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130-572: The Walls of Constantinople ( Turkish : Konstantinopolis Surları ; Greek : Τείχη της Κωνσταντινουπόλης ) are a series of defensive stone walls that have surrounded and protected the city of Constantinople (today Istanbul in Turkey ) since its founding as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Constantine the Great . With numerous additions and modifications during their history, they were

260-512: A corruption of the ta Meltiadou quarter, and places the gate to the west of the Mocius cistern. Other authors identified it with the Gate of Adrianople (A. M. Schneider) or with the Gate of Rhesios (A. J. Mordtmann). The double Theodosian Walls ( Greek : τεῖχος Θεοδοσιακόν , teichos Theodosiakon ), located about 2 km (1.2 miles) to the west of the old Constantinian Wall, were erected during

390-475: A form of consonant mutation whereby a voiced obstruent, such as /b d dʒ ɡ/ , is devoiced to [p t tʃ k] at the end of a word or before a consonant, but retains its voicing before a vowel. In loan words, the voiced equivalent of /k/ is /g/; in native words, it is /ğ/. This is analogous to languages such as German and Russian , but in the case of Turkish it only applies, as the above examples demonstrate, to stops and affricates, not to fricatives. The spelling

520-574: A more important and flourishing town even than Byzantium and being both a harbour and a point at which several main roads met, it was the seat of extensive commerce. This circumstance explains the reason why so many of its coins are still extant from which we learn that large and celebrated festivals were held here. After the fourth century AD it assumed the name of Heraclea or Heracleia (Ἡράκλεια); which we find sometimes used alone, and sometimes with additions Heraclea Thraciae and Heraclea Perinthus . Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) twice granted

650-415: A negative suffix -me to the verb (the suffix comes after the stem but before the tense): Necla okula gitmedi ('Necla did not go to school'). In the case of a verbal sentence, an interrogative clitic mi is added after the verb and stands alone, for example Necla okula gitti mi? ('Did Necla go to school?'). In the case of a nominal sentence, then mi comes after the predicate but before

780-529: A painting of the Crucifixion was allegedly placed on the gate, leading to its later Ottoman name, İsakapı ("Gate of Jesus "). It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1509 , but its approximate location is known through the presence of the nearby İsakapı Mescidi mosque. The identity and location of the Gate of At[t]alos ( Πόρτα Ἀτ[τ]άλου , Porta At[t]alou ) are unclear. Cyril Mango identifies it with

910-629: A section of the foundation of the wall of Constantine. The names of a number of gates of the Constantinian Wall survive, but scholars debate their identity and exact location. The Old Golden Gate (Latin: Porta Aurea , Ancient Greek: Χρυσεία Πύλη ), known also as the Xerolophos Gate and the Gate of Saturninus, is mentioned in the Notitia Urbis Constantinopolitanae , which further states that

1040-459: A single pentagonal one. They were 15–20 m tall and 10–12 m wide, and placed at irregular distances, according to the rise of the terrain: the intervals vary between 21 and 77 m, although most curtain wall sections measure between 40 and 60 meters. Each tower had a battlemented terrace on the top. Its interior was usually divided by a floor into two chambers, which did not communicate with each other. The lower chamber, which opened through

1170-531: A single wall, reinforced with towers at regular distances, which began to be constructed in 324 and was completed under his son Constantius II (r. 337–361). Only the approximate course of the wall is known: it began at the Church of St. Anthony at the Golden Horn, near the modern Atatürk Bridge , ran southwest and then southwards, passed east of the great open cisterns of Mocius and of Aspar , and ended near

1300-426: A story related by Niketas Choniates , in 1189 the gate was walled off by Emperor Isaac II Angelos , because according to a prophecy, it was this gate that Western Emperor Frederick Barbarossa would enter the city through. It was re-opened in 1346, but closed again before the siege of 1453 and remained closed until 1886, leading to its early Ottoman name, Kapalı Kapı ("Closed Gate"). The gate ( Πύλη τοῦ Δευτέρου )

1430-407: A verb in the form of the copula ol or y (variants of "be"). Examples of both are given below: The two groups of sentences have different ways of forming negation. A nominal sentence can be negated with the addition of the word değil . For example, the sentence above would become Necla öğretmen değil ('Necla is not a teacher'). However, the verbal sentence requires the addition of

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1560-403: Is subject–object–verb . Turkish has no noun classes or grammatical gender . The language makes usage of honorifics and has a strong T–V distinction which distinguishes varying levels of politeness, social distance , age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a single person out of respect. Turkish is a member of

1690-531: Is based on the dialect of Istanbul . This Istanbul Turkish ( İstanbul Türkçesi ) constitutes the model of written and spoken Turkish, as recommended by Ziya Gökalp , Ömer Seyfettin and others. Dialectal variation persists, in spite of the levelling influence of the standard used in mass media and in the Turkish education system since the 1930s. Academic researchers from Turkey often refer to Turkish dialects as ağız or şive , leading to an ambiguity with

1820-526: Is debatable for a number of reasons. The Byzantine chroniclers provide more names than the number of the gates, the original Greek names fell mostly out of use during the Ottoman period, and literary and archaeological sources provide often contradictory information. Only three gates, the Golden Gate, the Gate of Rhegion and the Gate of Charisius, can be established directly from the literary evidence. In

1950-440: Is filled with mortar made of lime and crushed bricks. Between seven and eleven bands of brick , approximately 40 cm thick, traverse the structure, not only as a form of decoration, but also strengthening the cohesion of the structure by bonding the stone façade with the mortar core, and increasing endurance to earthquakes . The wall was strengthened with 96 towers, mainly square but also a few octagonal ones, three hexagonal and

2080-521: Is known to have been repaired, using tombstones, under the leadership of a certain Leo in 340 BC, against an attack by Philip II of Macedon . Byzantium was relatively unimportant during the early Roman period. Contemporaries described it as wealthy, well peopled and well fortified, but that affluence came to an end because the city supported Pescennius Niger ( r.  193–194 ) in his war against Septimius Severus ( r.  193–211 ). According to

2210-655: Is known with certainty, aside from the Old Golden Gate, is the Gate of Saint Aemilianus ( Πόρτα τοῦ ἁγίου Αἰμιλιανοῦ , Porta tou hagiou Aimilianou ), named in Turkish Davutpaşa Kapısı . It lay at the juncture with the sea walls , and served the communication with the coast. According to the Chronicon Paschale , the Church of St Mary of Rhabdos, where the Rod of Moses was kept, stood next to

2340-476: Is little direct evidence in the accounts of the city's sieges to suggest that the moat was ever actually flooded. In the sections north of the Gate of St. Romanus, the steepness of the slopes of the Lycus valley made the construction maintenance of the moat problematic; it is probable therefore that the moat ended at the Gate of St. Romanus, and did not resume until after the Gate of Adrianople. The weakest section of

2470-778: Is located between towers 30 and 31, little remains of the original gate, and the modern reconstruction may not be accurate. The Gate of the Spring or Pēgē Gate ( Πύλη τῆς Πηγῆς in Greek) was named after a popular monastery outside the Walls, the Zōodochos Pēgē (" Life-giving Spring ") in the modern suburb of Balıklı . Its modern Turkish name, Gate of Selymbria (Tr. Silivri Kapısı or Silivrikapı , Gk. Πύλη τῆς Συλημβρίας ), appeared in Byzantine sources shortly before 1453. It lies between

2600-654: Is mutually intelligible with Azerbaijani . In particular, Turkish-speaking minorities exist in countries that formerly (in whole or part) belonged to the Ottoman Empire , such as Iraq, Bulgaria, Cyprus , Greece (primarily in Western Thrace ), the Republic of North Macedonia , Romania, and Serbia. More than two million Turkish speakers live in Germany; and there are significant Turkish-speaking communities in

2730-407: Is near modern Marmara Ereğlisi , in Turkey . It was originally a Samian colony, and, according to George Syncellus , was founded about 599 BC. German archaeologist Theodor Panofka , however, makes it contemporary with Samothrace , that is about 1000 BC. It was particularly renowned for its obstinate defence against Philip II of Macedon . At that time it appears to have been

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2860-635: Is one of the official languages of Cyprus . Turkish has official status in 38 municipalities in Kosovo , including Mamusha, , two in the Republic of North Macedonia and in Kirkuk Governorate in Iraq. Cyprus has requested the European Union to add Turkish as an official language, as it is one of the two official languages of the country. In Turkey, the regulatory body for Turkish is

2990-584: Is the Gate of Melantias ( Πόρτα τῆς Μελαντιάδος , Porta tēs Melantiados ), whose location is also debated. Van Millingen considered it to be a gate of the Theodosian Wall (the Pege Gate ), while more recently, Janin and Mango have rebutted this, suggesting that it was located on the Constantinian Wall. While Mango identifies it with the Gate of the Prodromos, Janin considers the name to have been

3120-470: Is to be identified with the Gate of Kalagros ( Πύλη τοῦ Καλάγρου ). Modern Yeni Mevlevihane Kapısı , located between towers 50 and 51 is commonly referred to as the Gate of Rhegion ( Πόρτα Ῥηγίου ) in early modern texts, allegedly named after the suburb of Rhegion (modern Küçükçekmece ), or as the Gate of Rhousios ( Πόρτα τοῦ Ῥουσίου ) after the hippodrome faction of the Reds ( ῥούσιοι , rhousioi ) which

3250-642: Is usually made to match the sound. However, in a few cases, such as ad 'name' (dative ada ), the underlying form is retained in the spelling (cf. at 'horse', dative ata ). Other exceptions are od 'fire' vs. ot 'herb', sac 'sheet metal', saç 'hair'. Most loanwords, such as kitap above, are spelled as pronounced, but a few such as hac 'hajj', şad 'happy', and yad 'strange' or 'stranger' also show their underlying forms. Native nouns of two or more syllables that end in /k/ in dictionary form are nearly all /ğ/ in underlying form. However, most verbs and monosyllabic nouns are underlyingly /k/. The vowels of

3380-486: Is usually referred to as yumuşak g ("soft g"), written ⟨ğ⟩ in Turkish orthography , represents a vowel sequence or a rather weak bilabial approximant between rounded vowels, a weak palatal approximant between unrounded front vowels, and a vowel sequence elsewhere. It never occurs at the beginning of a word or a syllable, but always follows a vowel. When word-final or preceding another consonant, it lengthens

3510-713: The Aegean region, with its usage extending to Antalya . The nomadic Yörüks of the Mediterranean Region of Turkey also have their own dialect of Turkish. This group is not to be confused with the Yuruk nomads of Macedonia, Greece, and European Turkey, who speak Balkan Gagauz Turkish . The Meskhetian Turks who live in Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Russia as well as in several Central Asian countries, also speak an Eastern Anatolian dialect of Turkish, originating in

3640-534: The Belgrade Gate ( Belgrat Kapısı ), lies between towers 22 and 23. Alexander van Millingen identified it with the Second Military Gate, which is located further north. Its name derives from the fact that it led to a wooden circus ( amphitheatre ) outside the walls. The gate complex is approximately 12 m wide and almost 20 m high, while the gate itself spans 5 m. According to

3770-683: The Germanic runic alphabets . With the Turkic expansion during Early Middle Ages ( c.  6th –11th centuries), peoples speaking Turkic languages spread across Central Asia , covering a vast geographical region stretching from Siberia all the way to Europe and the Mediterranean . The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks , in particular, brought their language, Oghuz —the direct ancestor of today's Turkish language—into Anatolia during

3900-500: The Istanbul Archaeological Museum , were probably put in place in the 9th or 10th centuries to form the appearance of a triumphal gate. According to other descriptions, the outer gate was also topped by a statue of Victory , holding a crown. Despite its ceremonial role, the Golden Gate was one of the strongest positions along the walls of the city and withstood several attacks during the various sieges. With

4030-679: The Komnenian period ; thereafter, the only such occasion was the entry of Michael VIII Palaiologos into the city on 15 August 1261, after its reconquest from the Latins . With the progressive decline in Byzantium's military fortunes, the gates were walled up and reduced in size in the later Palaiologan period , and the complex converted into a citadel and refuge. The Golden Gate was emulated elsewhere, with several cities naming their principal entrance thus, for instance Thessaloniki (also known as

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4160-623: The Laz language ). Kastamonu is spoken in Kastamonu and its surrounding areas. Karamanli Turkish is spoken in Greece, where it is called Kαραμανλήδικα . It is the literary standard for the Karamanlides . At least one source claims Turkish consonants are laryngeally-specified three-way fortis-lenis (aspirated/neutral/voiced) like Armenian, although only syllable-finally. The phoneme that

4290-644: The Oghuz group of the Turkic family. Other members include Azerbaijani , spoken in Azerbaijan and north-west Iran , Gagauz of Gagauzia , Qashqai of south Iran and the Turkmen of Turkmenistan . Historically the Turkic family was seen as a branch of the larger Altaic family, including Japanese , Korean , Mongolian and Tungusic , with various other language families proposed for inclusion by linguists. Altaic theory has fallen out of favour since

4420-437: The Ottoman Empire period ( c.  1299 –1922) is termed Ottoman Turkish , which was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic that differed considerably and was largely unintelligible to the period's everyday Turkish. The everyday Turkish, known as kaba Türkçe or "vulgar Turkish", spoken by the less-educated lower and also rural members of society, contained a higher percentage of native vocabulary and served as basis for

4550-500: The Porta Triumphalis of Rome, which survived until it fell down in the 740 Constantinople earthquake . Other sculptures were a large cross, which fell in an earthquake in 561 or 562; a Victory , which was cast down in the reign of Michael III ; and a crowned Fortune of the city. In 965, Nikephoros II Phokas installed the captured bronze city gates of Mopsuestia in the place of the original ones. The main gate itself

4680-560: The Seljuq Turks , who are both regarded as the ethnic and cultural ancestors of the Ottomans , the administrative language of these states acquired a large collection of loanwords from Arabic and Persian . Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry , was heavily influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters and a great quantity of imported words. The literary and official language during

4810-597: The Strategion and the Baths of Achilles , continued south to the area known in Byzantine times as Chalkoprateia , and then turned, in the area of the Hagia Sophia , in a loop towards the northeast, crossed the regions known as Topoi and Arcadianae and reached the sea at the later quarter of Mangana. This wall was protected by twenty-seven towers and had at least two landward gates, one which survived to become known as

4940-539: The Trabzon region of northeastern Turkey follows the reduced vowel harmony of Old Anatolian Turkish , with the additional complication of two missing vowels (ü and ı), thus there is no palatal harmony . It is likely that elün meant "your hand" in Old Anatolian. While the 2nd person singular possessive would vary between back and front vowel, -ün or -un, as in elün for "your hand" and kitabun for "your book",

5070-590: The Turkish Language Association ( Türk Dil Kurumu or TDK), which was founded in 1932 under the name Türk Dili Tetkik Cemiyeti ("Society for Research on the Turkish Language"). The Turkish Language Association was influenced by the ideology of linguistic purism : indeed one of its primary tasks was the replacement of loanwords and of foreign grammatical constructions with equivalents of Turkish origin. These changes, together with

5200-548: The basilica seems to have been used in the construction of a tower meant to guard a 1.9m wide secondary gate, from which may be deduced that the basilica must have been destroyed some time prior, though the date for that is not certain. Archaeologists and historians from the Tekirdağ Museum, the University of Istanbul and the University of Heidelberg think the church might have stood for no more than perhaps 150 years. It

5330-586: The 11th century. Also during the 11th century, an early linguist of the Turkic languages, Mahmud al-Kashgari from the Kara-Khanid Khanate , published the first comprehensive Turkic language dictionary and map of the geographical distribution of Turkic speakers in the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk ( ديوان لغات الترك ). Following the adoption of Islam around the year 950 by the Kara-Khanid Khanate and

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5460-411: The 1940s tend to use the older terms of Arabic or Persian origin, the younger generations favor new expressions. It is considered particularly ironic that Atatürk himself, in his lengthy speech to the new Parliament in 1927, used the formal style of Ottoman Turkish that had been common at the time amongst statesmen and the educated strata of society in the setting of formal speeches and documents. After

5590-457: The 1960s, and a majority of linguists now consider Turkic languages to be unrelated to any other language family, though the Altaic hypothesis still has a small degree of support from individual linguists. The nineteenth-century Ural-Altaic theory, which grouped Turkish with Finnish , Hungarian and Altaic languages, is considered even less plausible in light of Altaic's rejection. The theory

5720-494: The 9th century: the 11th-century historian Kedrenos records that the "wall at Exokionion", likely a portion of the Constantinian wall, collapsed in an earthquake in 867. Only traces of the wall appear to have survived in later ages, although Alexander van Millingen states that some parts survived in the region of the İsakapı until the early 19th century. In 2018 the construction of Yenikapı Transfer Center unearthed

5850-679: The Arch of Urbicius, and one where the Milion monument was later located. On the seaward side, the wall was much lower. Although the author of the Patria asserts that this wall dated to the time of Byzas, the French researcher Raymond Janin thinks it more likely that it reflects the situation after the city was rebuilt by the Spartan general Pausanias , who conquered the city in 479 BC. This wall

5980-705: The Church of the Theotokos of the Rhabdos on the Propontis coast, somewhere between the later sea gates of St. Aemilianus and Psamathos. Already by the early 5th century, Constantinople had expanded outside the Constantinian Wall in the extramural area known as the Exokionion or Exakionion . The wall survived during much of the Byzantine period, even though it was replaced by the Theodosian Walls as

6110-467: The Constantinian and Theodosian Walls, which have numerical origins, has been shown to be erroneous. For instance, the Deuteron , the "Second" Quarter, was located not in the southwest behind the Gate of the Deuteron or "Second Military Gate", as would be expected, but in the northwestern part of the city. The gate is a small postern, which lies at the first tower of the land walls, at the junction with

6240-476: The French loanword parti ). Some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings; for example betik (originally meaning "book") is now used to mean " script " in computer science . Some examples of modern Turkish words and the old loanwords are: Turkish is natively spoken by the Turkish people in Turkey and by the Turkish diaspora in some 30 other countries. The Turkish language

6370-467: The Gate of Adrianople (by van Millingen). The walls survived the entire Ottoman period and appeared in travelogues of foreign visitors to Constantinople/Istanbul. A 16th-century Chinese geographical treatise, for example, recorded, "Its city has two walls. A sovereign prince lives in the city...". The wall contained nine main gates, which pierced both the inner and the outer walls, and a number of smaller posterns . The exact identification of several gates

6500-527: The Latin alphabet for speakers of eastern dialects. Some immigrants to Turkey from Rumelia speak Rumelian Turkish , which includes the distinct dialects of Ludogorie , Dinler, and Adakale, which show the influence of the theorized Balkan sprachbund . Kıbrıs Türkçesi is the name for Cypriot Turkish and is spoken by the Turkish Cypriots . Edirne is the dialect of Edirne . Ege is spoken in

6630-567: The Latin script, encoded for many of the dialectal variations between Turkish dialects, the modern Latin script fails to do this. Examples of this are the presence of the nasal velar sound [ŋ] in certain eastern dialects of Turkish which was represented by the Ottoman letter /ڭ/ but that was merged into /n/ in the Latin script. Additionally are letters such as /خ/, /ق/, /غ/ which make the sounds [ɣ], [q], and [x], respectively in certain eastern dialects but that are merged into [g], [k], and [h] in western dialects and are therefore defectively represented in

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6760-557: The Old Golden Gate; van Millingen places it on the Seventh Hill, at a height probably corresponding to one of the later gates of the Theodosian Wall in that area; and Raymond Janin places it further north, across the Lycus and near the point where the river passed under the wall. In earlier centuries, it was decorated with many statues, including one of Constantine, which fell down in an earthquake in 740. The only gate whose location

6890-458: The Ottoman period until sections began to be dismantled in the 19th century, as the city outgrew its medieval boundaries. Despite lack of maintenance, many parts of the walls survived and are still standing today. A large-scale restoration program has been underway since the 1980s. According to tradition, the city was founded as Byzantium by Greek colonists from the Attic town of Megara , led by

7020-510: The SOV structure has diminished relevance and may vary. The SOV structure may thus be considered a "pragmatic word order" of language, one that does not rely on word order for grammatical purposes. Consider the following simple sentence which demonstrates that the focus in Turkish is on the element that immediately precedes the verb: Ahmet Ahmet yumurta-yı Heraclea Perinthus Perinthus or Perinthos ( Ancient Greek : ἡ Πέρινθος )

7150-536: The Seventh Hill at some 68 m above sea level. From there the wall descends into the valley of the river Lycus, where it reaches its lowest point at 35 m above sea level. Climbing the slope of the Sixth Hill, the wall then rises up to the Gate of Charisius or Gate of Adrianople, at some 76 m height. From the Gate of Adrianople to the Blachernae, the walls fall to a level of some 60 m. From there

7280-469: The TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, it also opted for reviving Old Turkish words which had not been used for centuries. In 1935, the TDK published a bilingual Ottoman-Turkish /Pure Turkish dictionary that documents the results of the language reform. Owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before

7410-539: The Turkish language are, in their alphabetical order, ⟨a⟩ , ⟨e⟩ , ⟨ı⟩ , ⟨i⟩ , ⟨o⟩ , ⟨ö⟩ , ⟨u⟩ , ⟨ü⟩ . The Turkish vowel system can be considered as being three-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by how and where they are articulated focusing on three key features: front and back , rounded and unrounded and vowel height . Vowels are classified [±back], [±round] and [±high]. The only diphthongs in

7540-721: The Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire —spread as the Ottoman Empire expanded. In 1928, as one of Atatürk's reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Perso-Arabic script -based Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with the Latin script -based Turkish alphabet . Some distinctive characteristics of the Turkish language are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination . The basic word order of Turkish

7670-405: The United States, France, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Due to the cultural assimilation of Turkish immigrants in host countries, not all ethnic members of the diaspora speak the language with native fluency. In 2005, 93% of the population of Turkey were native speakers of Turkish, about 67 million at the time, with Kurdish languages making up most of

7800-453: The Vardar Gate) or Antioch (the Gate of Daphne), as well as the Kievan Rus' , who built monumental "Golden Gates" at Kiev and Vladimir . The entrance to San Francisco Bay , California , was similarly named the Golden Gate in the mid-19th century, in a distant historical tribute to Byzantium. The date of the Golden Gate's construction is uncertain, with scholars divided between Theodosius I and Theodosius II . Earlier scholars favored

7930-423: The account of Cassius Dio , the city held out against Severan forces for three years, until 196, with its inhabitants resorting even to throwing bronze statues at the besiegers when they ran out of other projectiles. Severus punished the city harshly: the strong walls were demolished, and the town was deprived of its civic status, being reduced to a mere village dependent on Heraclea Perinthus . However, appreciating

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8060-583: The addition of transverse walls on the peribolos between the inner and outer walls, it formed a virtually separate fortress. Its military value was recognized by John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1347–1354), who records that it was virtually impregnable, capable of holding provisions for three years and defying the whole city if need be. He repaired the marble towers and garrisoned the fort, but had to surrender it to John V Palaiologos (r. 1341–1391) when he abdicated in 1354. John V undid Kantakouzenos' repairs and left it unguarded, but in 1389–90 he too rebuilt and expanded

8190-437: The adoption of the new Turkish alphabet in 1928, shaped the modern Turkish language spoken today. The TDK became an independent body in 1951, with the lifting of the requirement that it should be presided over by the Minister of Education. This status continued until August 1983, when it was again made into a governmental body in the constitution of 1982 , following the military coup d'état of 1980 . Modern standard Turkish

8320-435: The advantages of Byzantium's location. From 324 to 336, the city was thoroughly rebuilt and inaugurated on 11 May 330 under the name of "New Rome" or "Second Rome". Eventually, the city would most commonly be referred to as Constantinople, the "City of Constantine", in dedication to its founder. New Rome was protected by a new wall about 2.8 km (15 stadia ) west of the Severan wall. Constantine's fortification consisted of

8450-406: The aim of conducting research on Turkish. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a language reform to replace loanwords of Arabic and Persian origin with Turkish equivalents. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred foreign words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by

8580-439: The area of the Palace of the Porphyrogenitus ( Turkish : Tekfur Sarayı ) in the Blachernae quarter. The outer wall and the moat terminate even earlier, at the height of the Gate of Adrianople. The section between the Blachernae and the Golden Horn does not survive since the line of the walls was later brought forward to cover the suburb of Blachernae, and its original course is impossible to ascertain, as it lies buried beneath

8710-407: The areas of Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin and sharing similarities with Azerbaijani , the language of Azerbaijan. The Central Anatolia Region speaks Orta Anadolu . Karadeniz , spoken in the Eastern Black Sea Region and represented primarily by the Trabzon dialect, exhibits substratum influence from Greek in phonology and syntax ; it is also known as Laz dialect (not to be confused with

8840-416: The best-preserved of the gates, and retains substantially unaltered from its original, 5th-century appearance. The so-called Fourth Military Gate stands between towers 59 and 60, and is currently walled up. Recently, it has been suggested that this gate is actually the Gate of St. Romanus, but the evidence is uncertain. Turkish language To the west, the influence of Ottoman Turkish —the variety of

8970-403: The capital, used especially for the occasions of a triumphal entry of an emperor into the capital on the occasion of military victories or other state occasions such as coronations. On rare occasions, as a mark of honor, the entry through the gate was allowed to non-imperial visitors: papal legates (in 519 and 868) and, in 710, to Pope Constantine . The Gate was used for triumphal entries until

9100-425: The city the prestigious title of neokoros and gave it permission to hold crown festivals in his honor, in recognition of its support during his conflict with Pescennius Niger , a rival claimant to the Roman throne. Justinian restored the old imperial palace, and the aqueducts of the city. Coins of Perinthus have also survived, which were studied by Edith Schönert-Geiß . The inscriptions from Perinthus and

9230-441: The city wall itself in the region around it was "ornately decorated". The gate stood somewhere on the southern slopes of the Seventh Hill. Its construction is often attributed to Constantine, but is in fact of uncertain age. It survived until the 14th century, when the Byzantine scholar Manuel Chrysoloras described it as being built of "wide marble blocks with a lofty opening", and crowned by a kind of stoa . In late Byzantine times,

9360-627: The city's primary defense. An ambiguous passage refers to extensive damage to the city's "inner wall" from an earthquake on 25 September 478, which likely refers to the Constantinian wall. When repairs were being undertaken, to prevent an invasion by Atilla , the Blues and Greens, the supporters of chariot-racing teams , supplied 16,000 men between them for the building effort. Theophanes the Confessor reports renewed earthquake damage in 557 . It appears that large parts survived relatively intact until

9490-478: The city's strategic importance, Severus eventually rebuilt it and endowed it with many monuments, including a Hippodrome and the Baths of Zeuxippus , as well as a new set of walls, located some 300–400 m to the west of the old ones. Little is known of the Severan Wall save for a short description of its course by Zosimus and that its main gate was located at the end of a porticoed avenue (the first part of

9620-522: The city, and the Byzantine Empire with it, during sieges by the Avar–Sassanian coalition, Arabs , Rus' , and Bulgars , among others. The fortifications retained their usefulness after the advent of gunpowder siege cannons, which played a part in the city's fall to Ottoman forces in 1453 but were not able to breach its walls. The walls were largely maintained intact during most of

9750-513: The continuing work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language, mostly from English. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance. However, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka , "political party"—also failed to meet with popular approval ( fırka has been replaced by

9880-530: The country is very high. The rising presence of this very similar language in Azerbaijan and the fact that many children use Turkish words instead of Azerbaijani words due to satellite TV has caused concern that the distinctive features of the language will be eroded. Many bookstores sell books in Turkish language along Azerbaijani language ones, with Agalar Mahmadov, a leading intellectual, voicing his concern that Turkish language has "already started to take over

10010-513: The damage. Theodosius II ordered the praetorian prefect Constantine to supervise the repairs, made all the more urgent as the city was threatened by the presence of Attila the Hun in the Balkans . Employing the city's chariot-racing factions in the work, the walls were restored in a record 60 days, according to the Byzantine chroniclers and three inscriptions found in situ . It is at this date that

10140-523: The discovery and excavation of these monuments and associated stone slabs by Russian archaeologists in the wider area surrounding the Orkhon Valley between 1889 and 1893, it became established that the language on the inscriptions was the Old Turkic language written using the Old Turkic alphabet , which has also been referred to as "Turkic runes" or "runiform" due to a superficial similarity to

10270-409: The downfall of the tyrant. He brought a golden age who built the gate from gold. While the legend has not been reported by any known Byzantine author, an investigation of the surviving holes wherein the metal letters were riveted verified its accuracy. It also showed that the first line stood on the western face of the arch, while the second on the eastern. According to the current view, this refers to

10400-482: The early Byzantine Gate of Melantias (Πόρτα Μελαντιάδος), but more recent scholars have proposed the identification of the latter with one of the gates of the city's original Constantinian Wall. It was through this gate that the forces of the Empire of Nicaea , under General Alexios Strategopoulos , entered and retook the city from the Latins on 25 July 1261. The Third Military Gate ( Πύλη τοῦ Τρίτου ), named after

10530-442: The emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos , turned him into marble and placed him in a cave under the earth near the Golden Gate, where he waits to be brought to life again to conquer the city back for Christians. The legend explained the later walling up of the gate as a Turkish precaution against this prophecy. After his conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Sultan Mehmed II built a new fort in 1458. By adding three larger towers to

10660-538: The eponymous Byzas , around 658 BC. The city then consisted of a small region around an acropolis located on the easternmost hill (corresponding to the modern site of the Topkapı Palace ). According to the late Byzantine Patria of Constantinople , ancient Byzantium was enclosed by a small wall that began on the northern edge of the acropolis, extended west to the Tower of Eugenios, then went south and west towards

10790-432: The form of a triumphal arch with three arched gates, the middle one larger than the two others. The gate is flanked by large square towers, which form the 9th and 10th towers of the inner Theodosian wall. With the exception of the central portal, the gate remained open to everyday traffic. The structure was richly decorated with numerous statues, including a statue of Theodosius I on an elephant-drawn quadriga on top, echoing

10920-507: The former, but the current majority view tends to the latter, meaning that the gate was constructed as an integral part of the Theodosian Walls. The debate has been carried over to a now-lost Latin inscription in metal letters that stood above the doors and commemorated their gilding in celebration of the defeat of an unnamed usurper: Haec loca Theudosius decorat post fata tyranni. aurea saecla gerit qui portam construit auro. (English translation) Theodosius adorned these places after

11050-433: The fortress, erecting two towers behind the gate and extending a wall some 350 m to the sea walls, thus forming a separate fortified enceinte inside the city to serve as a final refuge. In the event, John V was soon after forced to flee there from a coup led by his grandson, John VII . The fort held out successfully in the subsequent siege that lasted several months, and in which cannons were possibly employed. In 1391 John V

11180-401: The foundations of some are of original Theodosian construction. Furthermore, while until the Komnenian period , the reconstructions largely remained true to the original model, later modifications ignored the windows and embrasures on the upper story and focused on the tower terrace as the sole fighting platform . The outer wall was 2 m thick at its base, and featured arched chambers on

11310-528: The four pre-existing ones (towers 8 to 11) on the inner Theodosian wall, he formed the Fortress of the Seven Towers ( Turkish : Yedikule Hisarı or Zindanları ). It lost its function as a gate, and for much of the Ottoman era, it was used as a treasury, archive, and state prison. It eventually became a museum in 1895. The Xylokerkos or Xerokerkos Gate ( Πύλη τοῦ Ξυλοκέρκου/Ξηροκέρκου ), now known as

11440-517: The gate. The Old Gate of the Prodromos ( Παλαιὰ Πόρτα τοῦ Προδρόμου , Palaia Porta tou Prodromou ), named after the nearby Church of St John the Baptist (called Prodromos , "the Forerunner", in Greek), is another unclear case. Van Millingen identifies it with the Old Golden Gate, while Janin considers it to have been located on the northern slope of the Seventh Hill. The last known gate

11570-420: The heptagonal towers 35 and 36, which were extensively rebuilt in later Byzantine times: its southern tower bears an inscription dated to 1439 commemorating repairs carried out under John VIII Palaiologos . The gate arch was replaced in the Ottoman period. In addition, in 1998 a subterranean basement with 4th/5th century reliefs and tombs was discovered underneath the gate. Van Millingen identifies this gate with

11700-473: The lack of ü vowel in the Trabzon dialect means -un would be used in both of these cases — elun and kitabun . With the exceptions stated below, Turkish words are oxytone (accented on the last syllable). Turkish has two groups of sentences: verbal and nominal sentences. In the case of a verbal sentence, the predicate is a finite verb, while the predicate in nominal sentence will have either no overt verb or

11830-466: The language are found in loanwords and may be categorised as falling diphthongs usually analyzed as a sequence of /j/ and a vowel. The principle of vowel harmony, which permeates Turkish word-formation and suffixation, is due to the natural human tendency towards economy of muscular effort. This principle is expressed in Turkish through three rules: The second and third rules minimize muscular effort during speech. More specifically, they are related to

11960-429: The language reform, the Turkish education system discontinued the teaching of literary form of Ottoman Turkish and the speaking and writing ability of society atrophied to the point that, in later years, Turkish society would perceive the speech to be so alien to listeners that it had to be "translated" three times into modern Turkish: first in 1963, again in 1986, and most recently in 1995. The past few decades have seen

12090-572: The last great fortification system of antiquity , and one of the most complex and elaborate systems ever built. Initially built by Constantine the Great, the walls surrounded the new city on all sides, protecting it against attack from both sea and land. As the city grew, the famous double line of the Theodosian Walls was built in the 5th century. Although the other sections of the walls were less elaborate, they were, when well-manned, almost impregnable for any medieval besieger. They saved

12220-661: The later Mese ) and shortly before the entrance of the later Forum of Constantine . The wall seems to have extended from near the modern Galata Bridge in the Eminönü quarter south through the vicinity of the Nuruosmaniye Mosque to curve around the southern wall of the Hippodrome, and then going northeast to meet the old walls near the Bosporus. The Patria also mentions the existence of another wall during

12350-430: The later walls of Blachernae project sharply to the west, reaching the coastal plain at the Golden Horn near the so-called Prisons of Anemas. The Theodosian Walls consist of the main inner wall ( μέγα τεῖχος , mega teichos , "great wall"), separated from the lower outer wall ( ἔξω τεῖχος , exō teichos or μικρὸν τεῖχος , mikron teichos , "small wall") by a terrace, the peribolos ( περίβολος ). Between

12480-470: The level of the peribolos , crowned with a battlemented walkway, reaching a height of 8.5–9 m. Access to the outer wall from the city was provided either through the main gates or through small posterns on the base of the inner wall's towers. The outer wall likewise had towers, situated approximately midway between the inner wall's towers, and acting in supporting role to them. They are spaced at 48–78 m, with an average distance of 50–66 m. Of

12610-525: The linguistic concept of accent , which is also covered with these words. Several universities, as well as a dedicated work-group of the Turkish Language Association, carry out projects investigating Turkish dialects. As of 2002 work continued on the compilation and publication of their research as a comprehensive dialect- atlas of the Turkish language. Although the Ottoman alphabet, being slightly more phonetically ambiguous than

12740-433: The literary testimonia on the city have been collected by Mustafa Hamdi Sayar. The peninsula and acropolis were complemented by the landward lower city and its walls, some remains of which have been found. Other notable places include the 5th-century basilica which in its architecture seems to be closely linked to the church designs of Constantinople. The floor mosaics are particularly well made and preserved. Stone from

12870-434: The main wall to the city, was used for storage, while the upper one could be entered from the wall's walkway, and had windows for view and for firing projectiles. Access to the wall was provided by large ramps along their side. The lower floor could also be accessed from the peribolos by small posterns. Generally speaking, most of the surviving towers of the main wall have been rebuilt in Byzantine or Ottoman times, and only

13000-433: The majority of scholars believe the second, outer wall to have been added, as well as a wide moat opened in front of the walls, but the validity of that interpretation is questionable; the outer wall was possibly an integral part of the original fortification concept. Throughout their history, the walls were damaged by earthquakes and floods of the Lycus river . Repairs were undertaken on numerous occasions, as testified by

13130-434: The moat, tapering towards the top so as not to be used as bridges. Some of them have been shown to contain pipes carrying water into the city from the hill country to the city's north and west. Their role has therefore been interpreted as that of aqueducts for filling the moat and as dams dividing it into compartments and allowing the water to be retained over the course of the walls. According to Alexander van Millingen , there

13260-402: The modern Turkish language. While visiting the region between Adıyaman and Adana , Evliya Çelebi recorded the "Turkman language" and compared it with his own Turkish: Reforms Kemalism After the foundation of the modern state of Turkey and the script reform , the Turkish Language Association (TDK) was established in 1932 under the patronage of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , with

13390-454: The modern city. From the Sea of Marmara, the wall turns sharply to the northeast until it reaches the Golden Gate, at about 14 m above sea level. From there and until the Gate of Rhegion the wall follows a more or less straight line to the north, climbing the city's Seventh Hill. From there the wall turns sharply to the northeast, climbing up to the Gate of St. Romanus, located near the peak of

13520-410: The national and natural dialects of Azerbaijan". However, the presence of Turkish as foreign language is not as high as Russian. In Uzbekistan, the second most populated Turkic country, a new TV channel Foreign Languages TV was established in 2022. This channel has been broadcasting Turkish lessons along with English, French, German and Russian lessons. Turkish is the official language of Turkey and

13650-554: The numerous inscriptions commemorating the emperors or their servants who undertook to restore them. The responsibility for these repairs rested on an official variously known as the Domestic of the Walls or the Count of the Walls ( Δομέστικος/Κόμης τῶν τειχέων , Domestikos/Komēs tōn teicheōn ), who employed the services of the city's populace in this task. After the Latin conquest of 1204, the walls fell increasingly into disrepair, and

13780-415: The outer sections of the walls. Today that division is, if retained at all, only a historiographical convention. There is sufficient reason to believe that several of the "Military Gates" were also used by civilian traffic. In addition, a number of them have proper names, and the established sequence of numbering them, based on their perceived correspondence with the names of certain city quarters lying between

13910-426: The outer wall and the moat ( σοῦδα , souda ) there stretched an outer terrace, the parateichion ( τὸ ἔξω παρατείχιον ), while a low breastwork crowned the moat's eastern escarpment. Access to both terraces was possible through posterns on the sides of the walls' towers. The inner wall is a solid structure, 4.5–6 m thick and 12 m high. It is faced with carefully cut limestone blocks, while its core

14040-422: The outer wall's towers, 62 survive. With few exceptions, they are square or crescent-shaped, 12–14 m tall and 4 m wide. They featured a room with windows on the level of the peribolos , crowned by a battlemented terrace, while their lower portions were either solid or featured small posterns, which allowed access to the outer terrace. The outer wall was a formidable defensive edifice in its own right: in

14170-489: The personal ending, so for example Necla, siz öğretmen misiniz ? ('Necla, are you [formal, plural] a teacher?'). Word order in simple Turkish sentences is generally subject–object–verb , as in Korean and Latin , but unlike English, for verbal sentences and subject-predicate for nominal sentences. However, as Turkish possesses a case-marking system, and most grammatical relations are shown using morphological markers, often

14300-435: The phenomenon of labial assimilation: if the lips are rounded (a process that requires muscular effort) for the first vowel they may stay rounded for subsequent vowels. If they are unrounded for the first vowel, the speaker does not make the additional muscular effort to round them subsequently. Grammatical affixes have "a chameleon-like quality", and obey one of the following patterns of vowel harmony: Practically,

14430-638: The preceding vowel. In native Turkic words, the sounds [c] , [ɟ] , and [l] are mainly in complementary distribution with [k] , [ɡ] , and [ɫ] ; the former set occurs adjacent to front vowels and the latter adjacent to back vowels. The distribution of these phonemes is often unpredictable, however, in foreign borrowings and proper nouns. In such words, [c] , [ɟ] , and [l] often occur with back vowels: some examples are given below. However, there are minimal pairs that distinguish between these sounds, such as kar [kɑɾ] "snow" vs kâr [cɑɾ] "profit". Turkish orthography reflects final-obstruent devoicing ,

14560-440: The principles of i-type vowel harmony in practice: Türkiye' dir ("it is Turkey"), kapı dır ("it is the door"), but gün dür ("it is the day"), palto dur ("it is the coat"). These are four word-classes that are exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony: The road sign in the photograph above illustrates several of these features: The rules of vowel harmony may vary by regional dialect. The dialect of Turkish spoken in

14690-639: The quarter of the Triton ("the Third") that lies behind it, is situated shortly after the Pege Gate, exactly before the C-shaped section of the walls known as the " Sigma ", between towers 39 and 40. It has no Turkish name, and is of middle or late Byzantine construction. The corresponding gate in the outer wall was preserved until the early 20th century, but has since disappeared. It is very likely that this gate

14820-560: The reign of Emperor Arcadius . This initial construction consisted of a single curtain wall with towers, which now forms the inner circuit of the Theodosian Walls. Both the Constantinian and the original Theodosian walls were severely damaged in two earthquakes, on 25 September 437 and 6 November 447 . The latter was especially powerful and destroyed large parts of the wall, including 57 towers. Subsequent earthquakes, including another major one in January ;448, compounded

14950-613: The reign of Emperor Theodosius II ( r.  402–450 ), after whom they were named. The work was carried out in two phases, with the first phase erected during Theodosius' minority under the direction of Anthemius , the praetorian prefect of the East , and was finished in 413 according to a law in the Codex Theodosianus . An inscription discovered in 1993 however records that the work lasted for nine years, indicating that construction had already begun c.  404/405 , in

15080-401: The remainder. Azerbaijani language , official in Azerbaijan, is mutually intelligible with Turkish and speakers of both languages can understand them without noticeable difficulty, especially when discussion comes on ordinary, daily language. Turkey has very good relations with Azerbaijan, with a multitude of Turkish companies and authorities investing there, while the influence of Turkey in

15210-463: The revived post-1261 Byzantine state lacked the resources to maintain them, except in times of direct threat. In their present state, the Theodosian Walls stretch for about 5.7 km (3.5 mi) from south to north, from the "Marble Tower" ( Turkish : Mermer Kule ), also known as the "Tower of Basil and Constantine " (Greek: Pyrgos Basileiou kai Konstantinou ) on the Propontis coast to

15340-530: The sea wall. It features a wreathed Chi-Rhō Christogram above it. It is also known as the Tabak Kapı ('Gate of the Tannery') in reference to the nearby leather works. Following the walls from south to north, the Golden Gate (Greek: Χρυσεία Πύλη , Chryseia Pylē ; Latin: Porta Aurea ; Turkish: Altınkapı or Yaldızlıkapı ), is the first gate to be encountered. It was the main ceremonial entrance into

15470-508: The siege of Byzantium by Constantine the Great during the latter's conflict with Licinius , in 324. The text mentions that a fore-wall ( proteichisma ) ran near the Philadephion , located at about the middle of the later, Constantinian city, suggesting the expansion of the city beyond the Severan Wall by this time. Like Severus before him, Constantine began to punish the city for siding with his defeated rival, but he too soon realised

15600-483: The sieges of 1422 and 1453, the Byzantines and their allies, being too few to hold both lines of wall, concentrated on the defence of the outer wall. The moat was situated at a distance of about 20 m from the outer wall. The moat itself was over 20 m wide and as much as 10 m deep, featuring a 1.5 m tall crenellated wall on the inner side, serving as a first line of defence. Transverse walls cross

15730-416: The traditional nomenclature, established by Philipp Anton Dethier in 1873, the gates are distinguished into the "Public Gates" and the "Military Gates", which alternated over the course of the walls. According to Dethier's theory, the former were given names and were open to civilian traffic, leading across the moat on bridges, and the latter were known by numbers, were restricted to military use and led only to

15860-432: The twofold pattern (also referred to as the e-type vowel harmony) means that in the environment where the vowel in the word stem is formed in the front of the mouth, the suffix will take the e-form, while if it is formed in the back it will take the a-form. The fourfold pattern (also called the i-type) accounts for rounding as well as for front/back. The following examples, based on the copula -dir ("[it] is"), illustrate

15990-412: The usurper Joannes (r. 423–425), while according to the supporters of the traditional view, it indicates the gate's construction as a free-standing triumphal arch in 388–391 to commemorate the defeat of the usurper Magnus Maximus (r. 383–388) and was only later incorporated into the Theodosian Walls. The gate, built of large square blocks of polished white marble fitted together without cement, has

16120-492: The wall was the so-called Mesoteichion ( Μεσοτείχιον , "Middle Wall"). Modern scholars are not in agreement over the extent of that portion of the wall, which has been variously defined from as narrowly as the stretch between the Gate of St. Romanus and the Fifth Military Gate (by A.M. Schneider) to as broad as from the Gate of Rhegion to the Fifth Military Gate (by B. Tsangadas) or from the Gate of St. Romanus to

16250-410: Was a great and flourishing town of ancient Thrace , situated on the Propontis . According to John Tzetzes , it bore at an early period the name of Mygdonia (Μυγδονία). It lay 35 kilometres (22 mi) west of Selymbria and 90 kilometres (56 mi) west of Byzantium , on a small peninsula of the bay which bears its name, and was built like an amphitheatre , on the declivity of a hill. Its site

16380-489: Was based mostly on the fact these languages share three features: agglutination , vowel harmony and lack of grammatical gender. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia . Erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan , these date back to the Second Turkic Khaganate (dated 682–744 CE). After

16510-575: Was compelled to raze the fort by Sultan Bayezid I (r. 1389–1402), who otherwise threatened to blind his son Manuel , whom he held captive. Emperor John VIII Palaiologos attempted to rebuild it in 1434, but was thwarted by threats from Sultan Murad II . According to one of the many Greek legends about the Constantinople's fall to the Ottomans, when the Turks entered the city, an angel rescued

16640-479: Was covered by an outer wall, pierced by a single gate, which in later centuries was flanked by an ensemble of reused marble reliefs. According to descriptions of Pierre Gilles and English travelers from the 17th century, these reliefs were arranged in two tiers, and featured mythological scenes, including the Labours of Hercules . These reliefs, lost since the 17th century with the exception of some fragments now in

16770-434: Was never rebuilt and instead replaced with a small chapel. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Smith, William , ed. (1854–1857). "Perinthus". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography . London: John Murray. 40°58′15″N 27°57′16″E  /  40.97089°N 27.95454°E  / 40.97089; 27.95454 This article about

16900-400: Was supposed to have taken part in its repair. From Byzantine texts it appears that the correct form is Gate of Rhesios ( Πόρτα Ῥησίου ), named according to the 10th-century Suda lexicon after an ancient general of Greek Byzantium . A.M. Schneider also identifies it with the Gate of Myriandr[i]on or Polyandrion ("Place of Many Men"), possibly a reference to its proximity to a cemetery. It is

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