow guided the whole party, being in their own territory. The slower main body rested at the forks of the Rosebud. Custer consulted the remaining scouts and assigned their role in a planned attack to drive away as many enemy horses as possible. The group again mounted and rode throughout the night. During a quick breakfast Bull and Red Star arrived with news of
14190-504: The tour in three days in bull boats . The Army provided clothing including under-clothes, a flannel shirt, footwear and a plumed hat. Some scouts lived with their immediate family at the scout quarters of the garrison. Arikara like Forked Horn and Black Fox served as cooks for the scout unit. They received pay in the amount of 16 dollars per month disbursed every second month and scouts received an addition 12 dollars per month if they rode their own horse. Scouts at Fort McKeen, near
14319-520: The trail of a Lakota camp southward to the Black Hills. Some of the five The Arikara accompanying Crook started on their way to Fort Abraham Lincoln with a message asking for relief , and carried the urgent telegram to its destination in only three days. In 1889, the scouts paraded through the city of Bismarck on the 4th of July. They formed the United States Volunteer Indian Scouts in 1912. Despite promises to
14448-462: The village, but they quickly retreated under enemy fire. The US troops left several soldiers on the battlefield, an action which led to Colonel Reynolds' court-martial. The US captured the band's pony herd, but the following day, the Lakota recovered many of their horses in a raid. At the time, the Army believed they had attacked Crazy Horse; however, it had actually been a village of Northern Cheyenne (led by Old Bear, Two Moons and White Bull) with
14577-608: The wagons. Realizing that a large number of Lakota were somewhere in the Yellowstone area, the field scouts received orders to retreat to this position in case of defeat. On June 21, a scouting party returned to camp with news of a large Lakota trail near the Rosebud River . Now trailing the enemy, the scouts sang their sacred songs, seemingly encouraged by Custer. "Custer had a heart like an Indian…" declared Red Star, "…if we ever left out one thing in our ceremonies he always suggested it to us." Six Crow Indian scouts joined
14706-464: The wake of Custer's defeat at the Little Bighorn, the Army altered its tactics. They increased troop levels at the Indian agencies. That fall, they attached most of the troops to the Army for operations. They seized horses and weapons belonging to friendly bands at the agencies, for fear they would be given to the resisting northern bands. In October 1876, Army troops surrounded the villages of Red Cloud and Red Leaf. They arrested and briefly confined
14835-449: The way in. The continuous military campaigns and the intensive diplomatic efforts finally began to yield results in the early spring of 1877 as large numbers of northern bands began to surrender. A large number of Northern Cheyenne, led by Dull Knife and Standing Elk, surrendered at the Red Cloud Agency on April 21, 1877. They were shipped to Indian Territory the following month. Touch the Clouds and Roman Nose arrived with bands at
14964-604: The westernmost of three closely related languages that belong to the Siouan language family. The seven bands or "sub-tribes" of the Lakota are: Notable Lakota persons include Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake ( Sitting Bull ) from the Húnkpapȟa, Maȟpíya Ičáȟtagya ( Touch the Clouds ) from the Miniconjou; Heȟáka Sápa ( Black Elk ), Maȟpíya Lúta ( Red Cloud ), and Tamakhóčhe Theȟíla ( Billy Mills ) - all Oglála; Tȟašúŋke Witkó ( Crazy Horse ) from
15093-483: The year prior, despite treaty provisions stipulating that they would allow rail construction "not passing over their reservation". Bloody Knife served as "scout and guide" to the leader of the 7th Cavalry Regiment , George A. Custer. Bloody Knife took part in the defense, when the Cavalry came under attack in U.S. territory north of the Yellowstone near the mouth of the Tongue on August 4. Again on August 11,
15222-431: The young scouts. They rode ahead, found a lone Lakota tipi and counted coup on it. Here they were overtaken by the mounted troops and reproached by Custer for going against his orders to disperse the enemy horses and render them on foot prior to a Cavalry charge. The best mounted scouts followed the fast moving Cavalry on the way to Little Bighorn River. They, along with Little Sioux, Red Bear and 11 scouts crossed
15351-431: Was at the very least a tactical draw if not a victory for the Indians. Afterward General Crook remained in camp for several weeks awaiting reinforcements, essentially taking his column out of the fighting for a significant period of time. Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer and the Seventh Cavalry were ordered out from the main Dakota Column to scout the Rosebud and Big Horn river valleys. On June 25, 1876, they encountered
15480-499: Was brought back to Camp Robinson with the promise that he could meet with the post commander. Instead, he was taken to the guard house under arrest. During his struggle to escape, he was fatally bayoneted by a soldier. While many of the Lakota surrendered at the various agencies along the Missouri River or in northwestern Nebraska, Sitting Bull led a large contingent across the international border into Canada. General Terry
15609-561: Was estimated at 8,500 in 1805; it grew steadily and reached 16,110 in 1881. They were one of the few Native American tribes to increase in population in the 19th century, a time of widespread disease and warfare. By 2010 the number of Lakota had increased to more than 170,000, of whom about 2,000 still spoke the Lakota language ( Lakȟótiyapi ) . After 1720, the Lakota branch of the Seven Council Fires split into two major sects,
15738-399: Was for all three columns to converge simultaneously on the Lakota hunting grounds and pin down the Indians between the approaching troops. General Crook's column was the first to make contact with the northern bands in the Battle of the Rosebud on June 17. While Crook claimed a victory, most historians note that the Indians had effectively checked his advance. Thus the Battle of the Rosebud
15867-412: Was in charge at Fort Stevenson. All recruits came from the tribal police force of chief White Shield. Initially armed with infantry rifles, they soon received Spencer repeating carbines in addition to other equipment. They were paid 40 cents a day for the use of their own horse. Additional members later enlisted at Fort McKeen down river. Strikes Two, Pretty Crow, Elk Tongue and other Arikara made
15996-505: Was in charge of the party. The same man (already referred to) was in charge at Fort Stevenson. Twenty-three additional Arikara enlisted under the guidance of Big John. A few days later, Red Bear joined after being scolded by Son of the Star. During the Little Bighorn campaign, the 38 Arikara engaged there worked to protect base camps, and were dispatched as riders, forming a part of the front battle line . The scouts were
16125-563: Was in short supply. Indian warriors had traditionally fought for individual prestige, rather than strategic objectives, although Crazy Horse seems to have instilled in the Sioux some sense of collective endeavor. The Cheyenne were the most centralized and best organized of the Plains Indians . The Sioux and Cheyenne were also at war with their long-time enemies, the Crow and Shoshone , which drained off many of their resources. To combat
16254-552: Was part of a delegation sent to negotiate with the bands, hoping to persuade them to surrender and return to the US, but they initially refused. Sitting Bull later agreed to surrender at the behest of his friend Jean-Louis Legare. In 1880–81, most of the Lakota from Canada surrendered at Fort Keogh and Fort Buford . US forces transferred them by steamboat to the Standing Rock Agency 1881. The Great Sioux War of 1876–77 contrasted sharply with Red Cloud's War fought
16383-567: Was pressing. On August 1, 1866, the "Act to increase and fix the Military Peace Establishment of the United States" came into force, and the Army could now legally enlist a certain number of native scouts, but no more than 1,000 nationwide at any time, as long as needed. In May 1868, the first Arikara enlisted at Fort Stevenson, to duplicate the success of the Pawnee scouts already enlisted in Nebraska . Chief Big John
16512-576: Was resistance to the Lakotas from the local Crow tribe, which had treaty on the area. Already in 1873, Crow chief Blackfoot had called for U.S. military actions against the Indian intruders. The steady Lakota invasion into treaty areas belonging to the smaller tribes guaranteed that the United States would find allies in the Arikaras and the Crows who saw the Cheyenne and Lakotas as trespassers.] In 1874,
16641-422: Was sent to each of the Indian agencies to hold councils with the Lakota. They hoped to gain the people's approval and thereby bring pressure on the Lakota leaders to sign a new treaty. The government's attempt to secure the Black Hills failed. While the Black Hills were at the center of the growing crisis, Lakota resentment was growing over expanding US interests in other portions of Lakota territory. For instance,
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