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100-522: The Caniapiscau Reservoir, formed by two dams and forty-three dikes, is the largest reservoir in surface area of the James Bay Project . As headpond, it feeds the power plants of the La Grande complex in the winter and provides up to 35% of their production. Its total catchment area is about 36,800 square kilometres (14,200 sq mi). The reservoir was named after Lake Caniapiscau that

200-447: A plain covered with short grasses, a closer look reveals a bizarre and almost unearthly landscape. Small stands of stunted (often-dead) trees, which vaguely resemble natural bonsai , grow where land protrudes above the water table , with small pools of water (stained dark red) scattered about. Its grassland appearance invites the unwary to tread on it; however, even the most solid muskeg is spongy and waterlogged. Traveling through muskeg

300-617: A certain expertise in the field but advocated delaying nuclear expansion as late as possible. The Quebec premier received an unexpected backing when the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR , Alexei Kosygin visited Montreal in October 1971. Kosygin supported Bourassa's project and expressed concerns regarding his country's own nuclear power, explaining his country had to develop

400-744: A depression in the highest part of the Laurentian Plateau of the Canadian Shield, covering 4,318 square kilometres (1,667 sq mi), or about four times the size of the natural lakes prior to impoundment. Since August 1985, the Caniapiscau River was partially diverted to the west into the Laforge River of the La Grande River watershed, flowing west to James Bay . Many new islands were created as

500-601: A further 5,200 MW of generating capacity by the end of 1996. Premier Bourassa estimated that this phase would create 40,000 construction job-years (equivalent to 4,000 jobs lasting 10 years). Three new reservoirs covering an area of 1,600 km were created, including the Laforge-1 Reservoir covering 1,288 km . The generating plants of this second phase of the project produce about 18.9 TWh of power per year, operating at between 60% and 70% of their maximum rated generating capacity. On March 13, 1989,

600-679: A gravel road from James Bay (the Trans-Taiga Road ). At the very end of this road, near the Duplanter spillway, is the former worksite of the Société d'énergie de la Baie-James, named Caniapiscau . There is no permanent human habitation at the reservoir, but it is used by outfitters for seasonal hunting and fishing expeditions and by some Cree for subsistence fishing and trapping. It is isolated from society and there are very few gas stations or other services nearby. The natural lakes of

700-521: A lobby spearheaded by the Canadian government and its nuclear venture, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited , promoted the adoption of nuclear energy in Quebec, as a way to "share the benefits of Canada with our fellow francophone citizens", as Canadian Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson said. The lobby had its supporters within the ranks at Hydro-Québec, and has been vocal when the provincial government made

800-672: A massive solar storm caused a failure of the La Grande complex, plunging most of Quebec into darkness for nine hours. During the construction of the second phase of the James Bay Project, Hydro-Québec proposed an additional project on the Great Whale River (French: Grande rivière de la Baleine ), just to the north of the La Grande River watershed. Opposition among the Cree was even more vocal this time than in

900-423: A particular disadvantage, with their preferred diet of aquatic plants and grasses possibly drawing them dangerously near to muskeg; due to their long legs, minimal hoof area, and great weight, they are at great risk of falling and drowning. Hunters and hikers may occasionally encounter young moose in muskeg-covered ponds submerged up to their torsos or necks, having been unaware of the unstable ground. Muskeg can be

1000-470: A partisan crowd assembled at Quebec's Little Coliseum as part of the Liberal party gathering celebrating the first year of Bourassa's term, on April 30, 1971. According to journalists witnessing the scene, Bourassa's speech concluded on a scene of indescribable enthusiasm. The announcement quickly generated a public debate on the wisdom to engage the province on such a large-scale project. For several years,

1100-476: A result of the lake's impoundment, and in 1997 Quebec's Commission de toponymie published a map naming those islands for significant works of Québécois literature. The names of the islands attracted controversy not only because they predominantly used French-language works, but also because Cree and Inuit First Nations leaders claimed that the sites already had native names prior to becoming islands, which were ignored and overwritten. The Caniapiscau Reservoir

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1200-710: A rival union organizer’s teenager or strangle their dog." Desjardins was called before the Cliche commission several times starting in November 1974, where it was established that he was closely associated with the Montreal Mafia, and engaged in thuggish practices as president of the Conseil des métiers de la construction union. Although the Aboriginal Crees had traditional hunting and trapping areas in

1300-599: A royal commission headed by Judge Robert Cliche , the union official Guy Chevrette and a prominent Montreal labor lawyer Brian Mulroney to examine the question of freedom of expression within Quebec construction unions. The Cliche commission as it became known found widespread corruption within the construction unions as the columnist Peggy Curran wrote that the Cliche commission uncovered "...tales of nepotism, bribery, sabotage, blackmail and intimidation; charges of union organizers with criminal records who gave lessons in how to break legs; thugs-for-hire who would happily beat up

1400-479: A significant impediment to transportation. During the 1870s, muskeg in Northern Ontario was reported to have swallowed a train and a thousand feet of track whole when a track was laid on muskeg. Many other instances have been reported of heavy construction equipment vanishing into muskeg in the spring as the frozen muskeg beneath the vehicle thawed. Construction in muskeg-laden areas sometimes requires

1500-677: A team led by H. M. Finlayson conducted water surveys of the Nottaway , Broadback and Rupert Rivers —collectively known by the abbreviation NBR—on behalf of the Shawinigan Water & Power Company , a large investor-owned utility based in Shawinigan , Quebec. Among options studied by Shawinigan's engineers was the possible diversion of these rivers to the Saint-Maurice River watershed in order to increase output at

1600-458: A third in snow. Highest monthly rainfall is registered in the summer and snow depths vary from 50 to 100 cm (20-40 in) in the winter. Precipitations are significantly lower than the annual average of 1,050 mm (41 in) recorded in Montreal. The area lies in the zone of discontinuous permafrost , whose depth is significantly reduced by the deep snow cover. The natural seismicity of

1700-522: A total of 8.5 TWh of electricity at the new and existing power stations. Former Grand Chief of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee) Matthew Mukash (elected in late 2005 and served until 2009) opposed the Rupert River diversion and favoured the construction of wind turbines. The hydro-electric stations in the La Grande watershed are: Although there was no environmental impact assessment legislation before

1800-686: Is a peat -forming ecosystem found in several northern climates, most commonly in Arctic and boreal areas. Muskeg is approximately synonymous with bog or peatland , and is a standard term in Canada and Alaska. The term became common in these areas because it is of Cree origin; maskek ( ᒪᐢᑫᐠ ) meaning "low-lying marsh". Muskeg consists of non-living organic material in various states of decomposition (as peat ), ranging from fairly intact sphagnum moss , to sedge peat, to highly decomposed humus . Pieces of wood can make up five to fifteen percent of

1900-472: Is a possibility that the damming project has contributed to northern Quebec's Cree having the highest measured methyl-mercury concentration of all Canadian First Nations. Because of the simultaneous mercury contamination in James Bay from other activities in the area, including paper milling, the direct effect of the project on mercury levels has been difficult to ascertain. From 1981 to 1982, a few years after

2000-406: Is a strange and dangerous experience, for the unaccustomed. Muskeg can grow atop bodies of water, especially small ponds and streams. Because of the water beneath, the muskeg surface sometimes moves and ripples underfoot. Thinner patches can collapse under significant weight, and cause larger animals to fall-through and become trapped underneath, drowning if an escape route is not found. Moose are at

2100-453: Is available under water, so aerobic bacteria and fungi fail to colonize the submerged debris effectively. In addition, cool temperatures retard bacterial and fungal growth. This causes slow decomposition, and thus the plant debris gradually accumulates to form peat and eventually muskeg. Depending on the underlying topography of the land, muskeg can reach depths greater than 30 metres (100 ft). Although, at first glance, muskeg resembles

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2200-682: Is further exacerbated by humans consuming this built up store of mercury. The James Bay Mercury Agreement, signed in 1986 between the Grand Council of the Crees (of Québec), the Cree Regional Authority , the Cree Bands, the Government of Québec , Hydro-Québec and the Société d’énergie de la Baie James ( James Bay Energy ), aims "to restore and strengthen Cree fisheries [...] but [...] also adequately take into account

2300-414: Is in the zone of discontinuous permafrost . The area surrounding the reservoir is vegetated entirely with taiga , or boreal forest, characterized by widely spaced Black Spruce with a thick underlayer of yellow-grey lichen and interspersed with muskeg and bogs. In the more moist areas, some closed coniferous forest stands may appear. On the more exposed land, a forest-tundra transition zone occurs where

2400-419: Is most affected by the hydroelectric project from January to April because rivers have their lowest runoff rates in the winter months when freezing occurs. Additionally, runoff rates in the damming system can be altered to meet power needs, which are highest in the winter and lowest in the summer, thereby more completely reversing the natural water flow cycle. As evidenced by the 500% increase in its winter runoff,

2500-420: Is often sprayed on these roads to thicken the ice allowing heavy trucks and equipment to safely access remote sites in the winter. In Jack London 's short story, "Love of Life," the starving protagonist eats muskeg berries along the trail. "A muskeg berry is a bit of seed enclosed in a bit of water. In the mouth the water melts away and the seed chews sharp and bitter. The man knew there was no nourishment in

2600-892: Is part of the Canadian Shield and is largely made up of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks . Relief has been eroded by successive glaciations in the Pleistocene era, as recently as 6,000 years ago, leaving depositions of loose materials: moraines , clay , silt and sand and reshaped the hydrography of the territory. The region's climate is subarctic . Winters are long and last, on average, from October 22 to May 4. Summers are short and mild, with temperatures averaging 13.6 °C (56.5 °F) in July, while dropping to −22.9 °C (−9.2 °F) in January. Annual precipitation averages 765 mm (30.1 in),

2700-475: Is wet, acidic, and relatively infertile, which prevents large trees from growing, although stunted shore pine , cottonwood , some species of willow , and black spruce are typically found in these habitats. It needs two conditions to develop: abundant rain and cool summers. A dead plant that falls on dry soil is normally attacked by bacteria and fungi and quickly rots. If the same plant lands in water or on saturated soil, it decomposes differently. Less oxygen

2800-678: The Rupert River , to the south of the Eastmain River. The project entails the diversion of about 50% of the total water flow of the Rupert River (and 70% of the flow at the diversion point) towards the Eastmain Reservoir and into the La Grande Complex, and the construction of two additional generating stations: Eastmain-1A and Sarcelle, with a combined capacity of 888 MW. The Rupert diversion would generate

2900-628: The State of New York withdrew from a multibillion-dollar power purchasing agreement due to public outcry and a decrease in energy requirements. In 1994, the Government of Quebec and Hydro-Québec suspended the project indefinitely. In 2002, the Quebec government and the Grand Council of the Crees signed a landmark agreement, " La Paix des Braves " (literally "The Peace of the Braves"), ensuring

3000-520: The taiga to perform surveys and geological studies to identify potential sites for hydropower development. Faced with budget concerns, Hydro-Québec did cut back exploration budgets between 1968 and 1970, but the company maintained planning and analysis work, since early data showed a large potential for development. On December 16, 1969, Liberal Backbencher Member of the National Assembly Robert Bourassa met with

3100-676: The 1990s, forceful opposition by the Crees and their environmental allies caused the cancellation of the Great Whale Project , a proposed 3,000 MW complex north of La Grande River. In February 2002, the Bernard Landry government and the Grand Council of the Crees signed the Peace of the Braves ( French : Paix des Braves ) and the Boumhounan Agreement , establishing a new relationship between Quebec and

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3200-710: The 5,000 Crees and 4,000 Inuit of Northern Quebec over land rights, lifestyle and environmental issues. A ruling against the Quebec government in 1973 forced the Robert Bourassa government to negotiate a far-reaching agreement, the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement , involving the Cree, the Inuit, the Quebec and Canadian governments, Hydro-Québec, the SEBJ, and later the Naskapi First Nations . In

3300-441: The 700 kilometres (430 mi) James Bay Road to the La Grande River was begun in 1971 and completed by October 1974 at a cost of about $ 400 million. In 1973 and 1974, a temporary winter ice road was used to bring in the heavy equipment required for the construction of the roadbed and some 13 major bridges spanning the many rivers of the region. Construction had boomed in Montreal for Expo 67 , leading to an inflated workforce. In

3400-603: The Cree villages mostly involves young adults and older Cree with few professional qualifications. Such activities are furthermore sustained by an income replacement program financed by the government of Quebec that offers the equivalent of a modest annual salary for hunters and their families who live in the bush for at least several weeks of the year. 53°46′38″N 77°27′53″W  /  53.777123°N 77.464600°W  / 53.777123; -77.464600 Muskeg Muskeg ( Ojibwe : mashkiig ; Cree : maskīk ; French : fondrière de mousse , lit. moss bog )

3500-460: The Crees and agreeing on environmental rules for the construction of three new power stations built between 2003 and 2011 — the Eastmain-1, Eastmain-1-A and Sarcelle generating stations — and the diversion of the Rupert River . The James Bay region, also known as Jamésie , is a 350,000 km (135,136 sq mi) territory, bordered by the 49th and 55th parallels, James Bay on

3600-470: The Crown corporation devoted only minimal resources to the vast potential of northern rivers. In 1965, Hydro-Québec survey program included exploration of the territory and hydrographic surveys of areas between the 52nd and 55th parallel. In 1967, the company stepped up the work on the La Grande and Eastmain rivers . Dozens, then hundreds of people were sent by helicopter and seaplanes in inaccessible areas of

3700-475: The James Bay Project's initial construction phase in the 1970s, a major environmental research program was conducted before Phase I began. The environmental impacts of the James Bay Project largely stem from the creation of a complex chain reservoir through the integration of all the watersheds of the eastern shores of the Hudson Bay, from the southern tip of James Bay to Ungava Bay in the north. This has had

3800-597: The James Bay area. Additionally, diverting rivers towards the James Bay could cause changes in the geographical pattern of river water discharge into the sea.[36] Caribou populations, which have been expanding since the 1950s, have adopted migration routes throughout much of the Quebec-Labrador Peninsula and have thus been increasingly abundant in the James Bay area, the valley of the Caniapiscau, and around George River (Quebec) .[37] Variations in

3900-528: The James Bay project. In March 1974, when one sub-contractor refused to fire two workers belonging to the rival CSN union, the FTQ workers destroyed the LG-2 site, causing $ 35 million in damage. On 21 March 1974, the workers on the LG-2 site rioted and used their bulldozers to destroy the site that they were working on while other workers set buildings afire. In response to the riot at the LG-2 site, Bourassa created

4000-574: The Kaniapiskau Post in 1870. In 1976, Société d'énergie de la Baie James , a subsidiary of Hydro-Québec , began construction on the Caniapiscau Reservoir, designed to feed the hydro-electric generating stations of the James Bay Project . Filling the reservoir began on October 25, 1981, and over the next three years it flooded numerous lakes such as Lakes Caniapiscau, Delorme, Brisay, Tournon, and Vermouille. It now fills

4100-559: The La Grande River is the pillar of the James Bay project's hydroelectric capacity, with the runoff increasing from an average yearly amount of 1,700 m /s to 3,400 m /s, and from 500 m /s to 5,000 m /s in the winter. This immense harnessing of the area's energy at La Grande was made possible by reducing the Eastmain River's water flow at its mouth by 90% and by reducing that of the Caniaspiscau River's by 45%, and then by diverting these rivers into La Grande. Not only does this alter

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4200-426: The La Grande River. The power plants of the first phase of the James Bay Project produce about 65 TWh of power each year, operating at about 60% of their maximum rated generating capacity. During this first phase of construction, over 155,000,000 cubic metres (203,000,000 cu yd) of fill, 138,000 tons of steel, 550,000 tons of cement, and nearly 70,000 tons of explosives were used. Concurrent employment by

4300-515: The area is low. An earthquake of magnitude 5 on the Richter magnitude scale occurred in 1941, its epicenter located approximately 150 km from the La Grande-3 generating station. However, episodes of induced seismicity occurred during the initial fill of reservoirs . In 1983, a magnitude 4 tremor was recorded 50 km (31 mi) upstream of LG-3's main dam. Between 1950 and 1959,

4400-404: The area's Cree is attributed to the processes of bioaccumulation and biomagnification . Biaccumulation is the initial consequence of mercury pollution, as the toxin is first incorporated into the given ecosystem's producers. In the James Bay area ecosystem, mercury being released from the decaying flooded trees would be incorporated in trace amounts in zooplankton . Benthic organisms ( benthos ),

4500-428: The berries, but he chewed them patiently with a hope greater than knowledge and defying experience." In Martha Ostenso 's novel Wild Geese , the land owned and beloved by the antagonist plays an important role: "Southeast, under the ridge, bottomless and foul, lay the muskeg, the sore to Caleb's eye. In the heat of summer it gave up sickly vapours in which clouds of mosquitoes rose. Cattle and horses, breaking through

4600-486: The coastlines of both the James and Hudson Bays during their spring and fall migrations.[38] The James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement provided considerable financial and administrative resources for the Cree and Inuit communities to deal with the environmental and social consequences of the project and provide for future economic development, such as the creation of the local airline Air Creebec . The James Bay Project also

4700-634: The company's 8 power stations. With the nationalization of privately owned utilities in 1963 , Hydro-Québec inherited the preliminary studies conducted by Finlayson and his team on the hydroelectric potential of James Bay rivers. However, other projects, such as the Manicouagan-Outardes project on the North Shore and the possibility of building a large power station at Churchill Falls in Labrador proved easier and less expensive and

4800-405: The complete removal of the soil and filling with gravel. If the muskeg is not completely cleared to bedrock, its high water content will cause buckling and distortion from winter freezing, much like permafrost . One method of working atop muskeg is to place large logs on the ground, covered with a thick layer of clay or other stable material. This is commonly called a corduroy road . To increase

4900-541: The completion of the last phase of the original James Bay Project: construction of the Eastmain-1 generating station, with a capacity of 480 MW, and the Eastmain Reservoir with a surface area of about 600 km (230 sq mi). A subsequent agreement in April 2004 put an end to all litigation between the two parties and opened the way to a joint environmental assessment of the projected diversion of

5000-578: The consequence of diverting the flow of water from four major rivers into a large body of water, ultimately changing the dynamics of the land, an environmental political phenomenon labelled by some critics as a "first build, then paint green" policy. Two of these main diverted rivers are the Caniapiscau River and the Eastmain River into which the James Bay Project submerged about 11,000 km of boreal forest ( taiga ). Consequently,

5100-428: The construction site. Poverty and social problems remained prevalent in the isolated Cree and Inuit villages of Northern Quebec, even in areas where there were no hydroelectric or mining activities. By the 1980s, the natural ebb and flow of the La Grande, Eastmain and Caniapiscau rivers had been severely modified, notably delaying the formation of a solid ice cover near the Cree village of Chisasibi , and about 4% of

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5200-622: The damming. The project, as described at the time, would involve the construction of four generating stations on the La Grande River and the diversion of the Eastmain and Caniapiscau rivers into the La Grande watershed. Responsibility for the project would be overseen by the Société d'énergie de la Baie-James , a newly created mixed corporation (public/private) controlled by Hydro-Québec, headed by Robert A. Boyd . As environmental assessments were not then required under Quebec law, construction of

5300-761: The decision to invest in the Churchill Falls venture with Brinco . Several Parti Québécois spokesmen, including energy critic Guy Joron and economic adviser Jacques Parizeau voiced their opposition to the Bourassa scheme. In an interview with Montreal 's Le Devoir , the former economist and public servant who later became premier of Quebec commented: "We don't have to dam every single river just because they're French Canadian and Catholic." However, Bourassa himself and Hydro-Québec senior management — including President Roland Giroux and commissioners Yvon DeGuise and Robert Boyd  — were firmly behind

5400-511: The development of its natural resources". Moreover, Bourassa argued his 1969 estimates showed demand for electricity would outstrip supply by 11,000 MW by 1983, concurring with forecasts made at the time by Hydro-Quebec. Six months after his election, Bourassa began working on the details of the scheme with his adviser, financier Paul Desrochers. The two men met secretly with Roland Giroux and Robert A. Boyd for an update in September 1970 and

5500-528: The early 1970s. In 1990, Grand Chief Matthew Coon Come organized a canoe trip from Hudson Bay to the Hudson River , in Albany, New York , and this very effective public relations stunt brought international pressure to bear on the government of Quebec. The Cree had experienced considerable culture shock with the introduction of permanent transportation routes to the south and very few Cree were employed on

5600-413: The effectiveness of the corduroy, prevent erosion , and allow removal of material with less disturbance to the muskeg, a geotextile fabric is sometimes placed down before the logs. However temporary winter access roads on muskeg ( ice road ), created by clearing the insulating snow and allowing the muskeg to freeze, are more commonly used as they are cheaper to construct and easier to decommission. Water

5700-520: The first phase of the project covered about 14 years. By 1986, the largest power stations and reservoirs on the La Grande River were mostly completed, including the Robert-Bourassa (originally named La Grande-2), La Grande-3 and La Grande-4 generating stations, with an installed capacity of 10,800 MW, and five reservoirs covering an area of 11,300 km . The Eastmain and Caniapiscau river diversions each added about 800 m /s of water to

5800-497: The flooded vegetation's stored mercury (Hg) was released into the aquatic ecosystem, and due to the diversion of the water flow to contained reservoirs, the sudden abundance of mercury in the James Bay area in 1979 was unable to be dispersed and diluted as would have been the case in natural waters. Because the James Bay Cree ( East Cree ) live a mostly traditional lifestyle including a diet rich in fish and sea mammals, there

5900-413: The flooding of La Grande River , mercury levels in lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) increased up to fourfold their pre-flooding levels, while those in northern pike (Esox lucius) rose up to sevenfold during the same period. In natural lakes, these concentrations are five to six times less than in the James Bay area. This rapid spike of mercury levels in two of the fish species used extensively by

6000-463: The following years, the decreased demand for labor meant that times were tough for the construction industry in Montreal. As Bourassa had promised in the 1970 election that his government would create 100,000 jobs in the construction industry, there was much violent competition between various construction unions to have their workers engaged in the James Bay Project. Canadian historian Desmond Morton noted that there were 540 different incidents between

6100-580: The grounds that if the British North American Act was going to be changed, then the federal government should cede more powers to the provinces. The willingness of the Trudeau government to intervene on the side of the Cree and Inuit against the Quebec government was at least in part caused by the feud between Bourassa and Trudeau. In a speech championing the Cree, Chrétien said Bourassa "could go to hell", charging that he did not have

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6200-420: The health risks associated with human exposure to mercury." The establishment of reservoirs containing large amounts of standing water has the ability to produce local climate changes. Alteration of annual precipitation patterns, increased abundance of low stratus clouds and fog , and warmer autumns and cooler springs, leading to a delay in the beginning and end of the growing season, have all been observed in

6300-550: The hydroelectric project until after construction of the access road had begun. The federal Indian affairs minister Jean Chrétien intervened on the side of the Cree and the Inuit, hiring lawyers to argue their case in the courts. Both Bourassa and the Prime Minister, Pierre Trudeau were Liberals and federalists, but relations between the two were very strained at best as the French-Canadian nationalist Bourassa

6400-481: The interior and encouraged commercial and social exchanges between the Cree villages and with southern Quebec. A separate road ( Route du Nord ) also links the James Bay Road to Chibougamau , via the Cree village of Nemaska . The building of these newer roads was largely the work of Cree construction companies. The James Bay Road also opened the region to further mineral exploration and clear-cut logging in

6500-432: The large hydroelectric development to be built in northern Quebec. At the time Giroux, a financier, argued that large international investors "are still wary about nuclear energy. If we bring them a good hydroelectric project, and James Bay is a good one, they'll soon show where their preferences lie". As an engineer, Boyd expressed concerns at this early date about the uncertainty of nuclear energy. He recommended maintaining

6600-408: The lost wetland habitats in these zones of periodic fluctuations are destroyed. Other changes in the delicate balance of the James Bay ecosystem can be illustrated through the animal migration patterns, salmon spawning, and destruction of wildlife habitats. The significant loss of wetlands and the blocking of passageways to those wetlands that remain has inhibited salmon spawning and migration in

6700-461: The lower Caniapiscau during the period of caribou migrations, giving hunters greater access to caribou than ever before. About 30,000 caribou are killed each year by Inuit , Cree and American and European hunters. Seasonal reversal in the flow of rivers can potentially rob the rich nutrients that thrive in various mudflats and coastal marshes , affecting millions of migratory birds such as waterfowl, Canada geese , and various inland birds that use

6800-545: The matter to the Supreme Court. In later years, the Cree and Inuit were given a settlement of $ 150 million, negotiated by Cree chief Billy Diamond. In November 1975, the governments of Canada and Quebec signed the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement with the Cree of the James Bay region and the Inuit of northern Quebec, affirming exclusive hunting and fishing rights to about 170,000 km of territory and about $ 250 million in financial compensation in return for

6900-537: The nearby Cree village of Chisasibi . During the main construction period of the late 1970s, Radisson housed a population several times greater than the Cree population of Chisasibi, although it currently has a population of about 500. Nevertheless, the Cree communities have themselves continued the push to build additional roads from the James Bay Road westward to the Cree coastal villages of Wemindji , Eastmain and Waskaganish . These roads, opened between 1995 and 2001, have further facilitated access to hunting areas of

7000-576: The next month he travelled to New York City in the midst of the October Crisis to negotiate financing for the project, estimated at the time to cost between $ 5 billion and $ 6 billion. Bourassa introduced his plan to the provincial cabinet in March 1971 and recommended hiring the US engineering firm Bechtel to oversee the construction. Liberal strategists then chose to make the announcement before

7100-458: The north, the region began to drain northward into the Caniapiscau River, a tributary of the Koksoak River , and ultimately into Ungava Bay . Prior to impoundment, Lake Caniapiscau covered about 470 square kilometres (180 sq mi) and was frequented by hunters and fur traders in the 19th century. In 1834, the Hudson's Bay Company opened an outpost there to link its facilities in the James Bay region with those of Ungava Bay , but closed

7200-516: The north. The northerly rivers were selected in May 1972, various studies conducted by engineering firms having concluded the La Grande option would be more cost effective, while having a lesser impact on forestry and would require less flooding, thus minimizing impacts on First Nations fishing and hunting. Another area of concern was the silty nature of the terrain in the NBR area, which would have complicated

7300-523: The party leader in January, Bourassa went on to win the general election on April 29, 1970 , and his tenure as Premier of Quebec became closely linked to hydroelectric development in general and with the James Bay project in particular. For Bourassa the development of James Bay project addressed two of his priorities. In Energy in the North , an essay published in 1985, Bourassa, an economist by profession, argued that "Quebec's economic development relies on

7400-533: The peat soil . The water table tends to be near the surface. The sphagnum moss forming it can hold fifteen to thirty times its own weight in water, which allows the spongy wet muskeg to also form on sloping ground. Muskeg patches are ideal habitats for beavers , pitcher plants , agaric mushrooms and a variety of other organisms. Muskeg forms because permafrost , clay or bedrock prevents water drainage. The water from rain and snow collects, forming permanently waterlogged vegetation and stagnant pools. Muskeg

7500-494: The president of Hydro-Québec, Roland Giroux over lunch at the parliamentary dining room in Quebec City . After the meeting Bourassa, who was about to launch a leadership bid for the position left vacant by the resignation of former Premier Jean Lesage , became convinced of the probability and suitability of the project and made the development of James Bay hydroelectricity a major plank of its leadership campaign. Elected as

7600-431: The project reached 18,000. Of the 215 dikes and dams, many surpassed the height of skyscrapers, with one reaching 56 stories. The terraced diversion channel at Robert-Bourassa generating station was carved 30 m (one hundred feet) deep into the side of a mountain. Water tumbles from the reservoir to the river below at a height greater than that of Niagara Falls. A 4,800 km (3,000 mi) network of transmission lines

7700-454: The project's first phase in ≈ 1971 amounted to $ 13.7 billion (1987 Canadian dollars ). The eight power stations of the La Grande Complex generate an average of 9.5 GW, enough to meet the total demand of a small industrialized economy such as Belgium . The James Bay power stations represent almost half of Hydro-Québec's total output and capacity. The development of the James Bay Project was controversial. It led to an acrimonious conflict with

7800-470: The region were formed about nine thousand years ago as glaciers left Quebec after having scoured the Canadian Shield for ninety thousand years. The prototype of these lakes was an ice dam lake that drained southwards into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence at a time when areas further north ( Nunavik ) were still glaciated. As post-glacial rebound elevated the southern part of the Canadian Shield more rapidly than

7900-440: The region, no seasonal or permanent roads existed at the time. Opposition to the project, however, was strong among the 5,000 Crees of James Bay, the 3,500 Inuit to the north and several environmental groups. They believed the government of Quebec was acting in violation of treaties and committing unlawful expropriation and destruction of traditional hunting and trapping lands. Furthermore, the Cree and Inuit had not been informed of

8000-462: The right to build on or flood the land claimed by the Cree. In 1973, the federal government's lawyers won a court injunction ordering the James Bay project stopped until a treaty could be signed with the Cree and Inuit, but an appeals court overturned the ruling days later. However, Bourassa agreed to negotiate with the First Nations as the federal government announced it was willing to take

8100-543: The right to develop the hydroelectric resources of Northern Quebec. The planned La Grande-1 power station would be built about 50 km further away from the Cree village of Chisasibi than originally planned. The Agreement also provided for an extensive environmental follow-up of all aspects of the hydroelectric development on the La Grande and Eastmain rivers and the establishment of a joint environmental assessment process for any future hydroelectric project involving other rivers of Northern Quebec. The period of construction of

8200-467: The river. The result has been considerable decay ( decomposition ) of dead trees along the shoreline, consequently releasing stored mercury into the area's terrestrial ecosystem through bioaccumulation in decomposers and detritovores and eventual biomagnification up the food web . This has left the area's Cree susceptible to mercury poisoning from both land and sea. Any shoreline plants that could potentially provide vegetation growth to replace any of

8300-509: The runoff amount of the Eastmain and the Caniaspiscau Rivers, but also their drainage location, since prior to having been directly merged with La Grande, these rivers’ drainage locations were separate from the La Grande River. The summer runoff rate of La Grande increased by 40%, making the average annual runoff rate 91% greater than its natural rate. Because of the change in the runoff rates of James Bay, massively increasing in

8400-560: The social consequences of the hydroelectric project itself pale in comparison to the social impact of the Cree coming into direct contact with the society and economic forces of francophone Quebec. The greatest impact stems from the construction in the early 1970s of the James Bay Road ( Route de la Baie James ) from Matagami to the new town of Radisson , near the Robert-Bourassa generating station (La Grande-2), and on to

8500-434: The southern James Bay area and substantially reduced the cost of transport. These activities have put further strains on the traditional hunting and trapping activities of the Cree in the southern James Bay region, notably the villages of Waskaganish and Nemaska. Such activities, however, only accounted for about half the economic activity of the Cree communities in 1970 and less than 20% by the late 1990s. Hunting and fishing in

8600-421: The southern edge of the development has shifted noticeably southward since the project's construction. Following construction of the project, the area's water flow was substantially modified. In the James Bay area in general, the average monthly surface runoff rate in the winter increased by 52%, doubling the total freshwater input, while that of the summer months decreased by 6%. The James Bay area's water flow

8700-485: The technology because the USSR lacked suitable rivers to expand its own hydroelectric network of dams and power stations. Two options were considered when Bourassa unveiled his plan for the construction of several large hydroelectric power stations on the rivers flowing into James Bay, either on the Nottaway , Broadback , Rupert and Harricana Rivers in the south (NBR Project), or on the La Grande and Eastmain Rivers to

8800-510: The traditional hunting and trapping territories of the Cree had been lost to the rising waters of the reservoirs, including about 10% of the territories of the Cree village of Chisasibi. At the same time, new roads, snowmobiles and bush airlines facilitated access to distant hunting territories of the interior. While highly motivated, the Cree's opposition to the Great Whale River Project was mainly ineffective until 1992 when

8900-655: The two main construction unions in Quebec on sites associated with the James Bay Project between 1970 and 1974, many of them "very bloody". In the 1973 election, after the Fédération des travailleurs et travailleuses du Québec (FTQ) union had donated generously to the Parti libéral du Québec , Bourassa announced that only companies employing workers from the FTQ-affiliated Conseil des métiers de la construction headed by André "Dédé" Desjardins would work on

9000-473: The vicinity of the project's major reservoirs. The doubling of the freshwater input into James Bay during the winter decreases the salinity of the seawater , thereby increasing the freezing point of the bay. The resultant increased ice content at the northern section of the project in the winter has cooled warm air currents more than usual, bringing harsher Arctic weather, including strong winds and less precipitation, to south-central Quebec. The tree line at

9100-480: The water flow of the Caniapiscau River from 1981 to 1984, during the period when the Caniapiscau Reservoir was being filled, may have contributed to the death by drowning of 10,000 migratory woodland caribou in September 1984, representing about 1.5% of the herd at that time. On the other hand, the reduced flow of the Caniapiscau River and the Koksoak River has permanently reduced the risk of natural floods on

9200-448: The west and Labrador to the east, and its waters flow from the Laurentian Plateau of the Canadian Shield . The project is one of the largest hydroelectric systems in the world. It has cost upwards of US$ 20 billion to build and has an installed generating capacity of 15.244 GW , at the cost of 7,000 square miles of Cree hunting lands. It has been built since 1974 by James Bay Energy ( SDBJ ) for Hydro-Québec. Construction costs of

9300-576: The western side and by the drainage divide with the Saint Lawrence River basin on the eastern side. The topography of the area consist of generally low relief areas and includes three parts: a 150 km (93 mi) coastal plain , a rolling plateau with a maximum elevation of 400 m (1,300 ft) and the Otish Mountains to the east of the territory, with peaks reaching 900 to 1,100 m (3,000 to 3,600 ft) . The area

9400-420: The whitefish's primary prey, consume a great deal of zooplankton, causing the mercury concentration in a single organism to magnify due to accumulation of mercury and its inability to be excreted. In turn, whitefish, due to their greater size, consume large numbers of benthic invertebrates , thus incorporating the individual mercury accumulations of each organism and creating their own store of mercury. The effect

9500-416: The winter months, and increasing considerably in the summer as well, there has been more extreme fluctuation in the water levels. This has killed many trees along the shoreline, which are not equipped with deep enough root systems and tolerance of prolonged exposure to seawater to withstand these fluctuations. As well, the increased riverbank erosion downstream of the dams has washed the flora ’s habitat down

9600-432: The woodland is replaced by lichen dominated tundra . James Bay Project The James Bay Project ( French : projet de la Baie-James ) refers to the construction of a series of hydroelectric power stations on the La Grande River in northwestern Quebec , Canada by state-owned utility Hydro-Québec , and the diversion of neighbouring rivers into the La Grande watershed . It is located between James Bay to

9700-640: Was a "soft federalist" who favored devolving the powers of the federal government down to the provinces while the Canadian nationalist Trudeau was a "hard federalist" who favored concentrating power in the hands of the federal government. Relations between Quebec City and Ottawa were brought to the breaking point in 1971 when Bourassa vetoed the Victoria charter for patriating the British North America Act to give Canada its own constitution on

9800-551: Was an impetus for the forging of a collective identity among the Cree of Quebec and for the establishment of the Grand Council of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee) . The Agreement notably provided for major institutional structures for local government, economic development, schools and health services, mostly under the control of the Grand Council of the Crees and the Kativik Regional Government , in Nunavik . Yet,

9900-492: Was flooded during the formation of the reservoir. The name is an adaptation of the Cree or Innu toponym kâ-neyâpiskâw , which means "rocky point". Albert Peter Low had noted in 1895 that "a high rocky headland jutts into the lake." He probably referred to the northwest facing peninsula that gives the reservoir the shape of an arc as we currently know it. The Caniapiscau Reservoir is accessible by bush plane and, since 1981, by

10000-458: Was necessary to bring generated power to consumers in southern Quebec. The network contains several 735-kilovolt lines and one 450-kilovolt DC line directly linked to the U.S. power grid. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, construction of the second phase of the James Bay project centred on the construction of five secondary power plants on the La Grande River and its tributaries (La Grande-1, La Grande-2A, Laforge-1, Laforge-2 and Brisay), adding

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