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205-581: The Calgary Herald is a daily newspaper published in Calgary , Alberta , Canada. Publication began in 1883 as The Calgary Herald, Mining and Ranche Advocate, and General Advertiser . It is owned by the Postmedia Network . The Calgary Herald, Mining and Ranche Advocate and General Advertiser started publication on 31 August 1883 in a tent at the junction of the Bow and Elbow by Thomas Braden,
410-532: A Greater Germany beyond the frontiers of 1914 ". Contrary to Jackson's argument that the conspiracy began with the founding of the Nazi Party in 1920, the verdict dated the planning of aggression to the 1937 Hossbach Memorandum . The conspiracy charge caused significant dissent on the bench; Donnedieu de Vabres wanted to scrap it. Through a compromise proposed by the British judges, the charge of conspiracy
615-514: A satellite campus of the University of Alberta . The 1970s energy crisis resulted in significant investment and growth in Calgary. By 1981, 45 percent of the Calgary labour force was made up of management, administrative or clerical staff, above the national average of 35 percent. Calgary's population grew with the opportunity the oil boom brought. The 20-year period from 1966 to 1986 saw
820-966: A show trial (the Soviet Union) to summary executions (the United Kingdom). In mid-1945, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States agreed to convene a joint tribunal in Nuremberg , occupied Germany , with the Nuremberg Charter as its legal instrument. Between 20 November 1945 and 1 October 1946, the International Military Tribunal ( IMT ) tried 22 of the most important surviving leaders of Nazi Germany in
1025-525: A band of Piikani Nation encamped along the Bow River. He was also a fur trader and surveyor and the first recorded European to visit the area. John Glenn was the first documented European settler in the Calgary area, in 1873. In spring 1875, three priests – Lacombe, Remus, and Scollen – built a small log cabin on the banks of the Elbow River. In the fall of 1875,
1230-562: A bill in the Alberta Legislature to incorporate the "Calgary University", however there was significant opposition to two degree-granting institutions in such a small province. A commission was appointed to evaluate the Calgary proposal which found the second university to be unnecessary, however, the commission did recommend the formation of the Provincial Institute of Technology and Art in Calgary ( SAIT ), which
1435-578: A bylaw requiring all large downtown buildings to be built with sandstone , which was readily available nearby in the form of Paskapoo sandstone . Following the fire several quarries were opened around the city by prominent local businessmen including Thomas Edworthy, Wesley Fletcher Orr , J. G. McCallum, and William Oliver. Prominent buildings built with sandstone following the fire include Knox Presbyterian Church (1887), Imperial Bank Building (1887), Calgary City Hall (1911), and Calgary Courthouse No. 2 (1914). In February 1887, Donald Watson Davis , who
1640-407: A crime against humanity—and the Soviet Union wanted to avoid giving an international court jurisdiction over a government's treatment of its own citizens. The charter upended the traditional view of international law by holding individuals, rather than states , responsible for breaches. The other three Allies' proposal to limit the definition of the crimes to acts committed by the defeated Axis
1845-411: A deadlock between the judges; these acquittals surprised observers. Despite being accused of the same crimes, Sauckel was sentenced to death, while Speer was given a prison sentence because the judges considered that he could reform. Nikichenko released a dissent approved by Moscow that rejected all the acquittals, called for a death sentence for Hess, and convicted all the organizations. Initially, it
2050-576: A detailed design and construction start on the south leg of a light rail transit system, which opened on May 25, 1981, and dubbed the CTrain . The University of Calgary gained autonomy as a degree-granting institution in 1966 with the passage of the Universities Act by the Alberta Legislature. The campus provided as a one-dollar lease from the City of Calgary in 1957 had previously served as
2255-727: A free and vocal press" and publisher of The Windsor Star , The Ottawa Citizen , Edmonton Journal, was publisher of the Calgary Herald from 1982 to 1989. In 1994 he served as co-chairman of the Canadian Task Force on the Magazine Industry that recommended stronger enforcement of measures designed to protect Canada's magazine industry. Kevin Peterson, joined the Calgary Herald in 1969, first as
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#17327718621242460-573: A local government of their own. In the first weeks of 1884, James Reilly who was building the Royal Hotel east of the Elbow River circulated 200 handbills announcing a public meeting on January 7, 1884, at the Methodist Church. At the full meeting Reilly advocated for a bridge across the Elbow River and a civic committee to watch over the interests of the public until Calgary could be incorporated. The attendees were enthusiastic about
2665-677: A natural location for the founding meeting of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (precursor to the New Democratic Party ). The organizational meeting was held in Calgary on July 31, 1932, with attendance exceeding 1,300 people. Pat Lenihan was elected to the Calgary City Council in 1939, in part due to the use of Proportional Representation in city elections. He is the only Communist Party member elected to Calgary council. (He
2870-498: A political reporter for the following six years, then a series of editorial positions and finally as publisher from 1989 to 1995. "[U]nder his leadership, the Herald revamped every area of content, re-engineered its circulation function, and completely reorganized the complex process of selling, designing, and placing customers' advertising." Ken King, then-publisher of The Calgary Sun with an advertising background, became publisher of
3075-480: A profitable media powerhouse with annual revenues in excess of $ 2 billion and net earnings of $ 90 million." Canwest entered bankruptcy protection in late 2009. and announced Tuesday 13 July 2010 that its newspaper subsidiary has successfully emerged from creditor protection with new owners Postmedia . Postmedia purchased the Calgary Herald from Canwest in 2010. Postmedia, backed by a New York hedge fund, holds some of Canada's largest daily newspapers, including
3280-667: A promise was included in a declaration by the occupied countries in November 1941, gathered at a conference organized on Poland's initiative. Another conference, held in January 1942, saw the participation of observers from the USSR, US, China, and the United Kingdom. It adopted a declaration promising to punish both direct perpetrators and their superiors, which later became the basis of the Nuremberg system. The Inter-Allied Commission on
3485-525: A provisional capital in Edmonton , it would be left up to the Legislature to choose the permanent location. One of the first decisions of the new Alberta Legislature was the capital, and although William Henry Cushing advocated strongly for Calgary, the resulting vote saw Edmonton win the capital 16–8. Calgarians were disappointed on the city not being named the capital, and focused their attention on
3690-464: A racetrack. It held a lavish parade as well as rodeo , horse racing, and trick roping competitions as part of the event. The exhibition was a success, drawing 100,000 people to the fairgrounds over seven days despite an economic recession that afflicted the city of 25,000. Calgary had previously held a number of Agricultural exhibitions dating back to 1886, and recognizing the city's enthusiasm, Guy Weadick , an American trick roper who participated in
3895-670: A ranked transferable ballot. The UFA government elected in 1921 changed the provincial election law so that Calgary could elect its MLAs through PR as well. Calgary elected its MLAs through PR until 1956 and its councillors through PR until 1971 (although mostly using instant-runoff voting , not STV, in the 1960s). Calgary endured a six-year recession following the First World War . The high unemployment rate from reduced manufacturing demand, compounded with servicemen returning from Europe needing work, created economic and social unrest. By 1921, over 2,000 men (representing 11 percent of
4100-466: A school teacher, and his friend, Andrew Armour, a printer, and financed by "a five-hundred- dollar interest-free loan from a Toronto milliner, Miss Frances Ann Chandler." It started as a weekly paper with 150 copies of only four pages created on a handpress that arrived 11 days earlier on the first train to Calgary. A year's subscription cost $ 3. When Hugh St. Quentin Cayley became editor 26 November 1884
4305-615: A show trial prosecutor chosen for his skill as an orator. The Soviet judges and prosecutors were not permitted to make any major decisions without consulting a commission in Moscow led by Soviet politician Andrei Vyshinsky ; the resulting delays hampered the Soviet effort to set the agenda. The influence of the Soviet delegation was also constrained by limited English proficiency, lack of interpreters, and unfamiliarity with diplomacy and international institutions. Requests by Chaim Weizmann ,
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#17327718621244510-438: A thousand employees from the four countries' delegations in Nuremberg, of which about two thirds were from the United States. Besides legal professionals, there were many social-science researchers, psychologists, translators, and interpreters, and graphic designers , the last to make the many charts used during the trial. Each state appointed a prosecution team and two judges, one being a deputy without voting rights. Jackson
4715-422: A vote. The International Military Tribunal agreed with the prosecution that aggression was the gravest charge against the accused, stating in its judgment that because "war is essentially an evil thing", "to initiate a war of aggression, therefore, is not only an international crime; it is the supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of
4920-537: A way to try crimes against German citizens, such as the German Jews . A Soviet proposal for a charge of "crimes against civilians" was renamed "crimes against humanity" at Jackson's suggestion after previous uses of the term in the post-World War I Commission of Responsibilities and in failed efforts to prosecute the perpetrators of the Armenian genocide . The British proposal to define crimes against humanity
5125-411: A week before the election to find the town in disarray. Shortly before the 1886 election, G. E. Marsh brought a charge of corruption against Murdoch and council over irregularities in the voters' list. Travis found Murdoch and the councillors guilty, disqualifying them from running in the 1886 election, barring them from municipal office for two years, and fining Murdoch $ 100, and the councillors $ 20. This
5330-515: A wide variety of crimes committed by the German occupiers as part of their destructive and unprovoked invasion. Rudenko tried to emphasize common ground with the other Allies while rejecting any similarity between Nazi and Soviet rule. The next week, the Soviet prosecution produced Friedrich Paulus —a German field marshal captured after the Battle of Stalingrad —as a witness and questioned him about
5535-518: Is home to Canada's second-largest number of corporate head offices among the country's 800 largest corporations. In 2015, Calgary had the largest number of millionaires per capita of any major Canadian city. In 2022, Calgary was ranked alongside Zürich as the third most livable city in the world, ranking first in Canada and in North America. In 1988, it became the first Canadian city to host
5740-549: Is now delivered in the morning. The Calgary Herald has seen like most Canadian daily newspapers a decline in circulation . Its total circulation dropped by 14 percent to 106,916 copies daily from 2009 to 2015. In January 1908, the Southam Company purchased a majority interest in the Calgary Herald . In 1996 the paper was sold to the Hollinger Corporation under Conrad Black . In November 2000,
5945-588: Is the subject of the book Patrick Lenihan from Irish Rebel to Founder of Canadian Public Sector Unionism, edited by Gilbert Levine (Athabasca University Press).) In 1922, Civic Government Association formed in opposition to the power of labour groups, endorsing its own competing slate of candidates. Labour's influence was short-lived on the City Council, with Labour as a whole failing to receive substantial support after 1924. Calgary gained further political prominence when R. B. Bennett 's Conservative Party won
6150-528: The Calgary Daily Herald , a daily version of the newspaper, on 2 July 1885. In 1897 the editor of the Herald was impressed by the "humor and witty journalistic prose" of Bob Edwards , then one of Canada's leading journalists, with a reputation as a critic of government and society and as a "supporter of the emancipation of women and the temperance crusade," and reprinted some of his articles in
6355-453: The Calgary Herald published on the 31st under the title The Calgary Herald, Mining and Ranche Advocate and General Advertiser by teacher Andrew M. Armour and printer Thomas B. Braden, a weekly newspaper with a subscription price of $ 1 per year. Over a century later, the CPR headquarters moved to Calgary from Montreal in 1996. Residents of the now-eight-year-old settlement sought to form
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6560-400: The 1921 provincial election . It was elected to form the province's first non-Liberal government. By that time Calgary was using single transferable vote (STV), a form of proportional representation, to elect its city councillors. Calgary was the first city in Canada to adopt PR for its city elections. Councillors were elected in one at-large district. Each voter cast just a single vote using
6765-487: The 1930 federal election and formed government and became Canada's 11th prime minister . Bennett arrived in Calgary from New Brunswick in 1897, was previously the leader of the provincial Conservative Party, advocated for Calgary as the capital of Alberta, and championed the growing city. Calgary had to wait another decade to have a sitting premier represent the city, when sitting Social Credit Premier William Aberhart moved from his Okotoks-High River to Calgary for
6970-456: The 1940 provincial election after his Okotoks-High River constituents began a recall campaign against him as their local MLA. Only a little over a decade after shuttering the municipal tram lines, Calgary City Council began investigating rapid transit. In 1966 a heavy rail transit proposal was developed, however the estimated costs continued to grow rapidly, and the plan was re-evaluated in 1975. In May 1977, Calgary City Council directed that
7175-571: The Allies against representatives of the defeated Nazi Germany for plotting and carrying out invasions of other countries across Europe and atrocities against their citizens in World War II . Between 1939 and 1945, Nazi Germany invaded many countries across Europe, inflicting 27 million deaths in the Soviet Union alone. Proposals for how to punish the defeated Nazi leaders ranged from
7380-585: The Balkans . Other generals were tried in the High Command Trial for plotting wars of aggression, issuing criminal orders , deporting civilians, using slave labor, and looting in the Soviet Union. These trials emphasized the crimes committed during the Holocaust. The trials heard 1,300 witnesses, entered more than 30,000 documents into evidence, and generated 132,855 pages of transcripts, with
7585-632: The Blackfoot name, Mohkínstsis , simply meaning "elbow", is the popular Indigenous term for the Calgary area. In the Nakoda or Stoney language , the area is known as Wîchîspa Oyade or Wenchi Ispase , both meaning "elbow". In the Cree language , the area is known as otôskwanihk ( ᐅᑑᐢᑿᓂᕽ ) meaning "at the elbow" or otôskwunee meaning "elbow". In the Tsuutʼina language (Sarcee),
7790-599: The Calgary Herald in February 1996. By the time he left the newspaper business King had served for thirty years including senior executive positions with several of Canada's leading newspapers, as president and publisher of the Calgary Sun and Calgary Herald . A few months after King's appointment as a publisher, Conrad Black acquired the Southam newspaper chain and the Calgary Herald . In his report entitled "Exposing
7995-598: The Calgary Protestant Public School District No. 19 was formed by the Legislature on March 2, 1885. On November 27, 1884, Lieutenant Governor Dewdney proclaimed the incorporation of The Town of Calgary . Shortly after on December 3, Calgarians went to the polls to elect their first mayor and four councillors. The North-West Municipal Ordinance of 1884 provided voting rights to any male British subject over 21 years of age who owned at minimum $ 300 of property. Each elector
8200-546: The Calgary electoral district representative on the 1st Council of the North-West Territories . As for education, Calgary moved quickly: the Citizen's Committee raised $ 125 on February 6, 1884, and the first school opened for twelve children days later on February 18, led by teacher John William Costello. The private school was not enough for the needs of the town and following a petition by James Walker
8405-642: The First World War further dampened the oil craze as more men and resources left for Europe and agricultural prices for wheat and cattle increased. Turner Valley's oil fields would boom again in 1924 and 1936, and by the Second World War the Turner Valley oilfield was producing more than 95 per cent of the oil in Canada. however the city would wait until 1947 for Leduc No. 1 to definitively shift Calgary to an oil and gas city. While Edmonton would see significant population and economic growth with
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8610-853: The Foreign Office . Also on trial were industrialists —in the Flick trial , the IG Farben trial , and the Krupp trial —for using forced labor, looting property from Nazi victims, and funding SS atrocities. Members of the SS were tried in the Pohl trial , which focused on members of the SS Main Economic and Administrative Office that oversaw SS economic activity, including the Nazi concentration camps ;
8815-596: The General Governorate of Poland; Hitler Youth leader Baldur von Schirach ; Arthur Seyss-Inquart , Reich Commissioner for the Netherlands ; and Ernst Kaltenbrunner , the leader of Himmler's Reich Main Security Office . Observers of the trial found the defendants mediocre and contemptible. Although the list of defendants was finalized on 29 August, as late as October, Jackson demanded
9020-612: The Herald became part of Southam Newspapers . In July 2000, CanWest Global made Canadian media history with its $ 3.5 billion purchase of Hollinger's newspaper and internet assets, acquiring "136 daily and weekly newspapers," [which included the Calgary Herald and] half of The National Post , 13 large big-city dailies, 85 trade publications and directories in the Southam Magazine and Information Group." By 2003, Southam "was fully absorbed into CanWest Global Communications ." By 2003, Izzy Asper had built "CanWest Global into
9225-400: The Herald , including reporters, went on strike. The strike lasted until July 2000, during which many longtime Herald reporters left the newspaper. While some accepted a severance package, others returned to work on the condition that the union be dissolved. Many seasoned journalists were replaced by inexperienced staff and it took several years for the Herald to rebuild its readership after
9430-575: The Herald . From February 1890 to August 1893 and from December 1894 to September 1895, the weekly paper appeared as the Wednesday issue of the daily paper. Publication of the daily paper was suspended between 21 September 1893 and 13 December 1894. Publication of a daily edition began in fall 1885. Publication of the Calgary Daily Herald under the name Calgary Herald began in February 1939, as an afternoon edition until April 1985. It
9635-631: The Katyn massacre , which had in fact been committed by the NKVD . Although Western prosecutors never publicly rejected the Katyn charge for fear of casting doubt on the entire proceedings, they were skeptical. The defense presented evidence of Soviet responsibility, and Katyn was not mentioned in the verdict. Inspired by the films shown by the American prosecution, the Soviet Union commissioned three films for
9840-551: The National Energy Program implemented by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau 's government and the drop in world oil prices , and the end of the construction boom in Calgary is associated with the completion of the Petro-Canada Centre in 1984. The two-tower granite Petro-Canada Centre, which some locals called "Red Square" alluding to the city's hostile view of the state-owned petroleum company, saw
10045-672: The National Post , the Montreal Gazette , the Ottawa Citizen " and the Calgary Herald in a cost-cutting measure. Changes, including downsizing and cut wages, introduced by the Hollinger Corporation after its purchase of the Calgary Herald in 1996, led to Herald staff voting to unionize in 1998 under the Communications, Energy and Paperworkers Union of Canada . On 8 November 1999, unionized staff at
10250-675: The Nuremberg war crimes trials . He worked for the Southam Newspapers group for the Edmonton Journal and The Citizen in Ottawa. Frank Swanson was Calgary Herald's publisher until his retirement in July 1982. Swanson oversaw the move of their headquarters from downtown Calgary to a "$ 70 million plant on a hill overlooking the intersection of Deerfoot and Memorial." J. Patrick O'Callaghan (1925–1996), "an outspoken advocate of
10455-432: The Olympic Winter Games . Calgary was named after Calgary Castle (in Scottish Gaelic, Caisteal Chalgairidh ) on the Isle of Mull in Scotland . Colonel James Macleod , the Commissioner of the North-West Mounted Police , had been a frequent summer guest there. In 1876, shortly after returning to Canada , he suggested its name for what became Fort Calgary . The Indigenous peoples of Southern Alberta refer to
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#173277186212410660-406: The Palace of Justice in Nuremberg . Located in the American occupation zone , Nuremberg was a symbolic location as the site of Nazi rallies . The Palace of Justice was relatively intact but needed to be renovated for the trial due to bomb damage ; it had an attached prison where the defendants could be held. On 8 August, the Nuremberg Charter was signed in London. In early 1946, there were
10865-539: The Post , Vancouver Sun , Calgary Herald , and Ottawa Citizen . By October 2011, Postmedia had cut about 500 full-time jobs across the many newspapers it owns to deal with the debt it inherited with the 2010 purchase. CEP union spokesman Peter Murdoch said, "This is hardly of net benefit to Canadians, their communities or the critical flow of information in a democratic society." Since it emerged from bankruptcy court protection in July, 2010, Postmedia has erased 750 jobs, or 14 per cent of its work force, bringing to 1,700
11070-471: The RuSHA trial of Nazi racial policies ; and the Einsatzgruppen trial , in which members of the mobile killing squads were tried for the murder of more than one million people behind the Eastern Front. Luftwaffe general Erhard Milch was tried for using slave labor and deporting civilians. In the Hostages case , several generals were tried for executing thousands of hostages and prisoners of war, looting, using forced labor, and deporting civilians in
11275-435: The SS and the SD , and the General Staff and High Command of the German military (Wehrmacht). The aim was to have these organizations declared criminal, so that their members could be tried expeditiously for membership in a criminal organization. Senior American officials believed that convicting organizations was a good way of showing that not just the top German leaders were responsible for crimes, without condemning
11480-429: The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada , local post-secondary institutions adopted "official acknowledgements" of Indigenous territory using the Blackfoot name of the city, Mohkínstsis . In 2017, the Stoney Nakoda sent an application to the Government of Alberta, to rename Calgary as Wichispa Oyade meaning "elbow town"; however, this was challenged by the Piikani Blackfoot . The Calgary area
11685-417: The Western Front (France) and the Eastern Front (the Soviet Union). The United States delegation outlined the overall Nazi conspiracy and criminality of Nazi organizations. The British and American delegations decided to work jointly in drafting the charges of conspiracy to wage aggressive war. On 17 September, the various delegations met to discuss the indictment. The charge of conspiracy , absent from
11890-421: The liberation of Nazi concentration camps , shocked both the defendants and the judges, who adjourned the trial. Indiscriminate selection and disorganized presentation of documentary evidence without tying it to specific defendants hampered the American prosecutors' work on the conspiracy to commit crimes against humanity. The Americans summoned Einsatzgruppen commander Otto Ohlendorf , who testified about
12095-456: The summary execution of Nazi leaders, citing the failure of trials after World War I and qualms about retroactive criminality . The form that retribution would take was left unresolved at the Yalta Conference in February 1945. On 2 May, at the San Francisco Conference , United States president Harry S. Truman announced the formation of an international military tribunal. On 8 May, Germany surrendered unconditionally , bringing an end to
12300-432: The systematic murder of Jews in eastern Europe , at times they blurred the fate of Jews with that of other Soviet nationalities. Although these aspects had already been covered by the American prosecution, Soviet prosecutors introduced new evidence from Extraordinary State Commission reports and interrogations of senior enemy officers. Lev Smirnov presented evidence on the Lidice massacre in Czechoslovakia, adding that
12505-429: The "human costs of Alberta's economic boom" by Chris Varcoe and research by Kelly Cryderman and Renata D'Aliesio, won the 2010 Michener Award , one of the highest distinctions in Canadian journalism. In his June 14, 2011 acceptance speech, Varcoe acknowledged the support of the newspaper, particularly editors Lorne Motley and Monica Zurowski, who invested resources for over a year to "important civic journalism". The series
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#173277186212412710-503: The 1930s Moscow trials , in order to demonstrate the Nazi leaders' guilt and build a case for war reparations to rebuild the Soviet economy , which had been devastated by the war. The United States insisted on a trial that would be seen as legitimate as a means of reforming Germany and demonstrating the superiority of the Western system. The United States Department of War was drawing up plans for an international tribunal in late 1944 and early 1945. The British government still preferred
12915-457: The 1980s prevented a full economic recovery until the 1990s. In May 1980, Nelson Skalbania announced that the Atlanta Flames hockey club would relocate and become the Calgary Flames . Skalbania represented a group of Calgary businessmen that included oil magnates Harley Hotchkiss , Ralph T. Scurfield , Norman Green , Daryl Seaman and Byron Seaman , and former Calgary Stampeders player Norman Kwong . Atlanta team owner Tom Cousins sold
13120-429: The 1980s, 70 percent within Alberta, as a result of capital spending, increased tourism and new sporting opportunities created by the facilities. Thanks in part to escalating oil prices, the economy in Calgary and Alberta was booming until the end of 2009, and the region of nearly 1.1 million people was home to the fastest-growing economy in the country. While the oil and gas industry comprise an important part of
13325-454: The American prosecution submitted many documents at the beginning of the trial, the judges insisted that all of the evidence be read into the record, which slowed the trial. The structure of the charges also caused delays as the same evidence ended up being read out multiple times, when it was relevant to both conspiracy and the other charges. The International Military Tribunal began trial on 20 November 1945, after postponement requests from
13530-408: The Boss: A Study in Canadian Journalism Ethics" journalist Bob Bergen argued that there were dramatic changes during this period. Bergen claimed that the Herald aligned itself "with the Calgary business community and entered into partnerships with the Calgary Flames hockey team, the Calgary Stampeders football team, the city of Calgary's Expo 2005 bid, and enhanced the newspaper's existing sponsorship of
13735-445: The British and Americans presented evidence against individual defendants. Besides the organizations mentioned in the indictment, American, and British prosecutors also mentioned the complicity of the German Foreign Office , army , and navy . From 17 January to 7 February 1946, France presented its charges and supporting evidence. In contrast to the other prosecution teams, the French prosecution delved into Germany's development in
13940-523: The Calgary Exhibition and Stampede." Bergen claimed that by October four new conservative columnists "Peter Stockland former editor of The Calgary Sun hired by King and, from eastern Canada, Giles Gherson on national economics, Andrew Coyne on national affairs, and Barbara Amiel , a journalist who was also Black's wife. King explained the new conservative columnists complemented the Herald's other columnists including liberal Catherine Ford and Robert Bragg, who had left-leaning political views." Malcolm Kirk,
14145-411: The Calgary area as "elbow", in reference to the sharp bend made by the Bow River and the Elbow River . In some cases, the area was named after the reeds that grew along the riverbanks, reeds that had been used to fashion bows . In the Blackfoot language (Siksiká) the area is known as Mohkínstsis akápiyoyis , meaning "elbow many houses", reflecting its strong settler presence. The shorter form of
14350-401: The Calgary townsite moving onto Section 15, with the fate of the old townsite sealed when the post office was anonymously moved across the icy Elbow River during the night. The CPR subdivided Section 15 and began selling lots surrounding the station, $ 450 for corner lots and $ 350 for all others; and pioneer Felix McHugh constructed the first private building on the site. Earlier in the decade it
14555-440: The Centre Street Bridge over the Bow River) opened in 1907 which provided for residential expansion north of the Bow River. The early-1910s saw real estate speculation hit Calgary once again, with property prices rising significantly with growing municipal investment, CPR's decision to construct a car shop at Ogden set to employ over 5,000 people, the projected arrival of the Grand Trunk Pacific and Canadian Northern Railways in
14760-556: The City of Calgary Charter elevated the frontier town to the status of a full-fledged city. Calgary became the first city in the North-West Territories, receiving its charter a decade before Edmonton and Regina . The Calgary charter remained in force until it was repealed with the Cities Act in 1950. The charter came into effect in such a way as to prevent the regularly scheduled municipal election in December 1893, and recognizing
14965-523: The District Court. Cayley published articles critical of Travis and his judgment, in which Travis responded by calling Cayley to court, dismissing him from his position as Clerk, ordering Cayley to apologize and pay a $ 100 fine. Cayley refused to pay the fine, which Travis increased to $ 500, and on January 5, the day after the January 1886 Calgary town election , Cayley was imprisoned by Travis. Murdoch returned to Calgary on December 27, 1885, only
15170-788: The Dominion Exhibition as part of the Miller Brothers 101 Ranch Real Wild West Show, returned to Calgary in 1912 to host the first Calgary Stampede in the hopes of establishing an event that more accurately represented the "wild west" than the shows he was a part of. He initially failed to sell civic leaders and the Calgary Industrial Exhibition on his plans, but with the assistance of local livestock agent H. C. McMullen, Weadick convinced businessmen Pat Burns , George Lane , A. J. McLean , and A. E. Cross to put up $ 100,000 to guarantee funding for
15375-485: The Elbow River and west to Eighth Street, and the first federal census listed the boom town at 3,876 inhabitants. The economic conditions in Calgary began to deteriorate in 1892, as development in the downtown slowed, the streetcar system started in 1889 was put on hold and smaller property owners began to sell. The first step in connecting the District of Alberta happened in Calgary on July 21, 1890, as Minister of
15580-462: The Games, resulting in the facility earning praise as "the fastest ice on Earth". Canada Olympic Park was built on the western outskirts of Calgary and hosted bobsled , luge , ski jumping and freestyle skiing . It was the most expensive facility built for the games, costing $ 200 million. Despite Canada failing to earn a gold medal in the Games, the events proved to be a major economic boom for
15785-635: The German annexation of Alsace–Lorraine , under the label of Germanization , which he argued was a crime against humanity. Unlike the British and American prosecution strategies, which focused on using German documents to make their cases, the French prosecutors took the perspective of the victims, submitting postwar police reports. Eleven witnesses, including victims of Nazi persecution, were called; resistance fighter and Auschwitz survivor Marie Claude Vaillant-Couturier testified about crimes she had witnessed. The French charges of war crimes were accepted by
15990-737: The German economy, such as Gustav Krupp (of the conglomerate Krupp AG ), former Reichsbank president Hjalmar Schacht , and economic planners Albert Speer and Walther Funk , along with Speer's subordinate and head of the forced labor program , Fritz Sauckel . While the British were skeptical of prosecuting economic leaders, the French had a strong interest in highlighting German economic imperialism. The military leaders were Hermann Göring —the most infamous surviving Nazi — Wilhelm Keitel , Alfred Jodl , Erich Raeder , and Karl Dönitz . Also on trial were propagandists Julius Streicher and Hans Fritzsche ; Rudolf Hess , Hitler's deputy who had flown to Britain in 1941; Hans Frank , governor-general of
16195-458: The German invaders had destroyed thousands of villages and murdered their inhabitants throughout eastern Europe. The Soviet prosecution emphasized the racist aspect of policies such as the deportation of millions of civilians to Germany for forced labor , the murder of children, systematic looting of occupied territories, and theft or destruction of cultural heritage . The Soviet prosecution also attempted to fabricate German responsibility for
16400-521: The German press. Sentences were debated at length by the judges. Twelve of the defendants were sentenced to death (Göring, Ribbentrop, Keitel, Kaltenbrunner, Rosenberg, Frank, Frick, Streicher, Sauckel, Jodl, Seyss-Inquart, and Bormann). On 16 October, ten were hanged , with Göring killing himself the day before. Seven defendants (Hess, Funk, Raeder, Dönitz, Schirach, Speer, and Neurath) were sent to Spandau Prison to serve their sentences. All three acquittals (Papen, Schacht, and Fritzsche) were based on
16605-539: The Herald moved out of the tent and into a shack. Cayley quickly became partner and editor. At that time, Braden and Armour found that westerners wanted more updated information about the growing Riel Rebellion in the Northwest Territories. One year later, the Calgary Herald went daily. To meet demand, a new press was purchased that could print up to 400 papers an hour if a strong man was turning
16810-453: The IMT. In all, 249 journalists were accredited to cover the IMT and 61,854 visitor tickets were issued. In France, the sentence for Rudolf Hess and acquittal of organizations were met with outrage from the media and especially from organizations for deportees and resistance fighters, as they were perceived as too lenient. In the United Kingdom, although a variety of responses were reported, it
17015-575: The Interior Edgar Dewdney turned the first sod for the Calgary and Edmonton Railway in front of two thousand residents. The railway was completed in August 1891. Although its end-of-steel was on the south side of the river opposite Edmonton , it immensely shortened travel time between the two communities. Previously stagecoach passengers and mail could arrive in five days and animal pulled freight anywhere between two and three weeks,
17220-460: The Leduc discovery, many corporate offices established in Calgary after Turner Valley refused to relocate north. Consequently, by 1967, Calgary had more millionaires than any other city in Canada, and per capita, more cars than any city in the world. Early-20th-century Calgary served as a hotbed for political activity. Historically Calgarians supported the provincial and federal conservative parties,
17425-610: The London Conference. The French government tried to appoint staff who were not tainted by collaboration with the Vichy regime; some appointments, including Champetier de Ribes, were of those who had been in the French resistance . Expecting a show trial, the Soviet Union initially appointed as chief prosecutor Iona Nikitchenko , who had presided over the Moscow trials, but he was made a judge and replaced by Roman Rudenko ,
17630-698: The NWT Lieutenant-governor, organized a public meeting in the NWMP barracks room on the issue of getting a representative in the NWT Council. Walker wrote the clerk of the Council that he was prepared to produce evidence that Calgary and environs (an area of 1000 square miles) held 1000 residents, the requirement for having a Council member. A by-election was held on June 28, 1884, where James Davidson Geddes defeated James Kidd Oswald to become
17835-655: The National Energy Program marked the end of Calgary's boom. In 1983 Calgary City Council announced service cuts to ease the $ 16 million deficit, 421 city employees were laid off, unemployment increased from 5 to 11 percent between November 1981 and November 1982, eventually peaking at 14.9 percent in March 1983. The decline was so swift that the city's population decreased for the first time in history from April 1982 to April 1983, and 3,331 homes were foreclosed by financial institutions in 1983. Low oil prices in
18040-647: The Nazi system, but Göring took the opposite approach, expecting to be executed but vindicated in the eyes of the German people. The charter did not recognize a tu quoque defense —asking for exoneration on the grounds that the Allies had committed the same crimes with which the defendants were charged. Although defense lawyers repeatedly equated the Nuremberg Laws to legislation found in other countries, Nazi concentration camps to Allied detention facilities, and
18245-496: The North-West Territories , who happened to be in Calgary at the time, to discuss an allowance for a school, an increase from $ 300 to $ 1,000 grant for a bridge over the Elbow River, incorporation as a town, and representation for Calgary in the Legislative Council of the North-West Territories . The committee was successful in getting an additional $ 200 for the bridge, In May, Major Walker, acting on instructions from
18450-594: The Punishment of War Crimes was also established at that time. The United States and United Kingdom refused to endorse this proposal, citing the failure of war crimes prosecutions after World War I . Pressures, primarily from Poland and Czechoslovakia, led the British to take concrete steps in the area of prosecuting German crimes. The London-based United Nations War Crimes Commission —without Soviet participation—first met in October 1943 and became bogged down in
18655-590: The Reich Cabinet, and the General Staff and High Command were not ruled to be criminal organizations. Although the Wehrmacht leadership was not considered an organization within the meaning of the charter, misrepresentation of the verdict as an exoneration was one of the foundations of the clean Wehrmacht myth . The trial had nevertheless resulted in the coverage of its systematic criminality in
18860-433: The Soviet Union. On 31 August, closing arguments were presented. Over the course of the trial, crimes against humanity and especially against Jews (who were mentioned as victims of Nazi atrocities far more than any other group) came to upstage the aggressive war charge. In contrast to the opening prosecution statements, all eight closing statements highlighted the Holocaust; and the French and British prosecutors made this
19065-427: The Soviet prosecution, who wanted more time to prepare its case, were rejected. All defendants pleaded not guilty. Jackson made it clear that the trial's purpose extended beyond convicting the defendants. Prosecutors wanted to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, establish individual responsibility and the crime of aggression in international law, provide a history lesson to the defeated Germans, delegitimize
19270-608: The Swedish community of Falun and Italian community of Cortina d'Ampezzo . On September 30, 1981, the International Olympic Committee voted to give Calgary the right to host the 1988 Olympic Winter Games , becoming the first Canadian host for the winter games. The Games' five primary venues were all purpose-built, however, at significant cost. The Olympic Saddledome was the primary venue for ice hockey and figure skating. Located at Stampede Park ,
19475-745: The United States Army's refusal to publish the trial record in German for fear it would undermine the fight against communism. The German churches, both Catholic and Protestant, were vocal proponents of amnesty. The pardon of convicted war criminals also had cross-party support in West Germany , which was established in 1949. The Americans satisfied these wishes to bind West Germany to the Western Bloc , beginning early releases of Nuremberg Military Tribunal convicts in 1949. In 1951, High Commissioner John J. McCloy overturned most of
19680-484: The West German consensus on release began to erode, due to greater openness in political culture and new revelations of Nazi criminality, including the first trials of Nazi perpetrators in West German courts. The International Military Tribunal, and its charter, "marked the true beginning of international criminal law ". The trial has met a mixed reception ranging from glorification to condemnation. The reaction
19885-433: The accumulated evil of the whole". Most of the defendants were also charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity , and the systematic murder of millions of Jews in the Holocaust was significant to the trial. Twelve further trials were conducted by the United States against lower-level perpetrators, which focused more on the Holocaust. Controversial at the time for their retroactive criminalization of aggression,
20090-458: The addition of new names, but this was rejected. Of the 24 men indicted, Martin Bormann was tried in absentia , as the Allies were unaware of his death; Krupp was too ill to stand trial; and Robert Ley had committed suicide before the start of the trial. Former Nazis were allowed to serve as counsel and by mid-November all defendants had lawyers. The defendants' lawyers jointly appealed to
20295-605: The area is known as Guts’ists’i (older orthography, Kootsisáw ) meaning "elbow". In Kutenai language , the city is referred to as ʔaknuqtapȼik’ . In the Slavey language , the area is known as Klincho-tinay-indihay meaning "many horse town", referring to the Calgary Stampede and the city's settler heritage. There have been several attempts to revive the Indigenous names of Calgary. In response to
20500-519: The beginning of the oil and gas age in Calgary. Archibald Wayne Dingman and Calgary Petroleum Product's discovery was heralded as the "biggest oil field in the British Empire" at around 19 million cubic metres, and in a three-week period an estimated 500 oil companies sprang into existence. Calgarians were enthusiastic to invest in new oil companies, with many losing life savings during the short 1914 boom in hastily formed companies. Outbreak of
20705-418: The bid for Calgary and spent two years building local support for the project, selling memberships to 80,000 of the city's 600,000 residents. It secured CA$ 270 million in funding from the federal and provincial governments while civic leaders, including Mayor Ralph Klein , crisscrossed the world attempting to woo International Olympic Committee (IOC) delegates. Calgary was one of three finalists, opposed by
20910-408: The charter, held together the wide array of charges and defendants and was used to charge the top Nazi leaders, as well as bureaucrats who had never killed anyone or perhaps even directly ordered killing. It was also an end run on the charter's limits on charging crimes committed before the beginning of World War II. Conspiracy charges were central to the cases against propagandists and industrialists:
21115-642: The city and Calgary's growing reputation as a growing economic hub. The period between 1906 and 1911 was the largest population growth period in the city's history, expanding from 11,967 to 43,704 inhabitants in the five-year period. Several ambitious projects were started during this period including a new City Hall , the Hudson's Bay Department Store , the Grain Exchange Building, and the Palliser Hotel , this period also corresponded to
21320-483: The city, which had fallen into its worst recession in 40 years following the collapse of both oil and grain prices in the mid-1980s. A report prepared for the city in January 1985 estimated the games would create 11,100 man-years of employment and generate CA$ 450 -million in salaries and wages. In its post-Games report, OCO'88 estimated the Olympics created CA$ 1.4 billion in economic benefits across Canada during
21525-522: The committee and on the next evening a vote was held to elect the seven members. A total of 24 candidates were nominated, which equalled 10 per cent of Calgary's male population. Major James Walker received 88 votes, the most amongst the candidates, the other six members were Dr. Andrew Henderson, George Clift King , Thomas Swan, George Murdoch, J. D. Moulton, and Captain John Stewart. The civic committee met with Edgar Dewdney , Lieutenant Governor of
21730-468: The concept of crimes against peace (waging aggressive war ) which would later be central to the proceedings at Nuremberg. Trainin's ideas were reprinted in the West and widely adopted. Of all the Allies , the Soviet Union lobbied most intensely for trying the defeated German leaders for aggression in addition to war crimes. The Soviet Union wanted to hold a trial with a predetermined outcome similar to
21935-432: The conference, it was debated whether wars of aggression were prohibited in existing customary international law ; regardless, before the charter was adopted there was no law providing for criminal responsibility for aggression. Despite misgivings from other Allies, American negotiator and Supreme Court justice Robert H. Jackson threatened the United States' withdrawal if aggression was not prosecuted because it had been
22140-491: The conspiracy charge "invited apologetic interpretations: narratives of absolute, totalitarian dictatorship, run by society's lunatic fringe, of which the Germans had been the first victims rather than agents, collaborators, and fellow travellers ". In contrast, the evidence presented on the Holocaust convinced some observers that Germans must have been aware of this crime while it was ongoing. On 21 November, Jackson gave
22345-634: The court's jurisdiction because the prosecution had not proven a connection to aggressive war. Four organizations were ruled to be criminal: the Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party, the SS, the Gestapo, and the SD, although some lower ranks and subgroups were excluded. The verdict only allowed for individual criminal responsibility if willing membership and knowledge of the criminal purpose could be proved, complicating denazification efforts. The SA,
22550-683: The court, claiming it did not have jurisdiction against the accused; but this motion was rejected. The defense lawyers saw themselves as acting on behalf of their clients, but also the German nation. Initially, the Americans had planned to try fourteen organizations and their leaders, but this was narrowed to six: the Reich Cabinet , the Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party , the Gestapo , the SA ,
22755-513: The crank. The paper was still experiencing growing pains and financial uncertainty in 1894, when J. J. Young took over the paper, saving it from near bankruptcy. During those early years, the newspaper was not so much published as improvised, with updated news provided by bulletins from passengers on the Canadian Pacific Railway. Eventually, the publisher's name was changed to Herald Publishing Company Limited and began publishing
22960-450: The defendants had surrendered to the United States or United Kingdom. The defendants, who were largely unrepentant, included former cabinet ministers: Franz von Papen (who had brought Hitler to power ); Joachim von Ribbentrop ( foreign minister ), Konstantin von Neurath ( foreign minister ). Wilhelm Frick ( interior minister ), and Alfred Rosenberg (minister for the occupied eastern territories). Also prosecuted were leaders of
23165-514: The defense's 83 , not including 19 defendants who testified on their own behalf. The prosecution examined 110,000 captured German documents and entered 4,600 into evidence, along with 30 kilometres (19 mi) of film and 25,000 photographs. The charter allowed the admissibility of any evidence deemed to have probative value, including depositions . Because of the loose evidentiary rules, photographs, charts, maps, and films played an important role in making incredible crimes believable. After
23370-619: The deportation of Jews to the expulsion of Germans , the judges rejected their arguments. Alfred Seidl [ de ] repeatedly tried to disclose the secret protocols of the German–Soviet pact; although he was eventually successful, it was legally irrelevant and the judges rejected his attempt to bring up the Treaty of Versailles . Six defendants were charged with the German invasion of Norway , and their lawyers argued that this invasion
23575-618: The economy, the city has invested a great deal into other areas such as tourism and high-tech manufacturing. Over 3.1 million people now visit the city annually for its many festivals and attractions, especially the Calgary Stampede. The nearby mountain resort towns of Banff , Lake Louise , and Canmore are also becoming increasingly popular with tourists. Other modern industries include light manufacturing, high-tech, film, e-commerce, transportation, and services. Nuremberg trials The Nuremberg trials were held by
23780-520: The end of the "Sandstone City" era as steel frames and terracotta facades such as the Burns Building (1913) which were prevalent in other North American cities overtook the unique sandstone character of Calgary. The growing City and enthusiastic residents were rewarded in 1908 with the federally funded Dominion Exhibition . Seeking to take advantage of the opportunity to promote itself, the city spent CA$ 145,000 to build six new pavilions and
23985-437: The entire German people. Over the summer, all of the national delegations struggled to gather evidence for the upcoming trial. The American and British prosecutors focused on documentary evidence and affidavits rather than testimony from survivors. This strategy increased the credibility of their case, since survivor testimony was considered less reliable and more vulnerable to accusations of bias, but reduced public interest in
24190-463: The event. The Big Four , as they came to be known, viewed the project as a final celebration of their life as cattlemen. The city constructed a rodeo arena on the fairgrounds and over 100,000 people attended the six-day event in September 1912 to watch hundreds of cowboys from Western Canada, the United States, and Mexico compete for $ 20,000 in prizes. The event generated $ 120,000 in revenue and
24395-441: The facility was expected to cost $ 83 million, but cost overruns pushed the facility to nearly $ 100 million. The Olympic Oval was built on the campus of the University of Calgary . It was the first fully enclosed 400-metre speed skating venue in the world as it was necessary to protect against the possibility of either bitter cold temperatures or ice-melting chinook winds . Seven world and three Olympic records were broken during
24600-580: The formation of the provincial university. However, the efforts by the community could not sway the government, and the University of Alberta was founded in the City of Strathcona , Premier Rutherford's home, which was subsequently amalgamated into the City of Edmonton in 1912. Calgary was not to be left without higher education facilities as the provincial Normal School opened in the McDougall School building in 1905. In 1910, R. B. Bennett introduced
24805-441: The former were charged with providing the ideological justification for war and other crimes, while the latter were accused of enabling Germany's war effort. The charge, a brainchild of War Department lawyer Murray C. Bernays , and perhaps inspired by his previous work prosecuting securities fraud , was spearheaded by the United States and less popular with the other delegations, particularly France. The problem of translating
25010-834: The front ranges of the Canadian Rockies , roughly 299 km (186 mi) south of the provincial capital of Edmonton and approximately 240 km (150 mi) north of the Canada–United States border . The city anchors the south end of the Statistics Canada -defined urban area, the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor . Calgary's economy includes activity in many sectors: energy; financial services; film and television; transportation and logistics; technology; manufacturing; aerospace; health and wellness; retail; and tourism. The Calgary Metropolitan Region
25215-724: The frontier town, in early 1884 Jack Campbell was appointed as a constable for the community, and in early 1885 the Town Council passed By-law Eleven creating the position of Chief Constable and assigning relevant duties, a precursor to the Calgary Police Service . The first chief constable, John (Jack) S. Ingram, who had previously served as the first police chief in Winnipeg, was empowered to arrest drunken and disorderly people, stop all fast riding in town, attend all fires and council meetings. Calgary Town Council
25420-453: The governments-in-exile of countries occupied by Germany, especially Poland , which as early as December 1939 established agencies aimed at recording crimes committed by Germany in Poland for their later prosecution. These efforts resulted in a Polish-French-British declaration on April 18, 1940, holding Germany responsible for the crimes, without an explicit promise of their prosecution. Such
25625-472: The importance of the moment, the entire Town Council resigned to ensure the new city could choose the first Calgary City Council . Calgary's first municipal election as a city saw Wesley Fletcher Orr garner 244 votes, narrowly defeating his opponent William Henry Cushing 's 220 votes, and Orr was named the first mayor of the City of Calgary. By late 19th century, the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) expanded into
25830-421: The impression of apologizing without assuming personal guilt or naming any victims other than the German people. On 2 September, the court recessed; and the judges retreated into seclusion to decide the verdict and sentences, which had been under discussion since June. The verdict was drafted by British deputy judge Norman Birkett . All eight judges participated in the deliberations, but the deputies could not cast
26035-522: The indictment and evidence into the three official languages of the tribunal—English, French, and Russian—as well as German was severe due to the scale of the task and difficulty of recruiting interpreters, especially in the Soviet Union. Vyshinsky demanded extensive corrections to the charges of crimes against peace, especially regarding the role of the German–Soviet pact in starting World War II. Jackson also separated out an overall conspiracy charge from
26240-685: The individual guilt of each defendant. None of the defendants tried to assert that the Nazis' crimes had not occurred. Some defendants denied involvement in certain crimes or implausibly claimed ignorance of them, especially the Final Solution. A few defense lawyers inverted the arguments of the prosecution to assert that the Germans' authoritarian mindset and obedience to the state exonerated them from any personal guilt. Most rejected that Germany had deviated from Western civilization, arguing that few Germans could have supported Hitler because Germany
26445-511: The interior and established posts along rivers that later developed into the modern cities of Winnipeg, Calgary and Edmonton. In 1884, the HBC established a sales shop in Calgary. HBC also built the first of the grand "original six" department stores in Calgary in 1913; others that followed were Edmonton, Vancouver , Victoria , Saskatoon , and Winnipeg. In October 1899 the Village of Rouleauville
26650-405: The ire of his superiors Colonel James Macleod and Major Acheson Irvine . Major Irvine cancelled the order by Brisebois and wrote Hewitt Bernard , the then Deputy Minister of Justice in Ottawa, describing the situation and suggesting the name "Calgary" put forward by Colonel Macleod. Edward Blake , at the time Minister of Justice , agreed with the name and in the spring of 1876, Fort Calgary
26855-444: The ire of property owners on the east side of town. Property owners on both sides of Centre Street sought to bring development to their side of Calgary, lost successfully by eastsider James Walker who convinced the Town Council to purchase land on the east side to build a stockyard, guaranteeing meat packing and processing plants would be constructed on the east side. By 1892 Calgary had reached present-day Seventeenth Avenue , east to
27060-458: The judgments totaling 3,828 pages. Of 177 defendants, 142 were convicted and 25 sentenced to death; the severity of sentencing was related to the defendant's proximity to mass murder. Legal historian Kevin Jon Heller argues that the trials' greatest achievement was "their inestimable contribution to the form and substance of international criminal law", which had been left underdeveloped by
27265-452: The larger 53-storey west tower rise to 215 m (705 ft) and become the largest building in Calgary for 26 years, and a smaller 32-storey east tower rise 130 m (430 ft). The city further expanded the CTrain system, planning began in 1981, and the northeast leg of the system was to be operational in time for the 1988 Olympics. The 1980s oil glut caused by falling demand and
27470-415: The largest delegation, it would take on the bulk of the prosecutorial effort. At Jackson's recommendation, the United States appointed judges Francis Biddle and John Parker . The British chief prosecutor was Hartley Shawcross , Attorney General for England and Wales , assisted by his predecessor David Maxwell Fyfe . Although the chief British judge, Sir Geoffrey Lawrence ( Lord Justice of Appeal ),
27675-475: The lawful mayor of the growingly disorganized Town of Calgary, both holding council meetings and attempting to govern. Word of the issues in Calgary reached the Minister of Justice John Sparrow David Thompson in Ottawa who ordered Justice Thomas Wardlaw Taylor of Winnipeg to conduct an inquiry into the "Case of Jeremiah Travis" . The federal government acted before receiving Taylor's report, Jeremiah Travis
27880-500: The main charge, as opposed to that of aggression. All prosecutors except the Americans mentioned the concept of genocide , which had been recently invented by the Polish-Jewish jurist Raphael Lemkin . British prosecutor Shawcross quoted from witness testimony about a murdered Jewish family from Dubno , Ukraine. During the closing statements, most defendants disappointed the judges by their lies and denial. Speer managed to give
28085-633: The male workforce) were officially unemployed. Labour organizations began endorsing candidates for Calgary City Council in the late 1910s and were quickly successful in electing sympathetic candidates to office, including Mayor Samuel Hunter Adams in 1920 . As well the Industrial Workers of the World and its sequel, the One Big Union , found much support among Calgary workers. The city's support of labour and agricultural groups made it
28290-518: The murder of 80,000 people by those under his command, and SS general Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski , who admitted that German anti-partisan warfare was little more than a cover for the mass murder of Jews. The British prosecution covered the charge of crimes against peace, which was largely redundant to the American conspiracy case. On 4 December, Shawcross gave the opening speech, much of which had been written by Cambridge professor Hersch Lauterpacht . Unlike Jackson, Shawcross attempted to minimize
28495-411: The murder of tens of thousands of Jews from Vilna . The Soviet prosecution case was generally well received and presented compelling evidence about the suffering of the Soviet people and the Soviet contributions to victory. From March to July 1946, the defense presented its counterarguments. Before the prosecution finished, it was clear that their general case was proven, but it remained to determine
28700-558: The nineteenth century, arguing that it had diverged from the West due to pan-Germanism and imperialism. They argued that Nazi ideology, which derived from these earlier ideas, was the mens rea —criminal intent—of the crimes on trial. The French prosecutors, more than their British or American counterparts, emphasized the complicity of many Germans; they barely mentioned the charge of aggressive war and instead focused on forced labor, economic plunder, and massacres. Prosecutor Edgar Faure grouped together various German policies, such as
28905-601: The novelty of the aggression charges, elaborating its precursors in the conventions of Hague and Geneva , the League of Nations Covenant , the Locarno Treaty , and the Kellogg–Briand Pact . The British took four days to make their case, with Maxwell Fyfe detailing treaties broken by Germany. In mid-December the Americans switched to presenting the case against the indicted organizations, while in January both
29110-488: The office of Mayor of Calgary. Calgary had only a couple days' peace following the November election before the Calgary Fire of 1886 destroyed much of the community's downtown. Part of the slow response to the fire can be attributed to the absence of functioning local government during 1886. As neither George Murdoch or James Reilly was capable of effectively governing the town, the newly ordered chemical engine for
29315-482: The open traffic of liquor, gambling and prostitution in Calgary despite prohibition in the North-West Territories. Travis' view was accurate as the Royal Commission of Liquor Traffic of 1892 found liquor was sold openly, both day and night during prohibition. Travis associated Clarke with the troubles he saw in Calgary and found him guilty, and sentenced Clarke to six months with hard labour . Murdoch and
29520-413: The opening speech for the prosecution. He described the fact that the defeated Nazis received a trial as "one of the most significant tributes that Power has ever paid to Reason". Focusing on aggressive war, which he described as the root of the other crimes, Jackson promoted an intentionalist view of the Nazi state and its overall criminal conspiracy. The speech was favorably received by the prosecution,
29725-629: The opposite of the Liberal-friendly City of Edmonton. However, Calgarians were sympathetic to the cause of workers and supported the development of labour organizations. In 1909, the United Farmers of Alberta (UFA) formed in Edmonton through the merger of two earlier farm organizations as a non-partisan lobbying organization to represent the interests of farmers. The UFA eventually dropped its non-partisan stance when it contested
29930-472: The other members of Council were shocked, and a public meeting was held at Boynton's Hall in which a decision was made to send a delegation to Ottawa to seek an overruling of Travis' judgement by the Department of Justice. The community quickly raised $ 500, and Murdoch and a group of residents headed east. The punishment of Clarke did not escape Hugh Cayley the editor of the Calgary Herald and Clerk of
30135-623: The other three charges, aiming that the American prosecution would cover the overall Nazi conspiracy while the other delegations would flesh out the details of Nazi crimes. The division of labor, and the haste with which the indictment was prepared, resulted in duplication, imprecise language, and lack of attribution of specific charges to individual defendants. Some of the most prominent Nazis— Adolf Hitler , Heinrich Himmler , and Joseph Goebbels —had committed suicide and therefore could not be tried. The prosecutors wanted to try representative leaders of German politics, economy, and military. Most of
30340-477: The political, military, and economic spheres, as well as six German organizations. The purpose of the trial was not just to convict the defendants but also to assemble irrefutable evidence of Nazi crimes, offer a history lesson to the defeated Germans, and delegitimize the traditional German elite. The IMT verdict followed the prosecution in declaring the crime of plotting and waging aggressive war "the supreme international crime" because "it contains within itself
30545-518: The population increase from 330,575 to 636,107. Population growth became a source of pride, the June 1980 Calgary Magazine exclaimed "Welcome to Calgary! Calgary almost specializes in newcomers..." . High-rise buildings were erected during the economic boom, and more office space opened in Calgary in 1979 than in New York City and Chicago combined. The end of the oil boom is associated with
30750-473: The preparations for the invasion of the Soviet Union. Paulus incriminated his former associates, pointing to Keitel, Jodl, and Göring as the defendants most responsible for the war. More so than other delegations, Soviet prosecutors showed the gruesome details of German atrocities, especially the death by starvation of 3 million Soviet prisoners of war and several hundred thousand residents of Leningrad . Although Soviet prosecutors dealt most extensively with
30955-410: The president of the World Zionist Organization , as well as the Provisional Government of National Unity in Poland, for an active role in the trial justified by their representation of victims of Nazi crimes were rejected. The Soviet Union invited prosecutors from its allies, including Poland, Czechoslovakia , and Yugoslavia ; Denmark and Norway also sent a delegation. Although the Polish delegation
31160-419: The proceedings. The American prosecution drew on reports of the Office of Strategic Services , an American intelligence agency, and information provided by the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research and the American Jewish Committee , while the French prosecution presented many documents that it had obtained from the Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation . The prosecution called 37 witnesses compared to
31365-411: The prosecution's case. Over the course of the trial, Western judges allowed the defendants additional leeway to denounce the Soviet Union, which was ultimately revealed to be a co-conspirator in the outbreak of World War II. In the context of the brewing Cold War —for example, in 1946 Winston Churchill delivered the Iron Curtain speech —the trial became a means of condemning not only Germany but also
31570-445: The rationale for American entry into World War II . However, Jackson conceded on defining crimes against peace; the other three Allies were opposed because it would undermine the freedom of action of the United Nations Security Council . War crimes already existed in international law as criminal violations of the laws and customs of war , but these did not apply to a government's treatment of its own citizens. Legal experts sought
31775-437: The recently organized Calgary Fire Department (Calgary Hook, Ladder and Bucket Corps) was held in the CPR's storage yard due to lack of payment. Members of the Calgary Fire Department broke into the CPR storage yard on the day of the fire to retrieve the engine. In total, fourteen buildings were destroyed with losses estimated at $ 103,200, although no one was killed or injured. The new Town Council sprung into action, drafting
31980-399: The region in the same year for the Cochrane area by order of Major James Walker. The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) reached the area in August 1883 and constructed a railway station on the CPR-owned Section 15, neighbouring the townsite across the Elbow River to the east on Section 14. The difficulty in crossing the river and the CPR's efforts to persuade residents resulted in the core of
32185-681: The scope of its mandate, with Belgian jurist Marcel de Baer and Czech legal scholar Bohuslav Ečer arguing for a broader definition of war crimes that would include "the crime of war". On 1 November 1943, the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and United States issued the Moscow Declaration , warning the Nazi leadership of the signatories' intent to "pursue them to the uttermost ends of the earth...in order that justice may be done". The declaration stated that those high-ranking Nazis who had committed crimes in several countries would be dealt with jointly, while others would be tried where they had committed their crimes. Soviet jurist Aron Trainin developed
32390-411: The sentences and the last three prisoners, all convicted at the Einsatzgruppen trial, were released in 1958. The German public took the early releases as confirmation of what they saw as the illegitimacy of the trials. The IMT defendants required Soviet permission for release; Speer was not successful in obtaining early release, and Hess remained in prison until his death in 1987. By the late 1950s,
32595-411: The site became a post of the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) (now the Royal Canadian Mounted Police or RCMP). The NWMP detachment was assigned to protect the western plains from US whisky traders, and to protect the fur trade , and Inspector Éphrem-A. Brisebois led fifty Mounties as part of F Troop north from Fort Macleod to establish the site. The I. G. Baker Company of Fort Benton, Montana ,
32800-463: The strike. Former Herald staff who left during or as a result of the strike can be found working for other publications, most notably the weekly business-oriented publication Business Edge . On 25 February 2011 the Communications, Energy and Paperworkers Union of Canada (CEP) asked the federal government to review (under the Investment Canada Act ) the 2010 purchase of the newspaper by Postmedia Network . A June 2010 series, "Worked to Death" on
33005-405: The structures to the ground. The local police did not attempt to intervene. Mayor Alexander Lucas had inexplicably left town during the riot, and when he returned home he called the NWMP in to patrol Calgary for three weeks to prevent further riots. Finally on January 1, 1894, Calgary was granted a charter by the 2nd North-West Legislative Assembly , officially titled Ordinance 33 of 1894 ,
33210-402: The team to Skalbania for US$ 16 million, a record sale price for an NHL team at the time. The team reached the playoffs each year in its first 10 years in Calgary and won the team's only Stanley Cup in 1989 . Public concern existed regarding the potential long-term debt implications that had plagued Montreal following the 1976 Olympics . The Calgary Olympic Development Association led
33415-455: The three prairie provinces . As of 2021, the city proper had a population of 1,306,784 and a metropolitan population of 1,680,000 making it the third-largest city and fifth-largest metropolitan area in Canada. Calgary is at the confluence of the Bow River and the Elbow River in the southwest of the province, in the transitional area between the Rocky Mountain Foothills and the Canadian Prairies , about 80 km (50 mi) east of
33620-500: The total number of staff eliminated at the company since 2008. By 2011, the Calgary Herald newsroom was remodelled to enable teams to work on its websites and social media platforms like Twitter as advertising revenue migrated from printed to digital media. The Calgary Herald , like Postmedia's 45 other metropolitan and community newspapers, was struggling financially. Postmedia's print circulation and advertising sales, which accounted for 90 percent of its revenue, declined, its debt load
33825-511: The traditional German elite, and allow the Allies to distance themselves from appeasement . Jackson maintained that while the United States did "not seek to convict the whole German people of crime", neither did the trial "serve to absolve the whole German people except 21 men in the dock". Nevertheless, defense lawyers (although not most of the defendants) often argued that the prosecution was trying to promote German collective guilt and forcefully countered this strawman . According to Priemel,
34030-442: The train was able to make the trip in only a few hours. Smallpox arrived in Calgary in June 1892 when a Chinese resident was found with the disease, and by August nine people had contracted the disease with three deaths. Calgarians placed the blame for the disease on the local Chinese population, resulting in a riot on August 2, 1892. Residents descended on the Town's Chinese-owned laundries, smashing windows and attempting to burn
34235-428: The trial procedure and attempted to discredit the entire proceedings. In order to appease them, the defendants were allowed a free hand with their witnesses and a great deal of irrelevant testimony was heard. The defendants' witnesses sometimes managed to exculpate them, but other witnesses—including Rudolf Höss , the former commandant of Auschwitz, and Hans Bernd Gisevius , a member of the German resistance —bolstered
34440-408: The trial was procedurally fair. The judges were aware that both the Allies and the Axis had planned or committed acts of aggression, writing the verdict carefully to avoid discrediting either the Allied governments or the tribunal. The judges ruled that there had been a premeditated conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, whose goals were "the disruption of the European order" and "the creation of
34645-400: The trial: The German Fascist Destruction of the Cultural Treasures of the Peoples of the USSR , Atrocities Committed by the German Fascist Invaders in the USSR , and The German Fascist Destruction of Soviet Cities , using footage from Soviet filmmakers as well as shots from German newsreels. The second film included footage of the liberation of Majdanek and the liberation of Auschwitz and
34850-439: The trials illegitimate victor's justice and an imposition of collective guilt, which they rejected—instead considering themselves victims of the war. As the Cold War began, the rapidly changing political environment began to affect the effectiveness of the trials. The educational purpose of the Nuremberg Military Tribunals was a failure, in part because of the resistance to war crimes trials in German society, but also because of
35055-401: The trials' innovation of holding individuals responsible for violations of international law is considered "the true beginning of international criminal law ". Between 1939 and 1945, Nazi Germany invaded many European countries , including Poland , Denmark , Norway , the Netherlands , Belgium , Luxembourg , France , Yugoslavia , Greece , and the Soviet Union . German aggression
35260-405: The tribunal, except for the execution of hostages. Due to the narrow definition of crimes against humanity in the charter, the only part of the Germanization charges accepted by the judges was the deportation of Jews from France and other parts of Western Europe. On 8 February, the Soviet prosecution opened its case with a speech by Rudenko that covered all four prosecution charges, highlighting
35465-505: The tribunal, the audience, historians, and even the defendants. Much of the American case focused on the development of the Nazi conspiracy before the outbreak of war. The American prosecution became derailed during attempts to provide evidence on the first act of aggression, against Austria . On 29 November, the prosecution was unprepared to continue presenting on the invasion of Czechoslovakia , and instead screened Nazi Concentration and Prison Camps . The film, compiled from footage of
35670-422: The war in Europe . At the London Conference, held from 26 June to 2 August 1945, representatives of France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States negotiated the form that the trial would take. Until the end of the negotiations, it was not clear that any trial would be held at all. The offenses that would be prosecuted were crimes against peace, crimes against humanity , and war crimes. At
35875-441: The whole". The work of the judges was made more difficult due to the broadness of the crimes listed in the Nuremberg Charter. The judges did not attempt to define the crime of aggression and did not mention the retroactivity of the charges in the verdict. Despite the lingering doubts of some of the judges, the official interpretation of the IMT held that all of the charges had a solid basis in customary international law and that
36080-400: The worst offenders were not prosecuted, for logistical or financial reasons. One set of trials focused on the actions of German professionals: the Doctors' trial focused on human experimentation and euthanasia murders , the Judges' trial on the role of the judiciary in Nazi crimes , and the Ministries trial on the culpability of bureaucrats of German government ministries, especially
36285-644: Was a civilized country. The defendants tried to blame their crimes on Hitler, who was mentioned 1,200 times during the trial—more than the top five defendants combined. Other absent and dead men, including Himmler, Reinhard Heydrich , Adolf Eichmann , and Bormann, were also blamed. To counter claims that conservative defendants had enabled the Nazi rise to power , defense lawyers blamed the Social Democratic Party of Germany , trade unions, and other countries that maintained diplomatic relations with Germany. In contrast, most defendants avoided incriminating each other. Most defendants argued their own insignificance within
36490-454: Was able to cast one vote for the mayor and up to four votes for the councillors ( plurality block voting ). George Murdoch won the mayoral race in a landslide victory with 202 votes over E. Redpath's 16, while Simon Jackson Hogg, Neville James Lindsay, Joseph Henry Millward, and Simon John Clarke were elected councillors. The next morning the Council met for the first time at Beaudoin and Clarke's Saloon. Law and order remained top of mind in
36695-445: Was accompanied by immense brutality in occupied areas; war losses in the Soviet Union alone included 27 million dead , mostly civilians, which was one seventh of the prewar population. The legal reckoning was premised on the extraordinary nature of Nazi criminality, particularly the perceived singularity of the systematic murder of millions of Jews . The first step towards the trials of Nazi war criminals were initiatives taken by
36900-400: Was appointed the Herald's publisher in August, 2006. The Herald also publishes Neighbours , a weekly community newspaper that is distributed with the Herald in some parts of Calgary, and Swerve , a weekly magazine-style pullout. In the spring of 2005, the Herald joined several other CanWest Global affiliates in launching Dose , a free daily newspaper targeted at younger commuters; it
37105-429: Was appointed the United States' chief prosecutor, whom historian Kim Christian Priemel describes as "a versatile politician and a remarkable orator, if not a great legal thinker". The United States prosecution believed that Nazism was the product of a German deviation from the West (the Sonderweg thesis) and sought to correct this deviation with a trial that would serve both retributive and educational purposes. As
37310-405: Was arrested for threatening a plain-clothes Mountie who entered his saloon to conduct a late-night search. When the officer failed to produce a search warrant , Clarke chased him off the premises; however, the Mountie returned with reinforcements and arrested Clarke. Clarke found himself before Stipendiary Magistrate Jeremiah Travis , a proponent of the temperance movement who was appalled by
37515-468: Was considered even more disturbing than the American concentration camp film. Soviet witnesses included several survivors of German crimes, including two civilians who lived through the siege of Leningrad, a peasant whose village was destroyed in anti-partisan warfare, a Red Army doctor who endured several prisoner-of-war camps and two Holocaust survivors— Samuel Rajzman , a survivor of Treblinka extermination camp , and poet Abraham Sutzkever , who described
37720-406: Was contracted to construct a suitable fort, and after its completion, the Baker company built a log store next to the fort. The NWMP fort remained officially nameless until construction was complete, although it had been referred to as "The Mouth" by people at Fort Macleod. At Christmas dinner NWMP Inspector Éphrem-A. Brisebois christened the unnamed Fort "Fort Brisebois" , a decision which caught
37925-447: Was despite the fact Murdoch was visiting Eastern Canada while the alleged tampering was occurring. Travis' disqualification did not dissuade Calgary voters, and Murdoch defeated his opponent James Reilly by a significant margin in early January to be re-elected as mayor. Travis accepted a petition from Reilly to unseat Murdoch and two of the elected councillors, and declare Reilly the mayor of Calgary. Both Murdoch and Reilly claimed to be
38130-495: Was difficult to sustain interest in a long trial. Where the prosecution was disappointed by some of the verdicts, the defense could take satisfaction. Many Germans at the time of the trials focused on finding food and shelter. Despite this, a majority read press reports about the trial. In a 1946 poll, 78 percent of Germans assessed the trial as fair, but four years later that had fallen to 38 percent, with 30 percent considering it unfair. As time went on, more Germans considered
38335-405: Was discontinued as a print publication after a year. In August 2010 Paul Godfrey President and CEO of Postmedia Network announced the appointment of Guy Huntingford as the publisher of the Calgary Herald as it "continues its transformation into an integrated multimedia brand." In April 2013 Godfrey announced that was "eliminating the publisher position at its chain of 10 newspapers, which includes
38540-475: Was eager to employ constables versus contracting the NWMP for town duty as the police force was seen as a money-making proposition. Constables received half of the fines from liquor cases, meaning Chief Constable Ingram could easily pay his $ 60 per month salary and the expense of a town jail. For the Town of Calgary, 1884 turned out to be a success. However, two dark years lay ahead for the fledgling community. The turmoil started in late 1885, when Councillor Clarke
38745-589: Was formed later in 1915. Built-up areas of Calgary between 1905 and 1912 were serviced by power and water, the city continued a program of paving and sidewalk laying and with the CPR constructed a series of subways under the tracks to connect the town with streetcars. The first three motor buses hit Calgary streets in 1907, and two years later the municipally owned street railway system , fit with seven miles of track opened in Calgary. The immediately popular street railway system reached 250,000 passengers per month by 1910. The privately owned MacArthur Bridge (precursor to
38950-457: Was hailed as a success. The Calgary Stampede has continued as a civic tradition for over 100 years, marketing itself as the "greatest outdoor show on earth" , with Calgarians sporting western wear for 10 days while attending the annual parade, daily pancake breakfasts. While agriculture and railway activities were the dominant aspects of Calgary's early economy, the Turner Valley Discovery Well blew South-West of Calgary on May 14, 1914, marked
39155-433: Was heavy, which forced it to cut costs aggressively cut. In spite of the digital innovations at the Calgary Herald in which staff did not have the protection of a union, and there were even deeper job cuts. Postmedia met with union-resistance at its other papers. Frank Swanson, was Calgary Herald publisher from 1962 to 1982, when he retired after 44 years in journalism. During World War II, as war correspondent, he covered
39360-414: Was incorporated by French Catholic residents south of Calgary's city limits in what is now known as Mission . The town did not remain independent for long, and became the first incorporated municipality to be amalgamated into Calgary eight years later in 1907. The turn of the century brought questions of provincehood the top of mind in Calgary. On September 1, 1905, Alberta was proclaimed a province with
39565-402: Was inhabited by pre- Clovis people whose presence traces back at least 11,000 years. The area has been inhabited by multiple First Nations , the Niitsitapi (Blackfoot Confederacy; Siksika , Kainai , Piikani ), îyârhe Nakoda , Tsuutʼina peoples and Métis Nation, Region 3. In 1787, David Thompson , a 17-year-old cartographer with the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), spent the winter with
39770-422: Was largely accepted, with the final wording being "murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population". The final version of the charter limited the tribunal's jurisdiction over crimes against humanity to those committed as part of a war of aggression. Both the United States—concerned that its " Jim Crow " system of racial segregation not be labeled
39975-489: Was narrowed to a conspiracy to wage aggressive war. Only eight defendants were convicted on that charge; all of whom were also found guilty of crimes against peace. All 22 defendants were charged with crimes against peace, and 12 were convicted. The war crimes and crimes against humanity charges held up the best, with only two defendants charged on those grounds being acquitted. The judges determined that crimes against humanity concerning German Jews before 1939 were not under
40180-412: Was not empowered to intervene in the proceedings, it submitted evidence and an indictment, succeeding at drawing some attention to crimes committed against Polish Jews and non-Jews. The work of drafting the indictment was divided up by the national delegations. The British worked on aggressive war; the other delegations were assigned the task of covering crimes against humanity and war crimes committed on
40385-402: Was not expected that the railway would pass near Calgary; instead, the preferred route put forward by people concerned with the young nation's defence was passing near Edmonton and through the Yellowhead Pass . However, in 1881 CPR changed the plans preferring the direct route through the prairies by way of Kicking Horse Pass . Along with the CPR, August 1883 brought Calgary the first edition of
40590-420: Was officially established. In 1877, the First Nations ceded title to the Fort Calgary region through Treaty 7. In 1881 the federal government began to offer leases for cattle ranching in Alberta (up to 400 km (100,000 acres) for one cent per acre per year) under the Dominion Lands Act , which became a catalyst for immigration to the settlement. The I. G. Baker Company drove the first herd of cattle to
40795-542: Was planned to hold a second international tribunal for German industrialists, but this was never held because of differences between the Allies. Twelve military trials were convened solely by the United States in the same courtroom that had hosted the International Military Tribunal. Pursuant to Law No. 10 adopted by the Allied Control Council , United States forces arrested almost 100,000 Germans as war criminals. The Office of Chief Counsel for War Crimes identified 2,500 major war criminals, of whom 177 were tried. Many of
41000-424: Was rejected by Jackson. Instead, the charter limited the jurisdiction of the court to Germany's actions. Article 7 prevented the defendants from claiming sovereign immunity , and the plea of acting under superior orders was left for the judges to decide. The trial was held under modified common law . The negotiators decided that the tribunal's permanent seat would be in Berlin, while the trial would be held at
41205-607: Was running the I.G. Baker store in Calgary, was elected MP for Alberta (Provisional District) . A former whisky trader in southern Alberta, he had turned his hand to building Fort Macleod and Fort Calgary. The main other contender for the job, Frank Oliver , was a prominent Edmontonian, so Davis's success was a sign that Calgary was surpassing Edmonton, previously the main centre on the western Prairies. Calgary continued to expand when real estate speculation took hold of Calgary in 1889. Speculators began buying and building west of Centre Street, and Calgary quickly began to sprawl west to
41410-405: Was suspended, and the government waited for his official tenure to expire, after which he was pensioned off. Justice Taylor's report, which was released in June 1887, found Travis had exceeded his authority and erred in his judgements. The Territorial Council called for a new municipal election to be held in Calgary on November 3, 1886. George Clift King defeated his opponent John Lineham for
41615-407: Was the culmination of collaboration work by a "photographers, researchers, editors, graphic artists and online journalists" that spanned a year. The series resulted in changes in the way in which the Alberta government improved the province's workplace safety enforcement system. Calgary Calgary is the largest city in the Canadian province of Alberta . It is the largest metro area within
41820-449: Was the nominal president of the tribunal, in practice Biddle exercised more authority. The French prosecutor, François de Menthon , had just overseen trials of the leaders of Vichy France ; he resigned in January 1946 and was replaced by Auguste Champetier de Ribes . The French judges were Henri Donnedieu de Vabres , a professor of criminal law, and deputy Robert Falco , a judge of the Cour de Cassation who had represented France at
42025-509: Was undertaken to prevent a British invasion of that country ; a cover-up prevented the defense from capitalizing on this argument. Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz testified that the United States Navy had also used unrestricted submarine warfare against Japan in the Pacific ; Dönitz's counsel successfully argued that this meant that it could not be a crime. The judges barred most evidence on Allied misdeeds from being heard in court. Many defense lawyers complained about various aspects of
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