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100-616: The area was originally occupied by indigenous people, who used it as a settlement and for fishing purposes. The natural harbor in Coquimbo was taken over by Pedro de Valdivia from Spain in 1550. In 1879 it was recognized as a town. The city was on the main path of totality of the Solar eclipse of July 2, 2019 . Coquimbo was first mentioned in the English speaking world when Charles Darwin visited during his voyage on HMS Beagle , stopping in

200-453: A Spanish widow who accompanied him to Chile as his mistress. After the failure of the expedition of Diego de Almagro in 1536, the lands to the south of Peru (then known as Nueva Toledo , extending from the 14° — close to modern day Pisco , Peru — to the 25° latitude — close to Taltal , Chile) had remained unexplored. Valdivia asked governor Francisco Pizarro for permission to complete the conquest of that territory. He got his permission but

300-529: A bride who was an accomplished weaver. In addition, the Mapuche used their textiles as an important surplus and an exchange trading good. Numerous sixteenth-century accounts describe their bartering the textiles with other indigenous peoples, and with colonists in newly developed settlements. Such trading enabled the Mapuche to obtain those goods that they did not produce or held in high esteem, such as horses. Tissue volumes made by Aboriginal women and marketed in

400-651: A brief stay in Santiago , Valdivia returned to the south again in December 1552. To keep the connection open between Concepción and the southern settlements, Valdivia had a number of forts built in Cordillera de Nahuelbuta . He moved against the Araucanians again in 1553 and built a fort at Tucapel. By the advice of the cacique Colocolo , the Araucanians united their efforts choosing as toqui (general-in-chief)

500-429: A chronicle of 1673. Among the Mapuche, "the spirits are interested in machi's gendered discourses and performances, not in the sex under the machi's clothes". In attracting the filew (possessing spirit), "Both male and female machi become spiritual brides who seduce and call their filew – at once husband and master – to possess their heads ... The ritual transvestism of male machi ... draws attention to

600-575: A common social, religious, and economic structure, as well as a common linguistic heritage as Mapudungun speakers. Their homelands once extended from Choapa Valley to the Chiloé Archipelago and later spread eastward to Puelmapu , a land comprising part of the Argentine pampa and Patagonia . Today the collective group makes up over 80% of the indigenous peoples in Chile and about 9% of

700-411: A common story in Chile at the time was that Valdivia had been killed by being forced to drink molten gold. According to an even later legend, Lautaro took Valdivia to the Mapuche camp and put him to death after three days of torture, extracting his beating heart and eating it with the Mapuche leaders. Probably all the stories about his death are apocryphal, since none of his party survived the battle, and

800-522: A conservation group, has led an international campaign for preservation, resulting in the Home Depot chain and other leading wood importers agreeing to revise their purchasing policies to "provide for the protection of native forests in Chile". Some Mapuche leaders want stronger protections for the forests. In recent years , the crimes committed by Mapuche armed insurgents have been prosecuted under counter-terrorism legislation, originally introduced by

900-624: A large force of indigenous warriors and founded Santiago in 1541. He extended Spanish rule south to the Biobío River in 1546, fought again in Peru (1546–1548), and returned to Chile as governor in 1549. He began to colonize Chile south of the Biobío and founded Concepción in 1550. He was captured and killed by Mapuche Indians during the Arauco War in 1553. The city of Valdivia in Chile

1000-474: A machi sacrificed a young boy, throwing him into the water after an earthquake and a tsunami . The Mapuche have incorporated the remembered history of their long independence and resistance from 1540 (Spanish and then Chileans and Argentines) and of the treaty with the Chilean and Argentine governments in the 1870s. Memories, stories, and beliefs, often very local and particularized, are a significant part of

1100-514: A naval expedition consisting of the barks San Pedro and Santiaguillo , under the command of Juan Bautista Pastene , to reconnoiter the southwestern coast of South America, ordering him to reach the Strait of Magellan . The expedition set sail from Valparaíso and although Pastene did not reach this goal, he explored much of the coast. He entered the bay of San Pedro , and made landings at what are now known as Concepción and at Valdivia , which

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1200-430: A plethora of seeds for planting, a drove of swine and brood mares, and almost a thousand native warriors, but few Spaniards. Only one woman was among the travelers, Inés de Suárez , Valdivia's mistress. En route more Spaniards joined the expedition, attracted by Valdivia's fame as a brilliant leader. These conquistadores had formed part of the failed campaigns to the highlands of Bolivia; together around 150 Spaniards joined

1300-411: A special sign of distinction carried by tribal chiefs. Many kinds of clubs are known. This is an object associated with masculine power. It consists of a disk with an attached handle; the edge of the disc usually has a semicircular recess. In many cases, the face portrayed on the disc carries incised designs. The handle is cylindrical, generally with a larger diameter at its connection to the disk. In

1400-736: A writing system. Since that time, a writing system for Mapudungun was developed, and Mapuche writings in both Spanish and Mapudungun have flourished. Contemporary Mapuche literature can be said to be composed of an oral tradition and Spanish-Mapudungun bilingual writings. Notable Mapuche poets include Sebastián Queupul, Pedro Alonzo, Elicura Chihuailaf , and Leonel Lienlaf. Among the Mapuche in La Araucanía, in addition to heterosexual female machi shamanesses, there are homosexual male machi weye shamans, who wear female clothing. These machi weye were first described in Spanish in

1500-821: A young man, and a young woman. They believe in worlds known as the Wenu Mapu and Minche Mapu . Also, Mapuche cosmology is informed by complex notions of spirits that coexist with humans and animals in the natural world, and daily circumstances can dictate spiritual practices. The most well-known Mapuche ritual ceremony is the Ngillatun , which loosely translates as "to pray" or "general prayer". These ceremonies are often major communal events that are of extreme spiritual and social importance. Many other ceremonies are practiced, and not all are for public or communal participation but are sometimes limited to family. The main groups of deities and/or spirits in Mapuche mythology are

1600-651: Is twinned with: Pedro de Valdivia Pedro Gutiérrez de Valdivia or Valdiva ( Spanish pronunciation: [ˈpeðɾo ðe βalˈdiβja] ; April 17, 1497 – December 25, 1553 ) was a Spanish conquistador and the first royal governor of Chile . After serving with the Spanish army in Italy and Flanders , he was sent to South America in 1534, where he served as lieutenant under Francisco Pizarro in Peru , acting as his second in command. In 1540, Valdivia led an expedition of 150 Spaniards into Chile, where he defeated

1700-544: Is directly elected every four years. The 2012-2016 alcalde was Cristian Galleguillos Vega. Within the electoral divisions of Chile , Coquimbo is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Pedro Velásquez ( Ind. ) and Matías Walker ( PDC ) as part of the 8th electoral district, (together with Ovalle and Río Hurtado ). The commune is represented in the Senate by Gonzalo Uriarte ( UDI ) and Jorge Pizarro Soto ( PDC ) as part of

1800-826: Is named after him. Pedro de Valdivia is believed to have been born in Villanueva de la Serena (some say Castuera ) in Extremadura , Spain around 1500 (some sources put his date of birth as early as 1497 or as late as 1505) to an impoverished hidalgo family. In 1520 a civil war broke out in Castile, the Revolt of the Comuneros , and Valdivia joined the army of Spanish king Charles I . He later fought in Flanders in 1521 and Italy between 1522 and 1527, participating in

1900-527: Is the Mapuche heartland. The Mapuche population between Itata River and Reloncaví Sound has been estimated at 705,000–900,000 in the mid-sixteenth century by historian José Bengoa . The Spanish expansion into Mapuche territory was an offshoot of the conquest of Peru . In 1536, Diego de Almagro set out to conquer Chile, after crossing the Itata River they were intercepted by a numerous contingent of Araucanian Mapuche armed with many bows and pikes in

2000-613: Is used both to refer collectively to the Picunche, Huilliche, and Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía , at other times, exclusively to the Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía. However, Mapuche is a relatively recent endonym meaning "People of the Earth" or "Children of the Land", with mapu meaning "earth" or "land", and che meaning "person". It is preferred as a term when referring to

2100-665: The Pillan and Wangulen (ancestral spirits), the Ngen (spirits in nature), and the wekufe (evil spirits). Central to Mapuche belief is the role of the machi (shaman). It is usually filled by a woman, following an apprenticeship with an older machi, and has many of the characteristics typical of shamans . The machi performs ceremonies for curing diseases, warding off evil, influencing weather, harvests, social interactions, and dreamwork . Machis often have extensive knowledge of regional medicinal herbs . As biodiversity in

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2200-481: The Battle of Marihueñu he defeated Governor Villagra and devastated the city. In 1555 Lautaro went to the city of Angol and destroyed it, he also returned to Concepción, rebuilt by the Spanish and destroyed it again. In 1557 Lautaro headed with his army to destroy Santiago, fighting numerous battles with the Spanish along the way, but he and his army were devastated in the Battle of Mataquito . From 1558 to 1598 war

2300-498: The Battle of Quilacura . Realizing that it would be impossible to proceed in such hostile territory with so limited a force, Valdivia wisely elected to return to Santiago shortly thereafter, after finding a site for a new city at what is now Penco and would become the first site of Concepción . Still, Valdivia managed to subdue the country between Santiago and the Maule River . To secure additional aid and confirm his claims to

2400-479: The Battle of Reynogüelén . Discouraged by the ferocity of the Mapuches, and the apparent lack of gold and silver in these lands, Almagro decided its full retreat the following year to Peru. In 1541, Pedro de Valdivia reached Chile from Cuzco and founded Santiago . The northern Mapuche tribes, known as Picunches had recently gained independence from Inca rule, being commanded by Michimalonco , who had defeated

2500-480: The Bio-Bio River in 1550 in which he defeated them but by no means broke their will to resist, a will that grew stronger when the conquistador established settlements in their territory. In spite of the fierce resistance at the Battle of Penco , he founded Concepción on March 3, 1550 . Later he founded the more southern villages of La Imperial , Valdivia , Angol and Villarrica , in 1551 and 1552. After

2600-689: The Cunco lived as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago . In the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries, Mapuche groups migrated eastward into the Andes and Pampas , conquering, fusing and establishing relationships with the Poya and Pehuenche . At about the same time, ethnic groups of the Pampa regions, the Puelche , Ranquel , and northern Aonikenk , made contact with Mapuche groups. The Tehuelche adopted

2700-804: The Inca Empire are reported to have reached the Maule River and had a battle with the Mapuche between the Maule and the Itata Rivers there. The southern border of the Inca Empire is believed by most modern scholars to have been situated between Santiago and the Maipo River , or somewhere between Santiago and the Maule River. Thus the bulk of the Mapuche escaped Inca rule. Through their contact with Incan invaders Mapuches would have for

2800-552: The battle of Las Salinas in 1538; Almagro was defeated and captured. Afterwards Valdivia accompanied Hernando and Gonzalo Pizarro to conquer both the province of Collao and las Charcas in High Peru (currently Bolivia ). As compensation for his help in conquering these lands, he was awarded a silver mine and became a wealthy man. Valdivia had married Marina Ortíz de Gaete in Spain. In Peru he became attached to Inés de Suárez ,

2900-495: The battle of Pavia as part of the troops of the Marquis of Pescara . In May 1527, Valdivia was involved in the sack of Rome as a member of Charles I's mutinous mercenary army. He traveled with Spanish forces to South America in 1535. He was assigned for a year to present-day Venezuela . He was moved to Peru in 1537. There he took part on the side of Hernando Pizarro in his struggle against Diego de Almagro and fought in

3000-771: The military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet to control political dissidents. The law allows prosecutors to withhold evidence from the defense for up to six months and to conceal the identity of witnesses, who may give evidence in court behind screens. Insurgent groups, such as the Coordinadora Arauco Malleco , use multiple tactics with the more extreme occurrences such as the burning of homes, churches, vehicles, structures, and pastures, which at times included causing deaths and threats to specific targets. As of 2005, protesters from Mapuche communities have used these tactics against properties of both multinational forestry corporations and private individuals. In 2010

3100-587: The victory of Xaquixahuana on April 9 of that year. In the battle, Valdivia met Francisco de Carvajal , who just like him had also fought in the Italian Wars , been at the Sack of Rome and helped to defeat Diego de Almagro. Nonetheless, a discontented faction from Chile managed to have him tried in Lima, accused of tyranny, malfeasance of public funds and public immorality. One of the charges levelled against him

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3200-510: The 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute , Coquimbo had 163,036 inhabitants (79,428 men and 83,608 women). Of these, 154,316 (94.7%) lived in urban areas and 8,720 (5.3%) in rural areas. The population grew by 32.8% (40,270 persons) between the 1992 and 2002 censuses. As a commune , Coquimbo is a fourth-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council , headed by an alcalde who

3300-414: The 4th senatorial constituency (Coquimbo Region). The city is an industrial and shipping center. It is growing quickly, registering a 32.8% growth rate from 1992 to 2002. Tourism has started to develop. It is an access point for beach towns to the south, such as Guanaqueros and Tongoy . The port is still important for shipping, especially fruit and copper from mines in the region. Wine is also produced in

3400-653: The Araucanía and the north of Patagonia Argentina were considerable and constituted a vital economic resource for indigenous families. The production of fabrics in the time before European settlement was intended for uses beyond domestic consumption. At present, the fabrics woven by the Mapuche continue to be used for domestic purposes, as well as for gift, sale, or barter. Most Mapuche women and their families now wear garments with foreign designs and tailored with materials of industrial origin, but they continue to weave ponchos, blankets, bands, and belts for regular use. Many of

3500-527: The Argentinean and Chilean states aimed for territorial continuity, and second it remained the sole place for Argentinean livestock to expand and Chilean agriculture to expand. Between 1861 and 1879 Argentina and Chile incorporated several Mapuche territories in Wallmapu. In January 1881, having Chile decisively defeated Peru in the battles of Chorrillos and Miraflores , Chile and Argentina resumed

3600-556: The Chilean countryside has declined due to commercial agriculture and forestry, the dissemination of such knowledge has also declined, but the Mapuche people are reviving it in their communities. Machis have an extensive knowledge of sacred stones and sacred animals. Like many cultures, the Mapuche have a deluge myth ( epeu ) of a major flood in which the world is destroyed and recreated. The myth involves two opposing forces: Kai Kai (water, which brings death through floods) and Tren Tren (dry earth, which brings sunshine). In

3700-482: The Commission for Historical Truth and New Treatments issued a report to defuse tensions calling for drastic changes in Chile's treatment of its indigenous people, more than 80% of whom are Mapuche. The recommendations included the formal recognition of political and "territorial" rights for indigenous peoples, as well as efforts to promote their cultural identities. Though Japanese and Swiss interests are active in

3800-715: The Inca governor Quilicanta. It would be the same Michimalonco who would lead the Picunche resistance against the Spanish between 1541 and 1545. His most famous stain is the Destruction of Santiago . In 1550, Pedro de Valdivia, who aimed to control all of Chile to the Straits of Magellan , campaigned in south-central Chile to conquer more Mapuche territory . Between 1550 and 1553, the Spanish founded several cities in Mapuche lands including Concepción , Valdivia , Imperial , Villarrica , and Angol . The Spanish also established

3900-484: The Mapuche Territory (Wallmapu) left in the hands of Argentina, the loss of land by Mapuches following the occupation caused severe erosion since Mapuches continued to practice a massive livestock herding in limited areas. Land disputes and violent confrontations continue in some Mapuche areas, particularly in the northern sections of the Araucanía region between and around Traiguén and Lumaco . In 2003,

4000-483: The Mapuche frequently laid siege to Spanish settlements in Araucanía . In 1553, the Mapuches held a council at which they resolved to make war. They chose as their " toqui " (wartime chief) a strong man called Caupolicán and as his vice toqui Lautaro , because he had served as an auxiliary to the Spanish cavalry; he created the first Mapuche cavalry corps. With six thousand warriors under his command, Lautaro attacked

4100-533: The Mapuche language and some of their culture, in what came to be called Araucanization , during which Patagonia came under effective Mapuche suzerainty. Mapuche in the Spanish-ruled areas, especially the Picunche , mingled with the Spanish during the colonial period, forming a mestizo population that lost its indigenous identity. But Mapuche society in Araucanía and Patagonia remained independent until

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4200-578: The Mapuche launched many hunger strikes in attempts to effect change in the anti-terrorism legislation. As of 2019, the Chilean government committed human rights abuses against the Mapuche based on Israeli military techniques and surveillance according to the French website Orin21. Oil exploitation and fracking in the Vaca Muerta site in Neuquen, one of the biggest shale-oil and shale-gas deposits in

4300-415: The Mapuche people as Araucanians ( / ˌ æ r ɔː ˈ k eɪ n i ə n z / ARR -aw- KAY -nee-ənz ; Spanish : araucanos ). This term is now considered pejorative by some people. For others, the importance of the term Araucanian lies in the universality of the epic work La Araucana , written by Alonso de Ercilla , and the feats of that people in their long and interminable war against

4400-562: The Mapuche traditional culture. To varying degrees, this history of resistance continues to this day amongst the Mapuche. At the same time, a large majority of Mapuche in Chile identify with the state as Chilean, similar to a large majority in Argentina identifying as Argentines. We Tripantu is the Mapuche New Year celebration. One of the best-known arts of the Mapuche is their textiles . The oldest data on textiles in

4500-565: The Mapuche would unite in larger groupings and elect a toki (meaning "axe" or "axe-bearer") to lead them. Mapuche material culture is known for its textiles and silverwork . At the time of Spanish arrival , the Picunche inhabited the valleys between the Choapa and Itata , Araucanian Mapuche inhabited the valleys between the Itata and Toltén rivers, south of there, the Huilliche and

4600-587: The Marga Marga mines, in the vicinity of Valparaiso. The Spanish imposed slavery on the indigenous population to profit from the mines. On learning of Francisco Pizarro's murder in 1541, Valdivia had himself appointed governor of the territory by the council of the new city, and removed Chile from Peruvian control, acknowledging only the royal authority, an arrangement the Crown found acceptable. Secure now in his own domain, he pushed exploration southward and aided

4700-573: The Natives posed a threat to Spanish authority. This event meant a real setback for the conquest of the Chilean territory. The resistance of the Native people became stronger daily, and as the ship that he had constructed in Aconcagua was also destroyed by the natives, Valdivia sent in 1542 overland to Peru his lieutenant Alonso de Monroy with five followers to seek reinforcements, but, on account of

4800-734: The Spaniards died, save a cleric named Bartolomé Pérez, who was taken prisoner, and a soldier named Bernardo de Pereda. The Mapuche then initiated a general uprising that destroyed all the cities in their homeland south of the Biobío River. In the years following the Battle of Curalaba , a general uprising developed among the Mapuches and Huilliches led to the Destruction of the Seven Cities . The Spanish cities of Angol, Imperial, Osorno , Santa Cruz de Oñez , Valdivia , and Villarrica were either destroyed or abandoned. The city of Castro

4900-590: The Spanish Empire. The name is probably derived from the placename rag ko (Spanish Arauco ), meaning "clayey water". The Quechua word awqa , meaning "rebel, enemy", is probably not the root of araucano . Scholars believe that the various Mapuche groups ( Moluche , Huilliche, Picunche, etc.) called themselves Reche during the early Spanish colonial period, due to what they referred to as their pure native blood, derived from re meaning "pure" and che meaning "people". The name Mapuche

5000-455: The apprentice receives explicit instructions or help from their instructors. Knowledge is transmitted as the fabric is woven, the weaving and transmission of knowledge go together. There is a traditional stone hand club used by the Mapuche which has been called a clava (Spanish for club). It has a long flat body. Another name is clava mere okewa ; in Spanish, it may also be called a clava cefalomorfa . It has some ritual importance as

5100-591: The area. The city has a football team called Coquimbo Unido which plays in the Chilean Primera División B . Their home games are played at the Francisco Sánchez Rumoroso Municipal Stadium , which has a capacity of 17,750 seats. They are nicknamed "Los Piratas", because of the tradition of pirates that arrived to the coasts of Coquimbo. Their biggest rival is Club de Deportes La Serena . Coquimbo

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5200-506: The city of Santiago de la Nueva Extremadura (named after Saint James, Santiago in Spanish, and Valdivia's home region of Extremadura , Spain). The ceremony was held at the foot of the Huelén hill (now known as Santa Lucia hill ). After arriving in Chile, Valdivia and his men worked to restore a positive relationship between the conquistadores and Indians, which had been greatly harmed by Almagro and his merciless ways. At first, Valdivia

5300-574: The conquered territory, Valdivia returned in 1547 to Peru, leaving Francisco de Villagra as governor in his stead. There he tried to gather more resources and men to continue the conquest. When the Gonzalo Pizarro rebellion began in Peru, the insurgents attempted unsuccessfully to win Valdivia to their side. Nonetheless, early in 1548 Valdivia joined the royal army of Viceroy Pedro de la Gasca , and his military experience counted heavily in

5400-549: The conquest of Wallmapu. The conquest of Wallmapu caused numerous Mapuches to be displaced and forced to roam in search of shelter and food. Scholar Pablo Miramán claims the introduction of state education during the Occupation of Wallmapu had detrimental effects on traditional Mapuche education. In the years following the occupation the economy of Araucanía changed from being based on sheep and cattle herding to one based on agriculture and wood extraction . About 70% of

5500-419: The deluge almost all humanity is drowned; the few not drowned survive through cannibalism . At last, only one couple is left. A machi tells them that they must give their only child to the waters, which they do, and this restores order to the world. Part of the Mapuche ritual is prayer and animal sacrifice, required to maintain the cosmic balance. This belief has continued to current times. In 1960, for example,

5600-469: The development of the country by dividing the land among his ablest followers and parceling out the Indians in encomiendas. Chile possessed minerals, but Valdivia definitely subordinated mining to agriculture and stock raising. Still, the colony was not prosperous; gold was scarce and the Araucanians warlike. After an apparent peaceful period the Natives began to resist the invaders. Valdivia marched against

5700-492: The disturbance in that country in consequence of the defeat of El Mozo Almagro by Cristóbal Vaca de Castro , Monroy could not obtain much aid, and returned in September 1543, with only seventy horsemen, also sending by sea a vessel with provisions and ammunition to the port of Aconcagua. In September 1543 new arms, clothes and other equipment arrived from Peru on the ship Santiaguillo ; thanks to these new supplies, Valdivia

5800-585: The economy of Araucanía ( Ngulu Mapu ), the two chief forestry companies are Chilean-owned. In the past, the firms have planted hundreds of thousands of hectares with non-native species such as Monterey pine , Douglas firs , and eucalyptus trees, sometimes replacing native Valdivian forests , although such substitution and replacement is now forgotten. Chile exports wood to the United States, almost all of which comes from this southern region, with an annual value of around $ 600 million. Stand.earth ,

5900-450: The educational system. In recent years, it has started to be taught in rural schools of Bío-Bío, Araucanía, and Los Lagos Regions. Mapuche speakers of Chilean Spanish who also speak Mapudungun tend to use more impersonal pronouns when speaking Spanish. Central to Mapuche cosmology is the idea of a creator called ngenechen , who is embodied in four components: an older man ( fucha/futra/cha chau ), an older woman ( kude/kuse ),

6000-439: The entire town had been destroyed and burned to the ground, animals were killed and the fields and stores were decimated. Only a small amount of property was not destroyed, including a handful of seeds, two sows, one pig and a pair of chickens. Valdivia organized his men into groups to keep watch over the crops and protect the city against attack. For the next two years, there were men always saddled and armed, ready to fight in case

6100-410: The epic poem La Araucana by Alonso de Ercilla . He is also a major character in several historical novels, such as Inés y las raíces de la tierra , by María Correa Morande (1964); Ay Mamá Inés - Crónica Testimonial (1993) by Jorge Guzmán; Arauco: A Novel (2013) , by John Caviglia; and Inés of My Soul ( Spanish : Inés del alma mía ) by Isabel Allende (2006), They sure did something for

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6200-493: The events, the execution of Valdivia was personally ordered by Caupolicán , who had him killed with a lance, and later his head, and those of two of his bravest companions, were put on display. Alonso de Góngora Marmolejo , another contemporary chronicler, writes that Valdivia offered as a ransom for his life the evacuation of all the Spanish settlements in the Mapuche lands and the gift of large herds of animals, but this offer

6300-402: The expedition. Valdivia resolved to avoid the road over the Andes, which had proved fatal to Almagro's army, and set out resolutely through the Atacama Desert . On the way, Sancho de Hoz, seeking sole leadership, tried to murder Valdivia but failed. He was pardoned, but from then on had to accept subordinate status. The natives of the region were not pleased by the return of the Spaniards due to

6400-463: The fabrics are woven for trade, and in many cases, are an important source of income for families. Glazed pots are used to dye the wool. Many Mapuche women continue to weave fabrics according to the customs of their ancestors and transmit their knowledge in the same way: within domestic life, from mother to daughter, and from grandmothers to granddaughters. This form of learning is based on gestural imitation, and only rarely, and when strictly necessary,

6500-399: The famous warrior Caupolicán . Valdivia had earlier captured and presumably made friends with Lautaro , an Araucanian youth who became his groom. Lautaro secretly remained true to his own people and rejoined them to show Caupolicán a means by which Valdivia could be defeated. Toward the end of 1553, the Araucanians under Lautaro revolted and they fell on the over-extended Spanish forces in

6600-450: The first time met people with state organizations . Their contact with the Incas gave them a collective awareness distinguishing between them and the invaders and uniting them into loose geo-political units despite their lack of state organization. At the time of the arrival of the first Spaniards to Chile, the largest indigenous population concentration was in the area spanning from the Itata River to Chiloé Island  – that

6700-414: The fort at Tucapel . The Spanish garrison was unable to withstand the assault and retreated to Purén. Lautaro seized and burned the fort and prepared his army certain that the Spaniards would attempt to retake Tucapel. Valdivia mounted a counter-attack, but he was quickly surrounded. He and his army was massacred by the Mapuches in the Battle of Tucapel . In 1554 Lautaro went to destroy Concepción where in

6800-429: The forts of Arauco , Purén , and Tucapel . Further efforts by the Spanish to gain more territory engaged them in the Arauco War against the Mapuche, a sporadic conflict that lasted nearly 350 years. Hostility towards the conquerors was compounded by the lack of a tradition of forced labor akin to the Inca mit'a among the Mapuche, who largely refused to serve the Spanish. From their establishment in 1550 to 1598,

6900-399: The history of Chile by Alvaro Espinoza . Mapuche The Mapuche ( / m ə ˈ p uː tʃ i / mə- POO -chee , Mapuche and Spanish: [maˈputʃe] ) are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina , including parts of Patagonia . The collective term refers to a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who share

7000-495: The large and widely dispersed quantity of Spanish, Argentine, and Chilean silver coins. Mapuche also made headdresses with coins , which were called trarilonko, etc. Mapuche languages are spoken in Chile and Argentina. The two living branches are Huilliche and Mapudungun . Although not genetically related, lexical influence has been discerned from Quechua . Linguists estimate that only about 200,000 full-fluency speakers remain in Chile. The language receives only token support in

7100-436: The late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century, Mapuche silversmithing activity and artistic diversity reached its climax. All important Mapuche chiefs of the nineteenth century are supposed to have had at least one silversmith. By 1984 Mapuche scholar Carlos Aldunate noted that there were no silversmiths alive among contemporary Mapuches. The Mapuche culture of the sixteenth century had an oral tradition and lacked

7200-423: The late nineteenth century, when Chile occupied Araucanía and Argentina conquered Puelmapu . Since then the Mapuche have become subjects, and later nationals and citizens of the respective states. Today, many Mapuche and Chilean communities are engaged in the so-called Mapuche conflict over land and indigenous rights in both Argentina and Chile. Historically, the Spanish colonizers of South America referred to

7300-766: The later half of the eighteenth century, Mapuche silversmiths began to produce large amounts of silver finery. The surge of silversmithing activity may be related to the 1726 parliament of Negrete that decreased hostilities between Spaniards and Mapuches and allowed trade to increase between colonial Chile and the free Mapuches. In this context of increasing trade Mapuches began in the late eighteenth century to accept payments in silver coins for their products, usually cattle or horses. These coins and silver coins obtained in political negotiations served as raw material for Mapuche metalsmiths ( Mapudungun : rüxafe ). Old Mapuche silver pendants often included unmelted silver coins, something that has helped modern researchers to date

7400-416: The locality was usually transmitted within the family, with mothers, grandmothers, and aunts teaching a girl the skills they had learned from their elders. Women who excelled in the textile arts were highly honored for their accomplishments and contributed economically and culturally to their kinship group. A measure of the importance of weaving is evident in the expectation that a man gives a larger dowry for

7500-488: The maltreatment they had suffered under Almagro. With many promises, Valdivia was able to regain their trust. After a march of five months, and suffering great privations, the expedition arrived at the Copiapo valley. Valdivia officially took possession of the land in the name of the Spanish king. Soon thereafter they continued south and in December 1540, eleven months after they left Cuzco, Valdivia and his expedition reached

7600-794: The nineteenth century, Argentina and Chile experienced a fast territorial expansion. Argentina established a colony at the Falkland Islands in 1820, settled Chubut with Welsh immigrants in 1865 and conquered Formosa, Misiones and Chaco from Paraguay in 1870. Later Argentina would also annex the Puna de Atacama in 1898. Chile on the other hand, established a colony at the Strait of Magellan in 1843, settled Valdivia , Osorno , and Llanquihue with German immigrants , and conquered land from Peru and Bolivia . Later Chile would also annex Easter Island . In this context, Wallmapu began to be conquered by Argentina and Chile due to two reasons. First,

7700-591: The objects. The bulk of the Spanish silver coins originated from mining in Potosí in Upper Peru . The great diversity in silver finery designs is because designs were made to be identified with different reynma (families), lof mapu (lands) as well as specific lonkos and machis . Mapuche silver finery was also subject to changes in fashion albeit designs associated with philosophical and spiritual concepts have not undergone major changes. In

7800-597: The only known witnesses were indigenous fighters captured in subsequent battles. Valdivia was an educated man and wielded the pen as well as the sword. In 1552 Valdivia despatched Captain Jerónimo de Alderete with a narrative of his exploits directly to the king Charles I . His twelve letters, addressed to the king and mostly preserved in the archives of the Indies, are models of a vigorous and fluent style, and of great historical interest. His career and death are treated in

7900-474: The people after the Arauco War. The Mapuche identify by the geography of their territories, such as: Archaeological finds have shown that Mapuche culture existed in Chile and Argentina as early as 600 to 500 BC. Genetically the Mapuche differ from the adjacent indigenous peoples of Patagonia. This suggests a "different origin or long-lasting separation of Mapuche and Patagonian populations". Troops of

8000-443: The relational gender categories of spirit husband and machi wife as a couple ( kurewen )." As concerning "co-gendered identities" of " machi as co-gender specialists", it has been speculated that "female berdaches " may have formerly existed among the Mapuche. Following the independence of Chile in the 1810s, the Mapuche began to be perceived as Chilean by other Chileans, contrasting with previous perceptions of them as

8100-500: The remnant of the garrison. He was ambushed before arriving to his destination and the Battle of Tucapel would be Valdivia's last. As each successive wave of attackers was wiped out or beaten off by the Spaniards, Lautaro sent another, until the entire Spanish company was massacred. The dreaded conquistador was captured still alive along with a priest by the Mapuche . There are many versions of how Valdivia's killing took place. According to Jerónimo de Vivar , an author contemporary with

8200-426: The south. One of the first signs that a big rebellion was building was the attack on the fort at Tucapel, where they managed to destroy the fortress on December 2, 1553. Valdivia was at Concepcion when he received notice of this event, and, believing that he could easily subdue the uprising, he hurried southward, sallying forth with only 40 men to stamp out the rebellion. Near the ruins of the fortress Valdivia gathered

8300-893: The southernmost areas of the American continent (southern Chile and Argentina today) are found in some archaeological excavations, such as those of Pitrén Cemetery near the city of Temuco , and the Alboyanco site in the Biobío Region , both of Chile; and the Rebolledo Arriba Cemetery in Neuquén Province (Argentina). researchers have found evidence of fabrics made with complex techniques and designs, dated between AD 1300–1350. The Mapuche women were responsible for spinning and weaving. Knowledge of both weaving techniques and textile patterns particular to

8400-432: The total Chilean population. The Mapuche are concentrated in the Araucanía region. Many have migrated from rural areas to the cities of Santiago and Buenos Aires for economic opportunities, more than 92% of the Mapuches are from Chile. The Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture; their traditional social organization consists of extended families, under the direction of a lonko or chief. In times of war,

8500-417: The town on 14 May 1835 describing the town as "remarkable for nothing but its extreme quietness." Starting in the mid 1800s tens of thousands of Englishmen moved to Coquimbo establishing a distinct English architectural and culinary legacy. English settlement was fueled by the gold and copper industry in the region which peaked in 1860, the same time as the construction of a large English cemetery. According to

8600-412: The tribes and defeated them at Cachapoal. While away, on September 11, 1541, local people led by Michimalonco attacked Santiago. The defense of the city was led by Pedro's mistress Inés de Suárez . The Spaniards, desperate and willing to fight until death, were able to eventually push the Natives back; Valdivia and his troops made it back just in time to relieve the capital. By the time the battle ended

8700-487: The use of cavalry in war from the Spaniards , along with the cultivation of wheat and sheep . In the 300-year co-existence between the Spanish colonies and the relatively well-delineated autonomous Mapuche regions, the Mapuche also developed a strong tradition of trading with Spaniards, Argentines, and Chileans. Such trade lies at the heart of the Mapuche silver-working tradition, for Mapuche wrought their jewelry from

8800-519: The valley of the Mapocho river, where they established the capital of the territory. The valley was extensive and well populated with natives. Its soil was fertile and there was abundant fresh water. Two high hills provided defensive positions. Soon after their arrival, Valdivia tried to convince the native inhabitants of his good intentions, sending out delegations bearing gifts for the caciques . Finally on February 12, 1541, Valdivia officially founded

8900-606: The world, has produced waste dumps of sludge waste, polluting the environment close to the town of Añelo , which is about 1,200km south of Buenos Aires. In 2018, the Mapuche were suing Exxon, French company TotalEnergies and Pan American Energy . At the time of the arrival of Europeans, the Mapuche organized and constructed a network of forts and defensive buildings. Ancient Mapuche also built ceremonial constructions such as some earthwork mounds discovered near Purén. Mapuche quickly adopted iron metal-working ( Picunches already worked copper ) Mapuche learned horse riding and

9000-413: Was appointed as Lieutenant Governor, rather than Governor as he had wanted. The expedition was fraught with problems from the beginning. Valdivia had to sell the lands and the mine that had been assigned to him in order to finance the expedition. A shortage of soldiers and adventurers was also problematic; the men were not interested in conquering what they believed were extremely poor lands. While Valdivia

9100-423: Was finally appointed as adelantado and won the royal assent to his coveted title of Governor of Chile , returning to the settlement with his position and prestige considerably strengthened. Between 1549 and 1553, after his return to Santiago, Valdivia again undertook the conquest of southern Chile, but faced heavy resistance from the indigenous population. Valdivia had a clash with the warlike Araucanians beyond

9200-426: Was in the position to start the rebuilding of Santiago and to send an expedition, led by Juan Bohón , to explore and populate the northern region of Chile. This expedition founded La Serena halfway between Santiago and the northern Atacama Desert , in the valley of Coquimbo . Valparaíso , though used as a port by the Spaniards from the start, had no considerable population until much later. In 1544 Valdivia sent

9300-541: Was later named in honor of the commander. Encountering severe storms further south, he then returned to Valparaiso. In February 1546 Valdivia himself set out, with sixty horsemen plus native guides and porters, and crossed the Itata River . He arrived as far as the Bío-Bío River where he intended to further efforts at colonization by founding another town. However, Mapuche warriors defended their territory at

9400-488: Was made from Valdivia's skull. The warriors ran around the corpse, brandishing their lances and uttering cries, while the rest of the assembly stamped with their feet. Another contemporary chronicler, Pedro Mariño de Lobera , wrote that Valdivia offered to evacuate the lands of the Mapuche but says he was shortly thereafter killed with a large club by a vengeful warrior named Pilmaiquen , who said that Valdivia could not be trusted to keep his word once freed. Lobera says that

9500-595: Was mostly a low-intensity conflict . Mapuche numbers decreased significantly following contact with the Spanish invaders; wars and epidemics decimated the population. Others died in Spanish-owned gold mines. In 1598 a party of warriors from Purén led by Pelantaro , who were returning south from a raid in the Chillán area, ambushed Governor Martín García Óñez de Loyola and his troops while they rested without taking any precautions against attack. Almost all

9600-464: Was preparing the expedition, Pedro Sánchez de la Hoz arrived from Spain with a royal grant for the same territory. To avoid difficulties, Pizarro advised the two competitors to join their interests, and on December 28, 1539, they signed a contract of partnership. The small expedition finally left Cuzco , Peru in January 1540, with Pizarro's permission and Pedro Sancho de Hoz as partner. They carried

9700-422: Was rejected. The Mapuche first cut off his forearms and roasted and ate them in front of him before killing him and his accompanying priest. Alonso de Ercilla reports that Valdivia was killed with the blow of a club, and then with a knife a warrior cut open his breast and ripped out his heart, which was then handed to the toqui, who sucked its blood; the heart was passed around from one to another. A drinking cup

9800-486: Was successful in his efforts, but this peaceful coexistence did not last long. One of the first orders that Valdivia gave was to have a ship constructed at the mouth of the Aconcagua River to send to Peru for further supplies and to serve as a courier service. He then had to return in haste to Santiago to subdue a mutiny. The Spaniards' greed surfaced and overshadowed previous intentions when rumors of gold arose at

9900-590: Was taken by a Dutch-Mapuche alliance in 1599, but reconquered by the Spanish in 1600. Only Chillán and Concepción resisted Mapuche sieges and raids. Except for the Chiloé Archipelago , all Chilean territory south of the Bíobío River was freed from Spanish rule. In this period the Mapuche Nation crossed the Andes to conquer the present Argentine provinces of Chubut, Neuquen, La Pampa, and Río Negro. In

10000-536: Was that he, being married, openly lived with Inés de Suárez "...in the manner of man and wife and they sleep in one bed and they eat in one dish..." . In exchange for being freed, and for his confirmation as Royal Governor, he agreed to relinquish her and to bring to Chile his wife, Marina Ortíz de Gaete , who only arrived after Valdivia's death in 1554. He was also ordered to marry Inés off, which he did, upon his return to Chile in 1549, to one of his captains, Rodrigo de Quiroga . As recognition for his services Valdivia

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