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107-607: Cabbage , comprising several cultivars of Brassica oleracea , is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green) biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage ( B. oleracea var. oleracea ), and belongs to the " cole crops " or brassicas, meaning it is closely related to broccoli and cauliflower (var. botrytis ); Brussels sprouts (var. gemmifera ); and Savoy cabbage (var. sabauda ). A cabbage generally weighs between 500 and 1,000 grams (1 and 2 lb). Smooth-leafed, firm-headed green cabbages are

214-540: A pH between 6.0 and 6.8. For optimal growth, there must be adequate levels of nitrogen in the soil, especially during the early head formation stage, and sufficient phosphorus and potassium during the early stages of expansion of the outer leaves. Temperatures between 4 and 24 °C (39 and 75 °F) prompt the best growth, and extended periods of higher or lower temperatures may result in premature bolting (flowering). Flowering induced by periods of low temperatures (a process called vernalization ) only occurs if

321-560: A superior ovary that is two-celled and contains a single stigma and style . Two of the six stamens have shorter filaments. The fruit is a silique that opens at maturity through dehiscence to reveal brown or black seeds that are small and round in shape. Self-pollination is impossible, and plants are cross-pollinated by insects. The initial leaves form a rosette shape comprising 7 to 15 leaves, each measuring 25–35 cm (10–14 in) by 20–30 cm (8–12 in); after this, leaves with shorter petioles develop and heads form through

428-424: A "true" cultivar name – the recognized scientific name in the public domain – and a "commercial synonym" – an additional marketing name that is legally protected. An example would be Rosa Fascination = 'Poulmax', in which Rosa is the genus, Fascination is the trade designation, and 'Poulmax' is scientific cultivar name. Because a name that is attractive in one language may have less appeal in another country,

535-654: A Mediterranean origin of cultivated brassicas. While unidentified brassicas were part of the highly conservative unchanging Mesopotamian garden repertory, it is believed that the ancient Egyptians did not cultivate cabbage, which is not native to the Nile valley, though the word shaw't in Papyrus Harris of the time of Ramesses III has been interpreted as "cabbage". The ancient Greeks had some varieties of cabbage, as mentioned by Theophrastus , although whether they were more closely related to today's cabbage or to one of

642-476: A balance between carbon and nitrogen metabolism to be established. The general zones of the primary root ( taproot ) that gives rise to eventual lateral roots are presented below from top to bottom. The most mature and developed tissue is found near the top, while the newly dividing cells are found near the bottom. Maturation Zone : Cells in this stage have developed differentiated characteristics and have completed maturation and elongation. The xylem system

749-424: A component of a cultigen can be accepted as a cultivar if it is recognisable and has stable characters. Therefore, all cultivars are cultigens, because they are cultivated, but not all cultigens are cultivars, because some cultigens have not been formally distinguished and named as cultivars. The Cultivated Plant Code notes that the word cultivar is used in two different senses: first, as a "classification category"

856-414: A compound associated with goiter formation when iodine intake is deficient. The characteristic flavor of cabbage is caused by glucosinolates , a class of sulfur -containing glucosides . Although found throughout the plant, these compounds are concentrated in the highest quantities in the seeds; lesser quantities are found in young vegetative tissue, and they decrease as the tissue ages. Cooked cabbage

963-436: A constant state of development which makes the naming of such an assemblage as a cultivar a futile exercise." However, retired transgenic varieties such as the fish tomato , which are no longer being developed, do not run into this obstacle and can be given a cultivar name. Cultivars may be selected because of a change in the ploidy level of a plant which may produce more desirable characteristics. Every unique cultivar has

1070-796: A cultivar. Some cultivars "come true from seed", retaining their distinguishing characteristics when grown from seed. Such plants are termed a "variety", "selection", or "strain" but these are ambiguous and confusing words that are best avoided. In general, asexually propagated cultivars grown from seeds produce highly variable seedling plants, and should not be labelled with, or sold under, the parent cultivar's name. Seed-raised cultivars may be produced by uncontrolled pollination when characteristics that are distinct, uniform and stable are passed from parents to progeny. Some are produced as "lines" that are produced by repeated self-fertilization or inbreeding or "multilines" that are made up of several closely related lines. Sometimes they are F1 hybrids which are

1177-802: A database of new cultivars protected by PBR in all countries. An International Cultivar Registration Authority (ICRA) is a voluntary, non-statutory organization appointed by the Commission for Nomenclature and Cultivar Registration of the International Society of Horticultural Science. ICRAs are generally formed by societies and institutions specializing in particular plant genera such as Dahlia or Rhododendron and are currently located in Europe, North America, China, India, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Puerto Rico. Each ICRA produces an annual report and its reappointment

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1284-438: A familiar staple of the poor: in the lean year of 1420 the "Bourgeois of Paris" noted that "poor people ate no bread, nothing but cabbages and turnips and such dishes, without any bread or salt". French naturalist Jean Ruel made what is considered the first explicit mention of head cabbage in his 1536 botanical treatise De Natura Stirpium , referring to it as capucos coles ("head-coles"). In Istanbul, Sultan Selim III penned

1391-665: A few millimeters across that are often grouped around the midrib. In pepper spot, tiny black spots occur on the areas between the veins, which can increase during storage. Fungal diseases include wirestem , which causes weak or dying transplants; Fusarium yellows , which result in stunted and twisted plants with yellow leaves; and blackleg (see Leptosphaeria maculans ), which leads to sunken areas on stems and gray-brown spotted leaves. The fungi Alternaria brassicae and A. brassicicola cause dark leaf spots in affected plants. They are both seedborne and airborne, and typically propagate from spores in infected plant debris left on

1498-582: A modern vernacular language to distinguish them from botanical epithets. For example, the full cultivar name of the King Edward potato is Solanum tuberosum 'King Edward'. 'King Edward' is the cultivar epithet, which, according to the Rules of the Cultivated Plant Code , is bounded by single quotation marks. For patented or trademarked plant product lines developed from a given cultivar,

1605-413: A name, the first letter of the word "Group" is itself capitalized. Since the 1990s there has been an increasing use of legal protection for newly produced cultivars. Plant breeders expect legal protection for the cultivars they produce. According to proponents of such protections, if other growers can immediately propagate and sell these cultivars as soon as they come on the market, the breeder's benefit

1712-499: A particular disease. Genetically modified plants with characteristics resulting from the deliberate implantation of genetic material from a different germplasm may form a cultivar. However, the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants notes, "In practice such an assemblage is often marketed from one or more lines or multilines that have been genetically modified. These lines or multilines often remain in

1819-595: A particular part of the plant, such as a lateral branch, or from a particular phase of the life cycle, such as a juvenile leaf, or from aberrant growth as occurs with witch's broom . Plants whose distinctive characters are derived from the presence of an intracellular organism may also form a cultivar provided the characters are reproduced reliably from generation to generation. Plants of the same chimera (which have mutant tissues close to normal tissue) or graft-chimeras (which have vegetative tissue from different kinds of plants and which originate by grafting) may also constitute

1926-538: A plant may be given different selling names from country to country. Quoting the original cultivar name allows the correct identification of cultivars around the world. The main body coordinating plant breeders' rights is the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants ( Union internationale pour la protection des obtentions végétales , UPOV) and this organization maintains

2033-834: A role in maintaining and developing the meristematic tissue of the root, and can often have an antagonistic relationship with auxin in root development. Auxin Signaling In a research study of auxin transport in Arabidopsis thaliana, auxin was found to be a critical plant hormone in the formation of lateral roots. In Stage I of early morphological stages, the division of pairs of pericycle founder cells were found in groups of eight or 10, suggesting that before this initial morphological stage, transverse divisions must be conducted first to precede lateral root initiation. A specific auxin transport inhibitor, N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) causes indoleacetic acid (IAA) accumulation in

2140-451: A second year and must be kept separate from other cole crops to prevent cross-pollination . Cabbage is prone to several nutrient deficiencies , as well as to multiple pests , and bacterial and fungal diseases. Cabbage was most likely domesticated somewhere in Europe in ancient history before 1000 BC. Cabbage use in cuisine has been documented since Antiquity . It was described as

2247-604: A table luxury in the Roman Empire . By the Middle Ages , cabbage had become a prominent part of European cuisine , as indicated by manuscript illuminations . New variates were introduced from the Renaissance on, mostly by Germanic-speaking peoples . Savoy cabbage was developed in the 16th century. By the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was popularised as staple food in central, northern, and Eastern Europe. It

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2354-490: A table luxury, although Lucullus considered it unfit for the senatorial table. The more traditionalist Cato the Elder , espousing a simple Republican life, ate his cabbage cooked or raw and dressed with vinegar; he said it surpassed all other vegetables, and approvingly distinguished three varieties; he also gave directions for its medicinal use, which extended to the cabbage-eater's urine, in which infants might be rinsed. Pliny

2461-535: A tongue-in-cheek ode to cabbage: without cabbage, the halva feast was not complete. In India, cabbage was one of several vegetable crops introduced by colonizing traders from Portugal, who established trade routes from the 14th to 17th centuries. Carl Peter Thunberg reported that cabbage was not yet known in Japan in 1775. Many cabbage varieties—including some still commonly grown—were introduced in Germany, France, and

2568-462: A unique name within its denomination class (which is almost always the genus). Names of cultivars are regulated by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants , and may be registered with an International Cultivar Registration Authority (ICRA). There are sometimes separate registration authorities for different plant types such as roses and camellias. In addition, cultivars may be associated with commercial marketing names referred to in

2675-657: A vernacular language. From circa the 1900s, cultivated plants in Europe were recognised in the Scandinavian, Germanic, and Slavic literature as stamm or sorte , but these words could not be used internationally because, by international agreement, any new denominations had to be in Latin. In the twentieth century an improved international nomenclature was proposed for cultivated plants. Liberty Hyde Bailey of Cornell University in New York , United States created

2782-404: A wide variety of other vegetables and pulses . Chrysippus of Cnidos wrote a treatise on cabbage, which Pliny knew, but it has not survived. The Greeks were convinced that cabbages and grapevines were inimical, and that cabbage planted too near the vine would impart its unwelcome odor to the grapes; this Mediterranean sense of antipathy survives today. Brassica was considered by some Romans

2889-409: Is capitalized (with some permitted exceptions such as conjunctions). It is permissible to place a cultivar epithet after a common name provided the common name is botanically unambiguous. Cultivar epithets published before 1 January 1959 were often given a Latin form and can be readily confused with the specific epithets in botanical names; after that date, newly coined cultivar epithets must be in

2996-594: Is a common pest of cabbage plants. The mustard leaf beetle will often choose to feed on cabbage over their natural host plants as cabbage is more abundant in palatable compounds such as glucosinolates that encourage higher consumption. The cabbage looper ( Trichoplusia ni ) is infamous in North America for its voracious appetite and for producing frass that contaminates plants. In India, the diamondback moth has caused losses up to 90 percent in crops that were not treated with insecticide. Destructive soil insects such as

3103-468: Is a kind of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and which retains those traits when propagated . Methods used to propagate cultivars include division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting , tissue culture , or carefully controlled seed production. Most cultivars arise from deliberate human manipulation , but some originate from wild plants that have distinctive characteristics. Cultivar names are chosen according to rules of

3210-454: Is a rich source of vitamin K , vitamin C , and dietary fiber . World production of cabbage and other brassicas in 2020 was 71 million tonnes , led by China with 48% of the total. Cabbage seedlings have a thin taproot and cordate (heart-shaped) cotyledons . The first leaves produced are ovate (egg-shaped) with a lobed petiole . Plants are 40–60 centimetres ( 15 + 1 ⁄ 2 – 23 + 1 ⁄ 2 inches) tall in their first year at

3317-529: Is any plant that is deliberately selected for or altered in cultivation, as opposed to an indigen ; the Cultivated Plant Code states that cultigens are "maintained as recognisable entities solely by continued propagation". Cultigens can have names at any of many taxonomic ranks, including those of grex , species , cultivar group , variety , form , and cultivar; and they may be plants that have been altered in cultivation, including by genetic modification , but have not been formally denominated. A cultigen or

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3424-444: Is considered every four years. The main task is to maintain a register of the names within the group of interest and where possible this is published and placed in the public domain. One major aim is to prevent the duplication of cultivar and Group epithets within a genus, as well as ensuring that names are in accord with the latest edition of the Cultivated Plant Code . In this way, over the last 50 years or so, ICRAs have contributed to

3531-419: Is consistent with feral origin of this population, deriving from plants escaped from field and gardens. According to the triangle of U theory of the evolution and relationships between Brassica species, B. oleracea and other closely related kale vegetables (cabbages, kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower) represent one of three ancestral lines from which all other brassicas originated. Cabbage

3638-445: Is initiated in pericycle (located between the endodermis and vascular tissue) of the root system, and begins with a process referred to as priming . In this stage, you have rhythmic bouts of gene expression and responses to auxin. If sufficient signaling is present, pre-branching sites are developed in basal portions of meristematic tissue that are stable in the presence of high auxin environments. These pre-branching sites go on to form

3745-404: Is largely lost. Legal protection for cultivars is obtained through the use of Plant breeders' rights and plant Patents but the specific legislation and procedures needed to take advantage of this protection vary from country to country. The use of legal protection for cultivars can be controversial, particularly for food crops that are staples in developing countries, or for plants selected from

3852-411: Is little to no differentiation present. Root Cap : Protective layer of cells that covers the meristematic tissue. The cells in this part of the root have been seen to play a critical role in gravitropic response and releasing secretions to mobilize nutrients. The following description is for early events in lateral root formation of the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana : Lateral root formation

3959-555: Is often criticized for its pungent, unpleasant odor and taste. These develop when cabbage is overcooked and hydrogen sulfide gas is produced. Cabbage consumption varies widely around the world: Russia has the highest annual per capita consumption at 20 kg (44 lb), followed by Belgium at 4.7 kg (10 lb 6 oz) and the Netherlands at 4.0 kg (8 lb 13 oz). Americans consume 3.9 kg (8.6 lb) annually per capita. Cultivar A cultivar

4066-486: Is produced. Excessive consumption of cabbage may lead to increased intestinal gas which causes bloating and flatulence due to the trisaccharide raffinose , which the human small intestine cannot digest , but is digested by bacteria in the large intestine. Cabbage has been linked to outbreaks of some food-borne illnesses , including Listeria monocytogenes and Clostridium botulinum . The latter toxin has been traced to pre-made, packaged coleslaw mixes, while

4173-424: Is seen to develop in this zone along with lateral root development. Elongation Zone : Cells in this stage are rapidly elongating and parts of the phloem system (sieve tubes) start to develop. As you move up closer to the maturation zone, cell division and, elongation decrease. Meristematic Zone : Right above the root cap and contains the "stem cells" of the plant. In this zone, cells are dividing quickly and there

4280-432: Is simply a matter of convenience as the category was created to serve the practical needs of horticulture , agriculture , and forestry . Members of a particular cultivar are not necessarily genetically identical. The Cultivated Plant Code emphasizes that different cultivated plants may be accepted as different cultivars, even if they have the same genome, while cultivated plants with different genomes may be regarded as

4387-424: Is the sense of cultivar that is most generally understood and which is used as a general definition. A cultivar is an assemblage of plants that (a) has been selected for a particular character or combination of characters, (b) is distinct, uniform and stable in those characters, and (c) when propagated by appropriate means, retains those characters. Which plants are chosen to be named as cultivars

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4494-440: Is to replace the Latin scientific names on plant labels in retail outlets with appealing marketing names that are easy to use, pronounce, and remember. Marketing names lie outside the scope of the Cultivated Plant Code which refers to them as "trade designations". If a retailer or wholesaler has the sole legal rights to a marketing name then that may offer a sales advantage. Plants protected by plant breeders' rights (PBR) may have

4601-402: The Cultivated Plant Code as "trade designations" (see below). A cultivar name consists of a botanical name (of a genus, species , infraspecific taxon , interspecific hybrid or intergeneric hybrid) followed by a cultivar epithet . The cultivar epithet is enclosed by single quotes; it should not be italicized if the botanical name is italicized; and each of the words within the epithet

4708-417: The Cultivated Plant Code . Each ICRA also ensures that new names are formally established (i.e. published in hard copy, with a description in a dated publication). They record details about the plant, such as parentage, the names of those concerned with its development and introduction, and a basic description highlighting its distinctive characters. ICRAs are not responsible for assessing the distinctiveness of

4815-495: The International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP), and not all cultivated plants qualify as cultivars. Horticulturists generally believe the word cultivar was coined as a term meaning " cultivated variety ". Popular ornamental plants like roses , camellias , daffodils , rhododendrons , and azaleas are commonly cultivars produced by breeding and selection or as sports , for floral colour or size, plant form, or other desirable characteristics. Similarly,

4922-604: The Latin names in Linnaeus ' (1707–1778) Species Plantarum (tenth edition) and Genera Plantarum (fifth edition). In Species Plantarum , Linnaeus enumerated all plants known to him, either directly or from his extensive reading. He recognised the rank of varietas (botanical "variety", a rank below that of species and subspecies ) and he indicated these varieties with letters of the Greek alphabet , such as α, β, and λ, before

5029-475: The Low Countries . During the 16th century, German gardeners developed the savoy cabbage . During the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was a food staple in such countries as Germany, England, Ireland and Russia, and pickled cabbage was frequently eaten. Sauerkraut was used by Dutch, Scandinavian and German sailors to prevent scurvy during long ship voyages. Jacques Cartier first brought cabbage to

5136-514: The cultigen , which is defined as a plant whose origin or selection is primarily due to intentional human activity. A cultivar is not the same as a botanical variety , which is a taxonomic rank below subspecies , and there are differences in the rules for creating and using the names of botanical varieties and cultivars. In recent times, the naming of cultivars has been complicated by the use of statutory patents for plants and recognition of plant breeders' rights . The International Union for

5243-415: The etymology and it has been suggested that the word is actually a blend of culti gen and var iety . The neologism cultivar was promoted as "euphonious" and "free from ambiguity". The first Cultivated Plant Code of 1953 subsequently commended its use, and by 1960 it had achieved common international acceptance. The words cultigen and cultivar may be confused with each other. A cultigen

5350-406: The pericycle founder cells after they are stable and have high auxin accumulations . In some cases, the activation of auxin biosynthesis takes place in these founder cells to reach a stable threshold. The number of lateral roots corresponds to the number of xylem bundles, and two lateral roots will never be found directly across from one another on the primary root. Signaling is important for

5457-587: The "small cabbage white butterfly" ( Pieris rapae ), commonly known in the United States as the "imported cabbage worm", is a major cabbage pest in most countries. The large white butterfly ( Pieris brassicae ) is prevalent in eastern European countries. The diamondback moth ( Plutella xylostella ) and the cabbage moth ( Mamestra brassicae ) thrive in the higher summer temperatures of continental Europe, where they cause considerable damage to cabbage crops. The mustard leaf beetle ( Phaedon cochleariae ),

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5564-869: The 17th century. At the end of Antiquity cabbage is mentioned in De observatione ciborum ("On the Observance of Foods") by Anthimus , a Greek doctor at the court of Theodoric the Great . Cabbage appears among vegetables directed to be cultivated in the Capitulare de villis , composed in 771–800 AD, that guided the governance of the royal estates of Charlemagne . In Britain, the Anglo-Saxons cultivated cawel . When round-headed cabbages appeared in 14th-century England they were called cabaches and caboches , words drawn from Old French and applied at first to refer to

5671-632: The 1830s and was frequently seen at the Sydney Markets . In Brno , Czech Republic there is an open-air market named after cabbage which has been in operation since 1325, the Zelný trh . Cabbage is generally grown for its densely leaved heads, produced during the first year of its biennial cycle. Plants perform best when grown in well-drained soil in a location that receives full sun. Different varieties prefer different soil types, ranging from lighter sand to heavier clay, but all prefer fertile ground with

5778-457: The 1995 edition, it is still widely used and recommended by other authorities. Where several very similar cultivars exist they can be associated into a Group (formerly Cultivar-group ). As Group names are used with cultivar names it is necessary to understand their way of presentation. Group names are presented in normal type and the first letter of each word capitalised as for cultivars, but they are not placed in single quotes. When used in

5885-550: The Americas in 1541–42, and it was probably planted by the early English colonists, despite the lack of written evidence of its existence there until the mid-17th century. By the 18th century, it was commonly planted by both colonists and native American Indians . Cabbage seeds traveled to Australia in 1788 with the First Fleet , and were planted the same year on Norfolk Island . It became a favorite vegetable of Australians by

5992-730: The Elder listed seven varieties, including Pompeii cabbage, Cumae cabbage and Sabellian cabbage. According to Pliny, the Pompeii cabbage, which could not stand cold, is "taller, and has a thick stock near the root, but grows thicker between the leaves, these being scantier and narrower, but their tenderness is a valuable quality". The Pompeii cabbage was also mentioned by Columella in De Re Rustica . Apicius gives several recipes for cauliculi , tender cabbage shoots. The Greeks and Romans claimed medicinal usages for their cabbage varieties that included relief from gout , headaches and

6099-443: The Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV – French : Union internationale pour la protection des obtentions végétales ) offers legal protection of plant cultivars to persons or organisations that introduce new cultivars to commerce. UPOV requires that a cultivar be "distinct", "uniform", and "stable". To be "distinct", it must have characters that easily distinguish it from any other known cultivar. To be "uniform" and "stable",

6206-555: The ball of unopened leaves, the contemporaneous recipe that commences "Take cabbages and quarter them, and seethe them in good broth", also suggests the tightly headed cabbage. Manuscript illuminations show the prominence of cabbage in the cuisine of the High Middle Ages , and cabbage seeds feature among the seed list of purchases for the use of King John II of France when captive in England in 1360, but cabbages were also

6313-473: The botanical variety except in respect to its origin. In that essay, Bailey used only the rank of species for the cultigen, but it was obvious to him that many domesticated plants were more like botanical varieties than species, and that realization appears to have motivated the suggestion of the new category of cultivar . Bailey created the word cultivar . It is generally assumed to be a blend of culti vated and var iety but Bailey never explicitly stated

6420-603: The cabbage head has been given importance in selective breeding, with varieties being chosen for shape, color, firmness and other physical characteristics. Breeding objectives are now focused on increasing resistance to various insects and diseases and improving the nutritional content of cabbage. Scientific research into the genetic modification of B. oleracea crops, including cabbage, has included European Union and United States explorations of greater insect and herbicide resistance. There are several Guinness Book of World Records entries related to cabbage. These include

6527-400: The cabbage root fly ( Delia radicum ) has larvae can burrow into the part of plant consumed by humans. Planting near other members of the cabbage family, or where these plants have been placed in previous years, can prompt the spread of pests and disease. Excessive water and excessive heat can also cause cultivation problems. Factors that contribute to reduced head weight include: growth in

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6634-450: The center of the root cap. Lateral root cells then absorb the phytohormone through AUX1 permease. PIN proteins recirculate the auxin upwards to the plant shoots for direct access to the zone of elongation. Once utilized there, the proteins are then shuttled back to the lateral roots and their corresponding root caps. This entire process is known as the foundation model. In Arabidopsis thaliana , PIN proteins are localized in cells based on

6741-421: The commercial product name is typically indicated by the symbols "TM" or "®", or is presented in capital letters with no quotation marks, following the cultivar name, as in the following example, where "Bloomerang" is the commercial name and 'Penda' is the cultivar epithet: Syringa 'Penda' BLOOMERANG. Although "cv." has not been permitted by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants since

6848-429: The compacted soils that result from no-till farming practices, drought, waterlogging , insect and disease incidence, and shading and nutrient stress caused by weeds. In 2020, world production of cabbages (combined with other brassicas) was 71 million tonnes , led by China with 48% of the world total (table). Other substantial producers were India, Russia, and South Korea. When overcooked, toxic hydrogen sulfide gas

6955-496: The cultivar is defined in Article 2 of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (2009, 8th edition) as follows: The basic category of cultivated plants whose nomenclature is governed by this Code is the cultivar. There are two other classification categories for cultigens, the grex and the group . The Code then defines a cultivar as a "taxonomic unit within the classification category of cultivar". This

7062-480: The cultivar must retain these characters in repeated propagation. The naming of cultivars is an important aspect of cultivated plant taxonomy , and the correct naming of a cultivar is prescribed by the Rules and Recommendations of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP, commonly denominated the Cultivated Plant Code ). A cultivar is given a cultivar name, which consists of

7169-440: The growing, harvesting and packaging processes. Contaminants from water, humans, animals and soil have the potential to be transferred to cabbage, and from there to the end consumer. Whilst not a toxic vegetable in its natural state, an increase in intestinal gas can lead to the death of many small animals like rabbits due to gastrointestinal stasis. Cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables contain small amounts of thiocyanate ,

7276-406: The heaviest cabbage, at 62.71 kg (138 lb 4 oz), heaviest red cabbage, at 31.6 kilograms (69 lb 11 oz), longest cabbage roll , at 19.54 m (64 ft), and the largest cabbage dish, at 2,960 kg (6,526 lb). Cabbage ( Brassica oleracea or B. oleracea var. capitata , var. tuba , var. sabauda or var. acephala ) is a member of the genus Brassica and

7383-419: The hormone to exit cells, PIN-FORMEDs ( PINs ) were established, as well as ATP-binding cassette Bs (ABCBs)/P-glycoproteins (PGPs). PIN proteins steer auxin to areas of necessity throughout the plant. These proteins present in the apical meristem of the plant direct auxin downward through the plant, a process independent of gravity. Once in the vicinity of the root, vascular cylinder cells shuttle auxin towards

7490-417: The last. Due to its high level of nutrient requirements, cabbage is prone to nutrient deficiencies , including boron , calcium , phosphorus and potassium . There are several physiological disorders that can affect the postharvest appearance of cabbage. Internal tip burn occurs when the margins of inside leaves turn brown, but the outer leaves look normal. Necrotic spot is where there are oval sunken spots

7597-508: The leaves cupping inward. Many shapes, colors and leaf textures are found in various cultivated varieties of cabbage. Leaf types are generally divided between crinkled-leaf, loose-head savoys and smooth-leaf firm-head cabbages, while the color spectrum includes white and a range of greens and purples. Oblate, round and pointed shapes are found. Cabbage has been selectively bred for head weight and morphological characteristics, frost hardiness, fast growth and storage ability. The appearance of

7704-476: The mature vegetative stage, and 1.5–2 metres (5– 6 + 1 ⁄ 2 feet) tall when flowering in the second year. Heads average between 0.5 and 4 kilograms (1 and 8 pounds), with fast-growing, earlier-maturing varieties producing smaller heads. Most cabbages have thick, alternating leaves, with margins that range from wavy or lobed to highly dissected; some varieties have a waxy bloom on the leaves. Plants have root systems that are fibrous and shallow. About 90% of

7811-454: The most common, with smooth-leafed purple cabbages and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colours being rarer. Under conditions of long sunny days, such as those found at high northern latitudes in summer, cabbages can grow quite large. As of 2012, the heaviest cabbage was 62.71 kilograms (138 lb 4 oz). Cabbage heads are generally picked during the first year of the plant's life cycle , but plants intended for seed are allowed to grow

7918-631: The mustard family Brassicaceae . Several other cruciferous vegetables (sometimes known as cole crops ) are cultivars of B. oleracea , including broccoli , collard greens , brussels sprouts , kohlrabi and sprouting broccoli . All of these developed from the wild cabbage B. oleracea var. oleracea , also called colewort or field cabbage. This original species evolved over thousands of years into those seen today, as selection resulted in cultivars having different characteristics, such as large heads for cabbage, large leaves for kale and thick stems with flower buds for broccoli. "Cabbage"

8025-776: The other Brassica crops is unknown. The headed cabbage variety was known to the Greeks as krambe and to the Romans as brassica or olus ; the open, leafy variety (kale) was known in Greek as raphanos and in Latin as caulis . Ptolemaic Egyptians knew the cole crops as gramb , under the influence of Greek krambe , which had been a familiar plant to the Macedonian antecedents of the Ptolemies. By early Roman times, Egyptian artisans and children were eating cabbage and turnips among

8132-407: The overall development and growth of a plant, including the production of lateral roots. Several hormones are used by plants to communicate, and the same molecule can have starkly different effects in varying parts of the plant. Auxin is a good example of this, as it generally stimulates growth in the upper part of a plant when in high concentrations, but in roots, inhibits the elongation and growth of

8239-591: The plant in question. Most ICRAs can be contacted electronically and many maintain web sites for an up-to-date listing. Lateral root Several factors are involved in the formation and development of lateral roots. Regulation of root formation is tightly controlled by plant hormones such as auxin , and by the precise control of aspects of the cell cycle . Such control can be particularly useful, as increased auxin levels help to promote lateral root development , in young leaf primordia . This allows coordination of root development with leaf development, enabling

8346-407: The plant is past the juvenile period. The transition from a juvenile to adult state happens when the stem diameter is about 6 mm ( 1 ⁄ 4  in). Vernalization allows the plant to grow to an adequate size before flowering. In certain climates, cabbage can be planted at the beginning of the cold period and survive until a later warm period without being induced to flower, a practice that

8453-447: The primary root length as well as the distance to the root tip, the ratio between these two numbers being consistent. From this study, the following was concluded: Auxin is responsible for generating concentration gradients to allow for proper plant development. As of 2020, one auxin transporter was identified as a means to flood the hormone into cells: AUXIN-RESISTANT1 (AUX1)/AUX1-LIKEs (LAXs). Also, two auxin transporters that allowed for

8560-410: The protein, pin 8, was inserted into a plasmid , the lateral roots of Arabidopsis thaliana had a decrease in root density. It was shown that this mutant had no lingering effects on the development of the primary root. When further investigated, it was discovered that the pin8 mutant was significant only as the lateral root was beginning to appear in the plant, suggesting that a function PIN8 protein

8667-550: The resources available to each plant (especially the amount of light) and increases the time taken to reach maturity. Some varieties of cabbage have been developed for ornamental use; these are generally called "flowering cabbage". They do not produce heads and feature purple or green outer leaves surrounding an inner grouping of smaller leaves in white, red, or pink. Early varieties of cabbage take about 70 days from planting to reach maturity, while late varieties take about 120 days. Cabbages are mature when they are firm and solid to

8774-428: The result of a deliberate repeatable single cross between two pure lines. A few F2 hybrid seed cultivars also exist, such as Achillea 'Summer Berries'. Some cultivars are agamospermous plants, which retain their genetic composition and characteristics under reproduction. Occasionally cultivars are raised from seed of a specially selected provenance – for example the seed may be taken from plants that are resistant to

8881-440: The root apical meristem, while simultaneously decreasing IAA in radical tissue required for lateral root growth. Numerous mutants associated with auxin indicated an effect on lateral root development: The results from these mutants indicate that IAA is required for lateral roots in various stages of development. Also, researchers found a close relationship between the position of the first division of lateral root formation and

8988-426: The root mass is in the upper 20–30 cm (8–12 in) of soil; some lateral roots can penetrate up to 2 m ( 6 + 1 ⁄ 2  ft) deep. The inflorescence is an unbranched and indeterminate terminal raceme measuring 50–100 cm (20–40 in) tall, with flowers that are yellow or white. Each flower has four petals set in a perpendicular pattern, as well as four sepals , six stamens , and

9095-448: The root tip. A cycB1:1::uidA selectable marker was used as a reporter for lateral root initiation and its early mitotic events. This marker was histochemically stained for beta-glucuronidase (GUS) in Arabidopsis thalia seedlings, which highlighted activity in the lateral root primordium and the transition zone between the hypocotyl and the root. Seedlings were harvested every day for a week and stained for GUS activity, then measured

9202-429: The roots when found in high concentrations. Root growth is often stimulated by another hormone, called ethylene , which is prevented from being produced in the roots when auxin levels are high. Additionally, it was found that low levels of auxin are actually found to stimulate the growth and elongation of the root system, even without the presence of ethylene. Cytokinin , another plant hormone, has also been seen to play

9309-899: The same cultivar. The production of cultivars generally entails considerable human involvement although in a few cases it may be as little as simply selecting variation from plants growing in the wild (whether by collecting growing tissue to propagate from or by gathering seed). Cultivars generally occur as ornamentals and food crops: Malus ' Granny Smith ' and Malus ' Red Delicious ' are cultivars of apples propagated by cuttings or grafting , Lactuca 'Red Sails' and Lactuca 'Great Lakes' are lettuce cultivars propagated by seeds. Named cultivars of Hosta and Hemerocallis plants are cultivars produced by micropropagation or division. Cultivars that are produced asexually are genetically identical and known as clones ; this includes plants propagated by division , layering , cuttings , grafts , and budding . The propagating material may be taken from

9416-416: The scientific Latin botanical name followed by a cultivar epithet . The cultivar epithet is usually in a vernacular language. The word cultivar originated from the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with characteristics that arose in cultivation, presently denominated cultigens . This distinction dates to the Greek philosopher Theophrastus (370–285 BC), the "Father of Botany", who

9523-463: The size of their loop that connects the intercellular matrix to the extracellular matrix. Shorter PIN proteins (PINs 1-4, 6, 7) are found intracellularly as well as nearest to the plasma membrane, whereas the longer proteins (PINs 5, 8) are found almost exclusively by the plasma membrane. The protein PIN8 significantly influences the development of lateral roots in a plant. When a nonfunctional mutant of

9630-457: The soil surface for up to twelve weeks after harvest. Rhizoctonia solani causes the post-emergence disease wirestem, resulting in killed seedlings ("damping-off"), root rot or stunted growth and smaller heads. One of the most common bacterial diseases to affect cabbage is black rot , caused by Xanthomonas campestris , which causes chlorotic and necrotic lesions that start at the leaf margins, and wilting of plants. Clubroot , caused by

9737-813: The soilborne slime mold -like organism Plasmodiophora brassicae , results in swollen, club-like roots. Downy mildew , a parasitic disease caused by the oomycete Peronospora parasitica , produces pale leaves with white, brownish or olive mildew on the lower leaf surfaces; this is often confused with the fungal disease powdery mildew . Pests include root-knot nematodes and cabbage maggots , which produce stunted and wilted plants with yellow leaves; aphids , which induce stunted plants with curled and yellow leaves; harlequin cabbage bugs , which cause white and yellow leaves; thrips , which lead to leaves with white-bronze spots; striped flea beetles , which riddle leaves with small holes; and caterpillars , which leave behind large, ragged holes in leaves. The caterpillar stage of

9844-403: The spores were found on whole cabbages that were otherwise acceptable in appearance. Shigella species are able to survive in shredded cabbage. Two outbreaks of E. coli in the United States have been linked to cabbage consumption. Biological risk assessments have concluded that there is the potential for further outbreaks linked to uncooked cabbage, due to contamination at many stages of

9951-479: The stability of cultivated plant nomenclature. In recent times many ICRAs have also recorded trade designations and trademarks used in labelling plant material, to avoid confusion with established names. New names and other relevant data are collected by and submitted to the ICRA and in most cases there is no cost. The ICRA then checks each new epithet to ensure that it has not been used before and that it conforms with

10058-432: The symptoms of poisonous mushroom ingestion. The antipathy towards the vine made it seem that eating cabbage would enable one to avoid drunkenness. Cabbage continued to figure in the materia medica of antiquity as well as at table: in the first century AD Dioscorides mentions two kinds of coleworts with medical uses, the cultivated and the wild, and his opinions continued to be paraphrased in herbals right through

10165-412: The touch. They are harvested by cutting the stalk just below the bottom leaves with a blade. The outer leaves are trimmed, and any diseased, damaged, or necrotic leaves are removed. Delays in harvest can result in the head splitting as a result of expansion of the inner leaves and continued stem growth. When being grown for seed, cabbages must be isolated from other B. oleracea subspecies, including

10272-432: The varietal name, rather than using the abbreviation "var." as is the present convention. Most of the varieties that Linnaeus enumerated were of "garden" origin rather than being wild plants. In time the need to distinguish between wild plants and those with variations that had been cultivated increased. In the nineteenth century many "garden-derived" plants were given horticultural names, sometimes in Latin and sometimes in

10379-428: The wild and propagated for sale without any additional breeding work; some people consider this practice unethical . The formal scientific name of a cultivar, like Solanum tuberosum 'King Edward', is a way of uniquely designating a particular kind of plant. This scientific name is in the public domain and cannot be legally protected. Plant retailers wish to maximize their share of the market and one way of doing this

10486-481: The wild varieties, by 0.8 to 1.6 km ( 1 ⁄ 2 to 1 mi) to prevent cross-pollination. Other Brassica species , such as B. rapa , B. juncea , B. nigra , B. napus and Raphanus sativus , do not readily cross-pollinate. There are several cultivar groups of cabbage, each including many cultivars: Some sources only delineate three cultivars: savoy, red and white, with spring greens and green cabbage being subsumed under

10593-787: The word caboche ("head"), from the Picard dialect of Old French . This in turn is a variant of the Old French caboce . Although cabbage has an extensive history, it is difficult to trace its exact origins owing to the many varieties of leafy greens classified as "brassicas". A possible wild ancestor of cabbage, Brassica oleracea , originally found in Britain and continental Europe, is tolerant of salt but not encroachment by other plants and consequently inhabits rocky cliffs in cool damp coastal habitats, retaining water and nutrients in its slightly thickened, turgid leaves. However, genetic analysis

10700-414: The word cultivar in 1923 when he wrote that: The cultigen is a species, or its equivalent, that has appeared under domestication – the plant is cultigenous. I now propose another name, cultivar, for a botanical variety, or for a race subordinate to species, that has originated under cultivation; it is not necessarily, however, referable to a recognized botanical species. It is essentially the equivalent of

10807-406: The world's agricultural food crops are almost exclusively cultivars that have been selected for characters such as improved yield, flavour, and resistance to disease, and very few wild plants are now used as food sources. Trees used in forestry are also special selections grown for their enhanced quality and yield of timber . Cultivars form a major part of Liberty Hyde Bailey 's broader group,

10914-510: Was Cruciferae , which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a crucifix . The word brassica derives from bresic , a Celtic word for cabbage. The varietal epithet capitata is derived from the Latin word for 'having a head'. Many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto-Slavic root cap or kap , meaning "head". The late Middle English word cabbage derives from

11021-468: Was also employed by European sailors to prevent scurvy during long ship voyages at sea. Starting in the early modern era , cabbage was exported to the Americas , Asia , and around the world. They can be prepared many different ways for eating; they can be pickled , fermented (for dishes such as sauerkraut , kimchi ), steamed , stewed , roasted , sautéed , braised , or eaten raw . Raw cabbage

11128-506: Was common in the eastern US. Plants are generally started in protected locations early in the growing season before being transplanted outside, although some are seeded directly into the ground from which they will be harvested. Seedlings typically emerge in about 4–6 days from seeds planted 13 mm ( 1 ⁄ 2  in) deep at a soil temperature between 20 and 30 °C (68 and 86 °F). Growers normally place plants 30 to 61 cm (12 to 24 in) apart. Closer spacing reduces

11235-477: Was keenly aware of this difference. Botanical historian Alan Morton noted that Theophrastus in his Historia Plantarum ( Enquiry into Plants ) "had an inkling of the limits of culturally induced ( phenotypic ) changes and of the importance of genetic constitution" ( Historia Plantarum , Book 3, 2, 2 and Causa Plantarum , Book 1, 9, 3). The International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants uses as its starting point for modern botanical nomenclature

11342-567: Was originally used to refer to multiple forms of B. oleracea , including those with loose or non-existent heads. A related species, Brassica rapa , is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage, and has many of the same uses. It is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree (a member of the genus Andira ) and cabbage palms, which include several genera of palms such as Mauritia , Roystonea oleracea , Acrocomia and Euterpe oenocarpus . The original family name of brassicas

11449-532: Was probably domesticated later in history than Near Eastern crops such as lentils and summer wheat . Because of the wide range of crops developed from the wild B. oleracea , multiple broadly contemporaneous domestications of cabbage may have occurred throughout Europe. Nonheading cabbages and kale were probably the first to be domesticated, before 1000 BC, perhaps by the Celts of central and western Europe, although recent linguistic and genetic evidence enforces

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