135-646: The Camp David Accords were a pair of political agreements signed by Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin on 17 September 1978, following twelve days of secret negotiations at Camp David , the country retreat of the president of the United States in Maryland . The two framework agreements were signed at the White House and were witnessed by President Jimmy Carter . The second of these frameworks ( A Framework for
270-642: A two-state settlement on the pre-1967 borders. But the Rejectionist Front denounced the calls for diplomacy, and a diplomatic solution was vetoed by the United States. In 1975, the increasing tensions between Palestinian militants and Christian militias exploded into the Lebanese Civil War , involving all factions. On 20 January 1976, the PLO took part in the Damour massacre in retaliation to
405-594: A Coptic Orthodox bishop. Among the wounded were Egyptian Vice-President Hosni Mubarak , Irish Defence Minister James Tully , and four U.S. military liaison officers. One of the assassins was killed and the other three were wounded and taken into custody. The surviving assassins were tried and found guilty of assassinating the president and killing 10 others in the process; they were sentenced to capital punishment, and were executed on 15 April 1982. Treaties and meetings General articles [Carter] outlined to Begin his program, which consisted of five points: (1) achieve
540-654: A Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel" , the second leading towards the Egypt–Israel peace treaty signed in March 1979. The agreements and the peace treaty were both accompanied by "side-letters" of understanding between Egypt and the U.S. and Israel and the U.S. The preamble of the "Framework for Peace in the Middle East" starts with the basis of a peaceful settlement of the Arab–Israeli conflict : The agreed basis for
675-520: A basic plan for reinvigorating the peace process based on a Geneva Peace Conference and had presented three main objectives for Arab–Israeli peace: Arab recognition of Israel's right to exist in peace, Israel's withdrawal from occupied territories gained in the Six-Day War through negotiating efforts with neighboring Arab nations to ensure that Israel's security would not be threatened, and securing an undivided Jerusalem. The Camp David Accords were
810-534: A comprehensive peace affecting all of Israel's neighbors: (2) peace to be based on UN Resolution 242: (3) peace would involve open borders and free trade; (4) peace would call for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories to secure borders; (5) a Palestinian entity (but not an independent nation) should be created. Begin responded that he could accept all of these points except the Palestinian entity. President of Egypt [REDACTED] Member State of
945-687: A decree suspending the PLC and some sections of the Palestinian Basic Law , and appointed Salam Fayyad as prime minister. The PLO remains the official representative of the State of Palestine at the UN . On 4 February 1969, Fatah founder, Arafat, was elected Chairman of the PLO in Cairo . Since, Fatah has been the dominant factor within the PLO, which still continues in 2015. Under pressure from
1080-566: A group of Palestinian lawyers, jurists and legal scholars, due to lack of elections. They questioned the PLO's legitimacy to alter the status and role of the Organization in respect of their status within the UN. They demanded immediate and direct elections to the Palestine National Council to ″activate representative PLO institutions in order to preserve, consolidate, and strengthen the effective legal representation of
1215-457: A maximum period of sixty days from the date of the vacancy of the office. Although, the constitution does not directly stipulate any role for the vice president in the process of presidential succession, it had become a tradition for the People's Assembly to nominate a vice president for the vacant office of the president. Both Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak served as vice-presidents at the time
1350-508: A peaceful settlement of the conflict between Israel and its neighbors is United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, in all its parts. The framework itself consists of 3 parts. The first part of the framework was to establish an autonomous self-governing authority in the West Bank and the Gaza strip and to fully implement Resolution 242 . The Accords recognized the "legitimate rights of
1485-593: A power vacuum that Saddam Hussein of Iraq , at one time only a secondary power, hoped to fill. Because of the vague language concerning the implementation of Resolution 242 , the Palestinian problem became the primary issue in the Arab–Israeli conflict . Many of the Arab nations blamed Egypt for not putting enough pressure on Israel to deal with the Palestinian problem in a way that would be satisfactory to them. Syria also informed Egypt that it would not reconcile with
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#17327647831411620-539: A school in Israel and killed a total of 26 students and adults and wounded over 70 in the Ma'alot massacre . The 1975, Savoy Hotel hostage situation killing 8 hostages and 3 soldiers, carried out by Fatah. The 1978, Coastal Road massacre killing 37 Israelis and wounding 76, also carried out by Fatah. From 1967 to September 1970 the PLO, with passive support from Jordan, fought a war of attrition with Israel. During this time,
1755-470: A secondary concern to Israeli military and other Lebanese factions. With ousting of the PLO, the Lebanese Civil War gradually turned into a prolonged conflict, shifting from mainly PLO-Christian conflict into involvement of all Lebanese factions – whether Sunni , Shia , Druze , and Christians . In 1982, the PLO relocated to Tunis , Tunisia after it was driven out of Lebanon by Israel during
1890-580: A senior Israeli diplomat by Lebanon-based Palestinian militants in Lebanon, Israel invaded Lebanon in a much larger scale in coordination with the Lebanese Christian militias, reaching Beirut and eventually resulting in ousting of the PLO headquarters in June that year. Low-level Palestinian insurgency in Lebanon continued in parallel with the consolidation of Shia militant organizations, but became
2025-643: A symbolic barrier, and from there the peace process quickly gained momentum. An Israeli–Egyptian working summit was scheduled for 25 December in Ismailiya, near the Suez Canal . Accompanied by their capable negotiating teams and with their respective interests in mind, the Israeli and Egyptian leaders Menachem Begin and Anwar Sadat converged on Camp David for 13 days of tense and dramatic negotiations from 5 to 17 September 1978. Carter's advisers insisted on
2160-559: A time, the President of the Supreme Constitutional Court shall take over the presidency on condition that neither shall nominate themselves for the presidency. Both are also limited in power as in they cannot dissolve the parliament, remove the cabinet, or propose constitutional amendments. The People's Assembly shall then proclaim the vacancy of the office of president, and a new president shall be chosen within
2295-485: A willingness to engage the Egyptian leader. Like Sadat, Begin also saw many reasons why bilateral talks would be in his country's best interests. It would afford Israel the opportunity to negotiate only with Egypt instead of with a larger Arab delegation that might try to use its size to make unwelcome or unacceptable demands. Israel felt Egypt could help protect Israel from other Arabs and Eastern communists. In addition,
2430-475: Is Field Marshal Abdel Farrah el-Sisi , who has been in office since 8 June 2014. The first president of Egypt was Mohamed Naguib , who, along with Gamal Abdel Nasser , led the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 that overthrew King Farouk and marked the end of British colonial rule. Though Farouk's infant son was formally declared by the revolutionaries as King Fuad II , all effective executive power
2565-568: Is a Palestinian nationalist coalition that is internationally recognized as the official representative of the Palestinian people in both the Palestinian territories and the diaspora . It is currently represented by the Palestinian Authority based in the West Bank city of Al-Bireh . Founded in 1964, it initially sought to establish an Arab state over the entire territory of the former Mandatory Palestine , advocating
2700-718: Is confirmed in office by popular plebiscite of all eligible voters in the country. Egypt maintained this system even after it was abandoned by France in 1962 in Favour of direct presidential elections, eliminating the role of the legislature in the election of the French president. In the Egyptian Constitution of 1971 , the name of the National Assembly was changed to the People's Assembly. In 2005 and 2007, constitutional amendments were made . Principles in
2835-473: Is criticized for not differentiating between combatants and civilians. Members of the PLO have claimed responsibility for a number of attacks against Israelis during the Second Intifada. The PLO has been sued in the United States by families of those killed or injured in attacks by Palestinians. One lawsuit was settled prior to going to trial. The other went to trial. The PLO was found liable for
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#17327647831412970-601: Is the belief that Zionists had unjustly expelled the Palestinians from Palestine and established a Jewish state in place under the pretext of having historic and Jewish ties with Palestine. The PLO demanded that Palestinian refugees be allowed to return to their homes. This is expressed in the National Covenant: Article 2 of the Charter states that ″Palestine, with the boundaries it had during
3105-578: The 1982 Lebanon War . Following massive raids by Israeli forces in Beirut, it is estimated that 8,000 PLO fighters evacuated the city and dispersed. On 1 October 1985, in Operation Wooden Leg , Israeli Air Force F-15s bombed the PLO's Tunis headquarters, killing more than 60 people. It is suggested that the Tunis period (1982–1991) was a negative point in the PLO's history, leading up to
3240-578: The 2023 presidential election for a third term in office. He was inaugurated in April 2024. The Egyptian Constitution has had various forms since the establishment of the republic in 1953. In all iterations of the republican constitution until 2005, the method of electing the president is based on that of the French Fifth Republic . Both the pre-revolution Egyptian Civil Code , and the semi-presidential system of government adopted after
3375-573: The British mandate , is an indivisible territorial unit″, meaning that there is no place for a Jewish state. This article was adapted in 1996 to meet the Oslo Accords. Article 20 states: ″The Balfour Declaration , the Mandate for Palestine, and everything that has been based upon them, are deemed null and void. Claims of historical or religious ties of Jews with Palestine are incompatible with
3510-550: The Cairo Agreement led the PLO to establish itself in Lebanon. In the late 1960s, and especially after the expulsion of the Palestinian militants from Jordan in Black September events in 1970–1971 , Lebanon had become the base for PLO operations. Palestinian militant organizations relocated their headquarters to South Lebanon, and relying on the support in Palestinian refugee camps, waged a campaign of attacks on
3645-532: The Egyptian Armed Forces in 2014 and then went on to win the 2014 presidential election , being sworn in as president on 8 June 2014. He was later re-elected to a second term in 2018 after winning the 2018 presidential election . In April 2019, Egypt's parliament extended presidential terms from four to six years. President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi was also allowed to run for third term in next election in 2024. In December 2023, President al-Sisi won
3780-609: The Egyptian Islamic Jihad during the annual victory parade held in Cairo to celebrate Egypt's crossing of the Suez Canal. The president's personal protection was infiltrated by four members of this organization, who were hiding in a truck passing through the military parade with other military vehicles. As the truck approached the president, the leader of the belligerents – Lieutenant Khalid Islambouli – came out of
3915-655: The Israel–PLO Letters of Mutual Recognition (1993), in which PLO leader Yasser Arafat renounced violence against Israel, the PLO engaged in militant activities during the Second Intifada (2000–2005). On 29 October 2018, the PLO Central Council suspended the Palestinian recognition of Israel . As the officially recognized government of the de jure State of Palestine , it has enjoyed United Nations observer status since 1974. Prior to
4050-637: The Karantina massacre . The PLO and Lebanese National Movement attacked the Christian town of Damour , killing 684 civilians and forcing the remainder of the town's population to flee. In 1976 Syria joined the war by invading Lebanon, beginning the 29‑year Syrian occupation of Lebanon , and in 1978 Israel invaded South Lebanon in response to the Coastal Road Massacre , executed by Palestinian militants based in Lebanon. The population in
4185-673: The Knesset were the request for the implementation of Resolutions 242 and 338 . Sadat's visit was the first step to negotiations such as the preliminary Cairo Conference in December 1977. A mechanism had yet to be created for Israel and Egypt to pursue the talks begun by Sadat and Begin in Jerusalem. The Egyptian president suggested to Begin that Israel place a secret representative in the American embassy in Cairo. With American "cover,"
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4320-561: The Middle East peace process that had stalled throughout the 1976 presidential campaign in the United States . Following the advice of a Brookings Institution report, Carter opted to replace the incremental, bilateral peace talks which had characterized Henry Kissinger 's shuttle diplomacy following the 1973 Yom Kippur War with a comprehensive, multilateral approach. The Yom Kippur War further complicated efforts to achieve
4455-774: The Nobel Peace Prize with Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin in 1978 for initiating peace talks between the two countries. He was succeeded by his vice president, Hosni Mubarak , who was elected president by plebiscite and remained so for nearly 30 years. In the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 , Mubarak , who held office from 14 October 1981 until 11 February 2011, was forced to resign following mass nationwide protests demanding his removal from office. On 10 February 2011 Mubarak transferred presidential powers to his recently appointed vice president, Omar Suleiman . Suleiman's wielding of presidential powers
4590-540: The Oslo Accords , the PLO's militant wings engaged in acts of violence against both the Israeli military and civilians, within Israel and abroad. The United States designated it as a terrorist group in 1987, though a presidential waiver has permitted American–PLO contact since 1988. At its first summit meeting in Cairo in 1964, the Arab League initiated the creation of an organization representing
4725-534: The Prime Minister under the 2012 and 2014 Constitutions. Egypt had been under martial law since 1981. After the Egyptian revolution in 2011 that ousted the 30-year regime of then President Hosni Mubarak , the martial law was temporarily suspended. The 2012 Constitution provided for a semi-presidential form of government in which the president shares executive powers with the prime minister, until it
4860-525: The Sinai Peninsula and West Bank . Numerous times both the Egyptian and Israeli leaders wanted to scrap negotiations, only to be lured back into the process by personal appeals from Carter. Begin and Sadat had such mutual antipathy toward one another that they only seldom had direct contact; thus Carter had to conduct his own microcosmic form of shuttle diplomacy by holding one-on-one meetings with either Sadat or Begin in one cabin, then returning to
4995-666: The Straits of Tiran ), and a restriction on the forces Egypt could place on the Sinai peninsula, especially within 20–40 km from Israel. This process would take three years to complete. Israel also agreed to limit its forces a smaller distance (3 km) from the Egyptian border, and to guarantee free passage between Egypt and Jordan. With the withdrawal, Israel also returned Egypt's Abu-Rudeis oil fields in western Sinai, which contained long term, commercially productive wells. The Camp David accords changed Middle Eastern politics. Notably,
5130-510: The Venice Declaration of 1980 had called for the Palestinian right of self-determination to be recognized by Israel. Opposition to Arafat was fierce not only among radical Arab groups, but also among many on the Israeli right. This included Menachem Begin , who had stated on more than one occasion that even if the PLO accepted UN Security Council Resolution 242 and recognized Israel's right to exist, he would never negotiate with
5265-587: The West Bank ), Lebanon , Egypt ( Gaza Strip ), and Syria . The most notable of what were considered terrorist acts committed by member organizations of the PLO were in the 1970s. The 1970 Avivim school bus massacre by the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), killed nine children, three adults and crippled 19. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Popular Front for
5400-453: The "liberation of Palestine". The Palestinian National Charter describes the ideology of the PLO. A constitution, named "Fundamental Law", was adopted, which dictates the inner structure of the organization and the representation of the Palestinian people. A draft Constitution was written in 1963, to rule the PLO until free general elections among all the Palestinians in all the countries in which they resided could be held. The Constitution
5535-541: The 1993 Oslo Accords , Khalidi asserted. The UN General Assembly rejected the Framework for Peace in the Middle East , because the agreement was concluded without participation of UN and PLO and did not comply with the Palestinian right of return, of self-determination and to national independence and sovereignty. In December 1978, it declared in Resolution 33/28 A that agreements were only valid if they are within
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5670-589: The 4.6 million Palestinians in the occupied Palestinian territories (OPT) are Palestinian Christian . Under President Arafat, the Fatah-dominated Palestinian Authority adopted the 2003 Amended Basic Law, which stipulates Islam as the sole official religion in Palestine and the principles of Islamic sharia as a principal source of legislation. The draft Constitution contains the same provisions. The draft Constitution
5805-566: The Accords without the support of powerful Arab neighbours, like Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Hussein consequently felt diplomatically snubbed. One of Carter's regrets was allowing Sadat to claim that he could speak for Hussein if Jordan refused to join the talks, but by then the damage was done to the Jordanians. The Camp David Accords also prompted the disintegration of a united Arab front in opposition to Israel. Egypt's realignment created
5940-682: The African Union [REDACTED] Member State of the Arab League The President of the Arab Republic of Egypt ( Egyptian Arabic : رئيس جمهورية مصر ) is the executive head of state of Egypt and the de facto appointer of the official head of government under the Egyptian Constitution of 2014 . Under the various iterations of the Constitution of Egypt following the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 ,
6075-467: The Arab world; the emergence of a what became a cold peace between Egypt and Israel; and changes in foreign policy priorities including discontinuity in personnel committed to sustaining the negotiating process[.] Historian Jørgen Jensehaugen argues that by the time Carter left office in January 1981, he: was in an odd position—he had attempted to break with traditional US policy but ended up fulfilling
6210-655: The Begin government to declare that, if Israel thought that Sadat would accept an invitation, Israel would invite him. In Sadat's Knesset speech he talked about his views on peace, the status of Israel's occupied territories , and the Palestinian refugee problem. This tactic went against the intentions of both the West and the East, which were to revive the Geneva Conference . The gesture stemmed from an eagerness to enlist
6345-426: The Camp David Accords: it is "devoid of meaning and content", it does not facilitate Palestinian's "right to liberty and self-determination" (etc.). The Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin , these professors say, had emphatically construed an 'autonomy'-concept that did not include (or according to Begin not even allowed for) a Palestinian state to be created. This flawing non- sovereignty -concept would be repeated in
6480-482: The Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel ) led directly to the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty . Due to the agreement, Sadat and Begin received the shared 1978 Nobel Peace Prize . The first framework ( A Framework for Peace in the Middle East ), which dealt with the Palestinian territories , was written without participation of the Palestinians and was condemned by the United Nations. Carter's and Secretary of State Cyrus Vance 's exploratory meetings gave
6615-452: The Egyptian constitution concerning candidates for the president's office. Candidates must have the recommendation of 20 members of the House of Representatives or the endorsement of 25,000 people across 15 governorates, with at least 1,000 signatures from each. The amendment to Article 76 of the constitution provides for the establishment of a "Presidential Election Commission" that would have complete independence and would be charged with
6750-601: The Egyptians were secretly formulating a framework for bilateral talks. Even earlier, Begin had not been opposed to returning the Sinai , but a major future obstacle was his firm refusal to consider relinquishing control over the West Bank . Carter visited the heads of government on whom he would have to rely to make any peace agreement feasible. By the end of his first year (1977) in office, Carter had met with Anwar El Sadat of Egypt , Hussein of Jordan , Hafez al-Assad of Syria , and Yitzhak Rabin of Israel . The new Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin however, taking over
6885-447: The Galilee and on Israeli and Jewish targets worldwide. Increasing penetration of Palestinians into Lebanese politics and Israeli retaliations gradually deteriorated the situation. By the mid-1970s, Arafat and his Fatah movement found themselves in a tenuous position. Arafat increasingly called for diplomacy, perhaps best symbolized by his Ten Point Program and his support for a UN Security Council resolution proposed in 1976 calling for
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#17327647831417020-456: The Israeli government cordially invited him to address the Knesset in a message passed to Sadat via the US ambassador to Egypt. Ten days after his speech, Sadat arrived for the groundbreaking three-day visit, which launched the first peace process between Israel and an Arab state. As would be the case with later Israeli–Arab peace initiatives, Washington was taken by surprise; the White House and State Department were particularly concerned that Sadat
7155-405: The Israelis could meet the Palestinian guerrillas was on the field of battle." Until 1993, the only promoted option was armed struggle. From the signing of the Oslo Accords, negotiation and diplomacy became the only official policy. In April 1996, a large number of articles, which were inconsistent with the Oslo Accords , were wholly or partially nullified. At the core of the PLO's ideology
7290-452: The Jordanian assault on its armed groups, in the events known as Black September in 1970. The Palestinian groups were expelled from Jordan, and during the 1970s, the PLO was effectively an umbrella group of eight organizations headquartered in Damascus and Beirut , all devoted to armed struggle against Zionism or Israeli occupation, using methods which included direct clashing and guerrilla warfare against Israel. After Black September,
7425-403: The Liberation of Palestine , the second-largest PLO faction after al-Fatah , carried out a number of attacks and plane hijackings mostly directed at Israel, most infamously the Dawson's Field hijackings , which precipitated the Black September crisis. In 1972, the Black September Organization carried out the Munich massacre of Israeli Olympic athletes. In 1974, members of the DFLP seized
7560-416: The Oslo Accords. Although many in the PLO opposed the Oslo Agreements, the executive committee and the Central Council approved the Accords. It marked the beginning of the PLO's decline, as the PA came to replace the PLO as the prime Palestinian political institution. Political factions within the PLO that had opposed the Oslo process were marginalized. The PLO managed to overcome the separation by uniting
7695-415: The Oslo negotiations and formation of the Palestinian Authority (PA). The PLO in exile was distant from a concentrated number of Palestinians and became far less effective. There was a significant reduction in centres of research, political debates or journalistic endeavours that had encouraged an energised public presence of the PLO in Beirut. More and more Palestinians were abandoned, and many felt that this
7830-427: The PLC , held in the Territories in 2006, with Hamas as the big winner while not even a member of the PLO, "underlined the clear lack of a popular mandate by the PLO leadership", according to PASSIA . Individual elected members of the PLC representing Hamas, however, are automatically members of the PNC. The representative status of the PLO has often been challenged in the past. It was for example doubted in 2011 by
7965-455: The PLC. The CC functions as an intermediary body between the PNC and the EC. The CC makes policy decisions when PNC is not in session, acting as a link between the PNC and the PLO-EC. The CC is elected by the PNC and chaired by the PNC speaker. The PNC serves as the parliament for all Palestinians inside and outside of the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including Jerusalem. The PLO is governed internally by its "Fundamental Law", which describes
8100-550: The PLO changed significantly. In 1968, the Charter was replaced by a comprehensively revised version. For the first time, the PLO called for the establishment of a Palestinian state (to replace Israel) in which Christians, Muslims and Jews would have equal rights, thereby tacitly accepting Jewish presence in Palestine. The goal was akin to forcing regime change in Israel, as opposed to a drastic redrawing of borders. The Palestinian National Council also insisted upon greater independence from Arab governments. In 1974, PLO accepted
8235-411: The PLO launched artillery attacks on the moshavim and kibbutzim of Bet Shean Valley Regional Council , while fedayeen launched numerous attacks on Israeli forces. Israel raided the PLO camps in Jordan, including Karameh , withdrawing only under Jordanian military pressure. This conflict culminated in Jordan's expulsion of the PLO to Lebanon in July 1971. The PLO suffered a major reversal with
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#17327647831418370-426: The PNC, nor for the EC, the PCC or the President of the State of Palestine . The executive committee has formally 18 members, including its chairman, but in past years many vacant seats in the Executive remained empty. Moreover, Hamas , the largest representative of the inhabitants of the Palestinian Territories alongside Fatah , is not represented in the PLO at all. The results of the last parliamentary elections for
8505-407: The Palestinian people as a whole″, before changing the status within the UN. The 1993–1995 Oslo Accords deliberately detached the Palestinian population in the Occupied Palestinian Territories from the PLO and the Palestinians in exile by creating a Palestinian Authority (PA) for the Territories. A separate parliament and government were established. Mahmoud Abbas was one of the architects of
8640-414: The Palestinian people", a process to be implemented guaranteeing the full autonomy of the people within a period of five years. The Israeli prime minister Begin insisted on the adjective "full" to ensure that it was the maximum political right attainable; however, Begin also specifically insisted that "on no condition will there be a Palestinian state". This so-called 'full autonomy' was to be discussed with
8775-482: The Palestinian people. The Palestinian National Council convened in Jerusalem on 28 May 1964. After concluding the meeting, the PLO was founded on 2 June 1964. Its stated "complementary goals" were Arab unity and the liberation of Palestine . The PLO began their militancy campaign from its inception with an attack on Israel's National Water Carrier in January 1965. The group used guerrilla tactics to attack Israel from their bases in Jordan (which then included
8910-474: The Palestinians would work. Specifically, Sadat effectively said that Jordan would have a role in how the West Bank would be administered. Like the Rabat Summit Resolution, the Camp David Accords circumscribed Jordan's objective to reassert its control over the West Bank. Focusing as it did on Egypt, the Carter administration accepted Sadat's claim that he could deliver Hussein. However, with Arab world opposition building against Sadat, Jordan could not risk accepting
9045-429: The Quest for Arab–Israeli Peace : The Accords were another interim agreement or step, but negotiations that flowed from the Accords slowed for several reasons. These included an inability to bring the Jordanians into the discussions; the controversy over settlements; the inconclusive nature of the subsequent autonomy talks; domestic opposition sustained by both Begin and Sadat and, in Sadat's case, ostracism and anger from
9180-434: The UN rejected more specific parts of the Camp David Accords and similar agreements, which were not in accordance with mentioned requirements. All such partial agreements and separate treaties were strongly condemned. The part of the Camp David accords regarding the Palestinian future and all similar ones were declared invalid. The second framework outlined a basis for the peace treaty six months later, in particular deciding
9315-415: The West Bank and Gaza Strip saw Arafat as their best hope for a resolution to the conflict. This was especially so in the aftermath of the Camp David Accords of 1978 between Israel and Egypt, which the Palestinians saw as a blow to their aspirations to self-determination. Abu Nidal , a sworn enemy of the PLO since 1974, assassinated the PLO's diplomatic envoy to the European Economic Community , which in
9450-417: The amended constitution include: The following provisions regarding the election process are stipulated in Article 76 as amended: Under the system created by the 1980, 2003 and 2007 constitutional amendments to the 1971 Constitution , the President is the pre-eminent executive figure, who names the Prime Minister of Egypt as well as appoints the Cabinet per the latter's recommendation, while in reality, he
9585-468: The area can live in security"), while Israel recognized the PLO as a legitimate authority representing the Palestinian people. Despite the Israel–PLO Letters of Mutual Recognition (1993), in which PLO leader Yasser Arafat renounced "terrorism and other acts of violence" against Israel, the PLO continued to engage in militant activities, particularly during the Second Intifada (see next subsection). The Second or Al-Aqsa Intifada started concurrently with
9720-527: The beginning, the PLO was designed as a government in exile, with a parliament, the Palestine National Council (PNC), chosen by the Palestinian people, as the highest authority in the PLO, and an executive government (EC), elected by the PNC. In practice, however, the organization was rather a hierarchic one with a military-like character, needed for its function as a liberation organization,
9855-520: The blame for the summit's failure as well as a disassociation from the White House. Ultimately, neither Begin nor Sadat was willing to risk those eventualities. Both of them had invested enormous amounts of political capital and time to reach an agreement. The Camp David Accords comprise two separate agreements: "A Framework for Peace in the Middle East" and "A Framework for the Conclusion of
9990-408: The breakdown of July 2000 Camp David talks between Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat and Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak . The Intifada never ended officially, but violence hit relatively low levels during 2005. The death toll, including both military personnel and civilians, of the entire conflict in 2000–2004 is estimated to be 3,223 Palestinians and 950 Israelis, although this number
10125-404: The cabin of the third party to relay the substance of his discussions. Begin and Sadat were "literally not on speaking terms," and "claustrophobia was setting in." A particularly difficult situation arose on the tenth stalemated day of the talks. The issues of Israeli settlement withdrawal from the Sinai and the status of the West Bank created what seemed to be an impasse. In response, Carter had
10260-509: The choice of trying to salvage the agreement by conceding the issue of the West Bank to Begin, while advocating Sadat's less controversial position on the removal of all settlements from the Sinai Peninsula. Or he could have refused to continue the talks, reported the reasons for their failure, and allowed Begin to bear the brunt of the blame. Carter chose to continue and for three more days negotiated. During this time, Carter even took
10395-491: The commencement of direct negotiations between leaders – summit diplomacy – would distinguish Egypt from her Arab neighbors. Carter's people apparently had no inkling of the secret talks in Morocco between Dayan and Sadat's representative, Hassan Tuhami, that paved the way for Sadat's initiative. Indeed, in a sense Egypt and Israel were ganging up to push Carter off his Geneva track. The basic message of Sadat's speech at
10530-469: The commission is made up from five independent and neutral public figures: three to be selected by the People's Assembly and two to be selected by the Shoura Council. Decisions of this Committee shall be passed by a majority of seven votes. This commission has a term of five years and is exclusively competent to supervise the presidential election process, including accepting nominations, announcing
10665-424: The creation of a "national authority" in the West Bank and Gaza as a first step towards liberating Palestine. This tacit recognition of Israel caused the Rejectionist Front to break away. In 1976, PLO accepted an "independent state" in the West Bank and Gaza, which was widely interpreted as accepting Israel's permanent existence. Shortly after that, the PLO established contacts with the Israeli left. PLO's proposal
10800-491: The death and injuries of US citizens in a number of terrorist attacks in Israel from 2001 to 2004 and ordered to pay a judgment of $ 655.5 million. The verdict was overturned on appeal for a lack of US federal jurisdiction over actions committed overseas. The ideology of the PLO was formulated in the founding year, 1964, in the Palestinian National Covenant . After the 1967 war , the ideology of
10935-423: The duration of presidential terms from four years to six years, and allow incumbent president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi to extend his current term to the 6 year length, as well as serve a third and final term, exempting him from the two-term limit that otherwise applies to the office of president. These amendments were subsequently ratified in the 2019 Egyptian constitutional referendum . During their tenure in office,
11070-453: The elimination of Israel . Mediated talks between the Israeli government and the PLO in 1993 (the Oslo I Accord) resulted in the PLO recognizing Israel's legitimacy and accepting United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 , which mandated Israel's withdrawal from the occupied territories, while Israel recognized the PLO as a legitimate authority representing the Palestinian people. Despite
11205-475: The end of the incumbent president's term. Article 141 of the Egyptian Constitution establishes the requirements one must meet in order to become president. They must be an Egyptian citizen , be born to Egyptian parents (never having dual nationality), have participated in the military or been exempted from it, and cannot be less than forty years old. Additional requirements were provisioned in Article 142 of
11340-778: The entire Sinai Peninsula. Israeli settlers tried to prevent the government from dismantling their settlements, but were unsuccessful. In Israel, there is lasting support of the Camp David Peace Accords, which have become a national consensus, supported by 85% of Israelis according to a 2001 poll taken by the Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies (Israel-based). President Sadat's signing of the Camp David Accords on 17 September 1978 and his shared 1978 Nobel Peace Prize with Israeli prime minister Begin led to his assassination on 6 October 1981 by members of
11475-419: The establishment of an Egyptian–Israeli agreement which would lead to an eventual solution to the Palestine issue. They believed in a short, loose, and overt linkage between the two countries amplified by the establishment of a coherent basis for a settlement. However, Carter felt they were not "aiming high enough" and was interested in the establishment of a written "land for peace" agreement with Israel returning
11610-533: The eyes of Israeli hard-liners, "the Palestinians posed a greater challenge to Israel as a peacemaking organization than as a military one". After the appointment of Ariel Sharon to the post of Minister of Defense in 1981, the Israeli government policy of allowing political growth to occur in the occupied West Bank and Gaza strip changed. The Israeli government tried, unsuccessfully, to dictate terms of political growth by replacing local pro-PLO leaders with an Israeli civil administration. In 1982, after an attack on
11745-450: The facts of history and the true conception of what constitutes statehood. Judaism, being a religion, is not an independent nationality. Nor do Jews constitute a single nation with an identity of its own; they are citizens of the states to which they belong″. This article was nullified in 1996. Article 3 reads: ″The Palestinian Arab people possess the legal right to their homeland and have the right to determine their destiny after achieving
11880-668: The framework of the United Nations and its Charter and its resolutions, include the Palestinian right of return and the right to national independence and sovereignty in Palestine, and concluded with the participation of the PLO . On 6 December 1979, the UN condemned in Resolution 34/70 all partial agreements and separate treaties that did not meet the Palestinian rights and comprehensive solutions to peace; it condemned Israel's continued occupation and demanded withdrawal from all occupied territories. On 12 December, in Resolution 34/65 B ,
12015-407: The future of the Sinai Peninsula . Israel agreed to withdraw its armed forces from the Sinai, gave up its four air bases that had been built there since the Six-Day War (see map to the right), evacuate its 4,500 civilian inhabitants, and restore it to Egypt in return for normal diplomatic relations with Egypt, guarantees of freedom of passage through the Suez Canal and other nearby waterways (such as
12150-523: The goals of that tradition, which had been to break up the Arab alliance, side-line the Palestinians, build an alliance with Egypt, weaken the Soviet Union and secure Israel. Although most Israelis supported the Accords, the Israeli settler movement opposed them because Sadat's refusal to agree to a treaty in which Israel had any presence in the Sinai Peninsula at all meant they had to withdraw from
12285-502: The help of the NATO countries in improving the ailing Egyptian economy, a belief that Egypt should begin to focus more on its own interests than on the interests of the Arab world, and a hope that an agreement with Israel would catalyze similar agreements between Israel and her other Arab neighbors and help solve the Palestinian problem. Prime Minister Begin's response to Sadat's initiative, though not what Sadat or Carter had hoped, demonstrated
12420-499: The inhabitants of West Bank and Gaza. It neither mentions the status of Jerusalem , nor the Palestinian Right of Return . The French historian, arabist, orientalist and professor Jean-Pierre Filiu , diplomatic adviser to three French ministers between 1990 and 2002, and also U.S.-born (with Palestinian roots) historian and Professor Rashid Khalidi , in the years 2013–2014 criticised the concept of ' autonomy ' as used in
12555-505: The interests of the people, and to maintain the independence and territorial integrity of the Homeland." Under the previous Constitution, the president served for a term of four years. The president is limited to two terms, whether the terms are successive or separated. On 14 February 2019, the Egyptian parliament voted overwhelmingly to approve draft amendments to the country's 2014 constitution; among other things, these amendments extend
12690-448: The international community led by Israel and US, and from inside his own party Fatah, Arafat partially transferred some of his strongly centralized power in 2003, causing strong tensions within the Palestinian leadership. Arafat appointed Mahmoud Abbas as prime minister, but this resulted in disputes about the transfer of tasks and responsibilities. Abbas was strongly supported by the US and
12825-453: The international community, because he was supposed to be more willing to give far-reaching concessions to Israel. While Arafat had retained most of his power and a power struggle within Fatah continued, the leadership was criticised for corruption and nepotism. After Arafat's death , Abbas increasingly gained exclusive powers within both PLO and PA as well as in Fatah, until he had acquired
12960-597: The judiciary, to monitor the various phases of the election process, under its supervision. The election process shall be completed in one day. In accordance with Article 79 of the constitution, the president must take the following oath or affirmation before exercising his functions: "I swear by Allah the Almighty to sincerely maintain the Republican system, to respect the Constitution and law, to fully care about
13095-570: The liberation of their country in accordance with their wishes and entirely of their own accord and will″. The PLO and its dominating faction, Fatah, are often contrasted with more religious-orientated factions like Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ). All, however, represent a predominantly Muslim population. Practically the whole population of the Territories is Muslim, mostly Sunni . Around 50,000 (c. 1%) of
13230-473: The members of the PNC are appointed by the executive committee. The document further states that "the PNC represents all sectors of the Palestinian community worldwide, including numerous organizations of the resistance movement, political parties, popular organizations and independent personalities and figures from all sectors of life, including intellectuals, religious leaders and businessmen". The PLO has published various newspapers and magazines first of which
13365-427: The names of accepted candidates, supervision of election procedures, vote counting and announcement of the results. It also has final judicial competence to rule on any contesting or challenge submitted in relation to the presidential elections, and its decisions are final and subject to no appeal. The committee may issue its own regulations and shall be competent to establish general sub-committees from among members of
13500-744: The nation unless it abandoned the peace agreement with Israel. According to The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East : The normalization of relations [between Israel and Egypt] went into effect in January 1980. Ambassadors were exchanged in February. The boycott laws were repealed by Egypt's National Assembly the same month, and some trade began to develop, albeit less than Israel had hoped for. In March 1980 regular airline flights were inaugurated. Egypt also began supplying Israel with crude oil". According to Kenneth Stein in Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin, and
13635-619: The objectives written in United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 . Israel's prime minister Yitzhak Rabin and his successor, Menachem Begin , were both skeptical of an international conference. While Begin, who took office in May 1977, officially favored the reconvening of the conference, perhaps even more vocally than Rabin, and even accepted the Palestinian presence, in actuality the Israelis and
13770-407: The office from Yitzhak Rabin in June 1977, specifically demanded that the PLO would be excluded from peace talks. Despite the fact that Jordan’s King Hussein supported Sadat's peace initiative, Hussein refused to take part in the peace talks; Menachem Begin offered Jordan little to gain and Hussein also feared he would isolate Jordan from the Arab world and provoke Syria and the PLO if he engaged in
13905-692: The office of president remained vacant until January 1956, when Gamal Abdel Nasser was elected as president via a plebiscite . Nasser would remain as president of Egypt , as well as president of the United Arab Republic , which lasted from 1958 to 1971, until his sudden death in September 1970 at the age of 52. Nasser was succeeded by his vice president, Anwar Sadat , who was elected by plebiscite in October 1970. Sadat served as president until his assassination in October 1981, and shared
14040-717: The organization. This contradicted the official United States position that it would negotiate with the PLO if the PLO accepted Resolution 242 and recognized Israel, which the PLO had thus far been unwilling to do. Other Arab voices had recently called for a diplomatic resolution to the hostilities in accord with the international consensus, including Egyptian leader Anwar Sadat on his visit to Washington, DC in August 1981, and Crown Prince Fahd of Saudi Arabia in his 7 August peace proposal; together with Arafat's diplomatic maneuver, these developments made Israel's argument that it had "no partner for peace" seem increasingly problematic. Thus, in
14175-689: The overwhelming Egyptian defeat in the Six-Day War , before retracting it following mass demonstrations from the Egyptian public. President Mubarak also resigned on 11 February 2011 during mass protests against his regime. The presidency in Egypt operates eight presidential residences in addition to other presidential guest houses. The official residence and office of the president is Heliopolis Palace in Cairo . Other presidential palaces include: Palestine Liberation Organization The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ; Arabic : منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية Munaẓẓamat at-Taḥrīr al-Filasṭīniyyah )
14310-508: The participation of Israel, Egypt, Jordan and the Palestinians. The withdrawal of Israeli troops from the West Bank and Gaza was agreed to occur after an election of a self-governing authority to replace Israel's military government. The Accords did not mention the Golan Heights, Syria, or Lebanon. This was not the comprehensive peace that Kissinger, Ford, Carter, or Sadat had in mind during the previous American presidential transition. It
14445-412: The peace talks as well. Hafez al-Assad, who had no interest in negotiating peace with Israel, also refused to come to the United States. Sadat first spoke about the possibility of peace with Israel in February 1971; Egypt was the initiator of many moves in the 1970s. On 9 November 1977, he startled the world by announcing his intention to go to Jerusalem and speak before the Knesset . Shortly afterward,
14580-464: The perception of Egypt within the Arab world changed. With the most powerful of the Arab militaries and a history of leadership in the Arab world under Nasser , Egypt had more leverage than any of the other Arab states to advance Arab interests. Egypt was subsequently suspended from the Arab League from 1979 until 1989. Jordan's King Hussein saw it as a slap to the face when Sadat volunteered Jordan's participation in deciding how functional autonomy for
14715-455: The person who takes office is limited in power as the new president cannot dissolve the parliament, propose constitutional amendments or remove the cabinet from office. In case of the vacancy of the presidential office or the permanent incapacitation of the President, the Speaker of the People's Assembly shall temporarily assume the presidency. In case the People's Assembly is dissolved at such
14850-759: The power in PLO and PA in one individual, Yasser Arafat . In 2002, Arafat held the functions of Chairman of the PLO/Executive Committee; Chairman of Fatah , the dominating faction within the PLO; as well as President of the Palestinian National Authority . He also controlled the Palestinian National Security Forces . Only during the Hamas -led PA Government in 2006–2007 did the PLO resurface. After Hamas took over Gaza in 2007, Abbas issued
14985-491: The power to ratify treaties, can issue decrees having the force of law when the House of Representatives is in recess, and such decrees are subject to approval by the House after resuming its sessions at the end of the recess, and acts as the supreme commander of the armed forces. The president also has the power of pardon and can exercise necessary powers in times of emergency. Election procedures are taken within sixty days before
15120-543: The powers and the relations between the organs of the PLO. Ahmad Shukeiri was the first Chairman of the PLO Executive Committee from 1964 to 1967. In 1967, he was replaced by Yahia Hammuda. Yasser Arafat occupied the position from 1969 until his death in 2004. He was succeeded by Mahmoud Abbas (also known as Abu Mazen). According to an internal PLO document, the PNC continues to act if elections are not possible. In absence of elections, most of
15255-553: The president is also the supreme commander of the Armed Forces , and head of the executive branch of the Egyptian government . Six presidents took over the presidency of Egypt after the abolition of the monarchy in 1953, in periods that included short transitional periods. They began with President Mohamed Naguib , then President Gamal Abdel Nasser , then President Anwar Sadat . He was followed by President Hosni Mubarak , then President Mohamed Morsi . The current president
15390-416: The president is not allowed to be a formal member of a political party. If the president-elect is announced before the end of the incumbent president's term, the incumbent president continues in office until the end of their term. In the case of temporary incapacitation of the president, the constitution provides the president to relinquish his powers to the vice president or the prime minister . However,
15525-428: The presidential office became vacant; however, on Mubarak's succession in 1981 as president, he did not appoint a vice-president until 29 January 2011, when during substantial protests demanding reforms, he appointed Omar Suleiman to the role. The president may resign by delivering their resignation to the People's Assembly under the 2012 and 2014 Constitutions. Gamal Abdel Nasser submitted his resignation after
15660-409: The result of 14 months of diplomatic efforts by Egypt, Israel, and the United States that began after Jimmy Carter became president. The efforts initially focused on a comprehensive resolution of disputes between Israel and the Arab countries, gradually evolving into a search for a bilateral agreement between Israel and Egypt. Upon assuming office on 20 January 1977, President Carter moved to rejuvenate
15795-463: The revolution were strongly influenced by the legal and political tradition of France . In this two-stage system, the Egyptian legislature, the National Assembly (a name also inspired by its French counterpart), nominates one of a number of candidates for the presidency. A candidate needs at least a two-thirds majority in the Assembly in order to win the nomination. In the second stage, the candidate
15930-409: The same power as was previously held by Arafat. Abbas is criticized for his autocratic rule and refusal to share powers and plans with other Palestinians. In the absence of a functioning parliament and Executive, he even began to issue his own laws. Senior representative of Abbas' Fatah faction and former Fatah minister of prisoner affairs, Sufian Abu Zaida , complained that Abbas appointed himself as
16065-690: The supervision of the presidential election process. The commission is composed of ten members, presided by the chief justice of the Supreme Constitutional Court and four other ex officio members of the judiciary who are the most senior serving deputy president of each of the Supreme Constitutional, the Court of Cassation, and the High Administrative Court, and the president of the Cairo Court of Appeal. The rest of
16200-466: The truck and threw three grenades towards the president; only one of the three exploded. The rest of the team opened fire with automatic assault rifles and struck President Sadat with 37 rounds. He was airlifted to a military hospital, where he died two hours after arriving. In total, 11 were killed from collateral gunfire and 28 were injured. Among the killed were the Cuban ambassador, an Omani general, and
16335-508: The true identity of the Israeli, who would liaise between the Egyptian and Israeli leaders, would be known only to the American ambassador in Cairo. Carter's acceptance of the proposed liaison scheme would have signaled American backing for Sadat's unprecedented peace initiative, but Carter rejected the proposal. However, Carter could not thwart the Israeli–Egyptian peace push. Within days Israeli journalists were allowed into Cairo, breaking
16470-485: The two leaders to the nearby Gettysburg National Military Park in the hopes of using the American Civil War as a simile to their own struggle. Consequently, the 13 days marking the Camp David Accords were considered a success, in part due to Carter's determination in obtaining an Israeli–Egyptian agreement, which represented considerable time focused on a singular international problem. Additionally, Carter
16605-463: Was Falastinuna and pamphlets. During the late 1970s its publications increased consisting of twenty-nine dailies, eighteen weeklies, thirteen biweeklies, sixty-two monthlies, sixteen quarterlies, and twenty-one annuals. Some of them are Falastin Al Thawra and Shu'un Filastiniyya . Its official news agency is Wafa . As of 2015, there have not been elections for many years, neither for
16740-594: Was a momentary formality, as the position of president of Egypt was then officially vacated, and the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces , led by Field Marshal Mohamed Hussein Tantawi , assumed executive control of the state. On 30 June 2012, the Muslim Brotherhood -affiliated Mohamed Morsi was sworn in as President of Egypt, having won the 2012 Egyptian presidential election on 24 June; he
16875-654: Was beneficiary to a fully pledged American foreign team. Likewise, the Israeli delegation had a stable of excellent talent in Ministers Dayan and Weizman and legal experts Dr. Meir Rosenne and Aharon Barak . Furthermore, the absence of the media contributed to the Accord's successes: there were no possibilities provided to either leader to reassure his political body or be driven to conclusions by members of his opposition. An eventual scrap of negotiations by either leader would have proven disastrous, resulting in taking
17010-467: Was formulated by a Constitutional Committee, established by Arafat in 1999 and endorsed by the PLO. The PLO incorporates a range of generally secular ideologies of different Palestinian movements "committed to the struggle for Palestinian independence and liberation," hence the name of the organization. It's formally an umbrella organization that includes "numerous organizations of the resistance movement, political parties, and popular organizations." From
17145-529: Was less clear than the agreements concerning the Sinai, and was later interpreted differently by Israel, Egypt, and the United States. The fate of Jerusalem was deliberately excluded from this agreement. The second part of the framework dealt with Egyptian–Israeli relations, the real content worked out in the second Egypt–Israel framework. The third part, "Associated Principles," declared principles that should apply to relations between Israel and all of its Arab neighbors. The framework merely concerned autonomy of
17280-478: Was merely reaching out to reacquire Sinai as quickly as possible, putting aside the Palestinian problem. Considered as a man with strong political convictions who kept his eye on the main objective, Sadat had no ideological base, which made him politically inconsistent. The Sadat visit came about after he delivered a speech in Egypt stating that he would travel anywhere, "even Jerusalem," to discuss peace. That speech led
17415-471: Was revised in 1968. The Palestinian National Council has 740 members and the Executive Committee or ExCo has 18 members. The Palestinian Central Council or CC or PCC, established by the PNC in 1973, is the second leading body of the PLO. The CC consists of 124 members from the PLO Executive Committee, PNC, PLC and other Palestinian organizations. The EC includes 15 representatives of
17550-446: Was similar to the one given by Egyptian Prime Minister Ismail Fahmy , in 1976, where he promised Israel peace on the basis of withdrawing to the 1967 borders, creation of State of Palestine in the West Bank and Gaza, and a nuclear weapons free Middle East. The PNC also authorized Palestinian representatives to meet Israeli officials at an Arab-Israeli peace conference. In response, Israeli Prime Minister Rabin responded, "the only place
17685-501: Was suspended following Morsi's removal from office. This structure was retained by the 2014 Constitution, which was drafted following Morsi's ousting and came into effect after a referendum in 2014. Under the present 2014 Constitution, the president is the head of state as well as that of the executive. The president lays down, along with the prime minister and the cabinet, the state's general policy and oversees its implementation. The president represents Egypt in foreign relations and has
17820-450: Was the beginning of the end. Mediated talks between the Israeli government and the PLO in 1993 (the Oslo I Accord ) resulted in the PLO recognizing Israel's right to exist in peace and accepting United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 ("inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war and the need to work for a just and lasting peace in the Middle East in which every State in
17955-417: Was the first president to gain power solely through an election via popular vote. However, Morsi's presidency was short-lived, and slightly more than a year later on 3 July 2013 he was removed from office following mass protests against his rule . Abdel Fattah el-Sisi , who served as Defense Minister under Morsi's presidency and retained his post after Morsi's removal from office, permanently retired from
18090-443: Was the head of both the state and of the government, as well as being the top foreign policy maker and holding supreme command over the military. During martial law , the President also appoints deans of faculties and majors, and can also enlist or oust people in the private sector. The President then also has the power to issue regulations for the enforcement of laws, ensuring proper public services, etc., which have been transferred to
18225-672: Was vested in Naguib and the Revolutionary Command Council . On 18 June 1953, just under a year after the coup d'état , the Council abolished the monarchy of Egypt and Sudan , and declared Egypt a republic , with Mohamed Naguib as its president. Naguib resigned as president in November 1954, following a severe rift with the younger military officers who had participated with him in the revolution. Thereafter,
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