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133-552: Construction costs of the project's first phase in ≈ 1971 amounted to $ 13.7 billion (1987 Canadian dollars ). The eight power stations of the La Grande Complex generate an average of 9.5 GW, enough to meet the total demand of a small industrialized economy such as Belgium . The James Bay power stations represent almost half of Hydro-Québec's total output and capacity. The development of the James Bay Project

266-616: A certain expertise in the field but advocated delaying nuclear expansion as late as possible. The Quebec premier received an unexpected backing when the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR , Alexei Kosygin visited Montreal in October 1971. Kosygin supported Bourassa's project and expressed concerns regarding his country's own nuclear power, explaining his country had to develop

399-522: A coin struck by the Hudson's Bay Company during the 17th century with a value equal to the pelt of a male beaver  – a "buck". Because of the appearance of the common loon on the back of the $ 1 coin that replaced the dollar bill in 1987, the word loonie was adopted in Canadian parlance to distinguish the Canadian dollar coin from the dollar bill. When the two-dollar coin was introduced in 1996,

532-583: A cut in interest rates made by the Bank of Canada due to concerns about exports to the U.S. Due to its soaring value and new record highs at the time, the Canadian dollar was named the Canadian Newsmaker of the Year for 2007 by the Canadian edition of Time magazine. Since the late 2000s, the Canadian dollar has been valued at levels comparable to the years before its swift rise in 2007. For most of

665-598: A further 5,200 MW of generating capacity by the end of 1996. Premier Bourassa estimated that this phase would create 40,000 construction job-years (equivalent to 4,000 jobs lasting 10 years). Three new reservoirs covering an area of 1,600 km were created, including the Laforge-1 Reservoir covering 1,288 km. The generating plants of this second phase of the project produce about 18.9 TWh of power per year, operating at between 60% and 70% of their maximum rated generating capacity. On March 13, 1989,

798-521: A lobby spearheaded by the Canadian government and its nuclear venture, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited , promoted the adoption of nuclear energy in Quebec, as a way to "share the benefits of Canada with our fellow francophone citizens", as Canadian Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson said. The lobby had its supporters within the ranks at Hydro-Québec, and has been vocal when the provincial government made

931-661: A massive solar storm caused a failure of the La Grande complex, plunging most of Quebec into darkness for nine hours. During the construction of the second phase of the James Bay Project, Hydro-Québec proposed an additional project on the Great Whale River (French: Grande rivière de la Baleine ), just to the north of the La Grande River watershed. Opposition among the Cree was even more vocal this time than in

1064-532: A mean discharge of 1190 m /s (1556 yd /s). Its source is the head of the Mégiscane River , which is 776 kilometers (482 mi) from the mouth. Significant lakes along its course are Soscumica Lake ( 50°15′N 77°27′W  /  50.250°N 77.450°W  / 50.250; -77.450 ) and Dusaux Lake ( 50°45′00″N 77°53′30″W  /  50.75000°N 77.89167°W  / 50.75000; -77.89167 ). The Nottaway, together with

1197-609: A new relationship between Quebec and the Crees and agreeing on environmental rules for the construction of three new power stations built between 2003 and 2011 — the Eastmain-1, Eastmain-1-A and Sarcelle generating stations — and the diversion of the Rupert River . The James Bay region, also known as Jamésie , is a 350,000 km (135,136 sq mi) territory, bordered by the 49th and 55th parallels, James Bay on

1330-469: A partisan crowd assembled at Quebec's Little Coliseum as part of the Liberal party gathering celebrating the first year of Bourassa's term, on April 30, 1971. According to journalists witnessing the scene, Bourassa's speech concluded on a scene of indescribable enthusiasm. The announcement quickly generated a public debate on the wisdom to engage the province on such a large-scale project. For several years,

1463-708: A rival union organizer’s teenager or strangle their dog." Desjardins was called before the Cliche commission several times starting in November 1974, where it was established that he was closely associated with the Montreal Mafia, and engaged in thuggish practices as president of the Conseil des métiers de la construction union. Although the Aboriginal Crees had traditional hunting and trapping areas in

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1596-598: A royal commission headed by Judge Robert Cliche , the union official Guy Chevrette and a prominent Montreal labor lawyer Brian Mulroney to examine the question of freedom of expression within Quebec construction unions. The Cliche commission as it became known found widespread corruption within the construction unions as the columnist Peggy Curran wrote that the Cliche commission uncovered "...tales of nepotism, bribery, sabotage, blackmail and intimidation; charges of union organizers with criminal records who gave lessons in how to break legs; thugs-for-hire who would happily beat up

1729-676: A team led by H. M. Finlayson conducted water surveys of the Nottaway , Broadback and Rupert Rivers —collectively known by the abbreviation NBR—on behalf of the Shawinigan Water & Power Company , a large investor-owned utility based in Shawinigan , Quebec. Among options studied by Shawinigan's engineers was the possible diversion of these rivers to the Saint-Maurice River watershed in order to increase output at

1862-457: A third in snow. Highest monthly rainfall is registered in the summer and snow depths vary from 50 to 100 cm (20-40 in) in the winter. Precipitations are significantly lower than the annual average of 1,050 mm (41 in) recorded in Montreal. The area lies in the zone of discontinuous permafrost , whose depth is significantly reduced by the deep snow cover. The natural seismicity of

1995-469: A total of 8.5 TWh of electricity at the new and existing power stations. Former Grand Chief of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee) Matthew Mukash (elected in late 2005 and served until 2009) opposed the Rupert River diversion and favoured the construction of wind turbines. The hydro-electric stations in the La Grande watershed are: Although there was no environmental impact assessment legislation before

2128-407: A wartime measure, nickel was replaced by tombac in the 5¢ coin, which was changed in shape from round to dodecagonal . Chromium-plated steel was used for the 5¢ in 1944 and 1945 and between 1951 and 1954, after which nickel was readopted. The 5¢ returned to a round shape in 1963. In 1935, the 0.800 silver voyageur dollar was introduced. Production was maintained through 1967 with the exception of

2261-472: Is a possibility that the damming project has contributed to northern Quebec's Cree having the highest measured methyl-mercury concentration of all Canadian First Nations. Because of the simultaneous mercury contamination in James Bay from other activities in the area, including paper milling, the direct effect of the project on mercury levels has been difficult to ascertain. From 1981 to 1982, a few years after

2394-425: Is cheaper for Canadian industries to purchase foreign material and businesses. The Bank of Canada currently has no specific target value for the Canadian dollar and has not intervened in foreign exchange markets since 1998. The Bank's official position is that market conditions should determine the worth of the Canadian dollar, although it occasionally makes minor attempts to influence its value. On world markets,

2527-735: Is further exacerbated by humans consuming this built up store of mercury. The James Bay Mercury Agreement, signed in 1986 between the Grand Council of the Crees (of Québec), the Cree Regional Authority , the Cree Bands, the Government of Québec , Hydro-Québec and the Société d’énergie de la Baie James ( James Bay Energy ), aims "to restore and strengthen Cree fisheries [...] but [...] also adequately take into account

2660-533: Is governed by the Currency Act , which sets out limits of: Retailers in Canada may refuse bank notes without breaking the law. According to legal guidelines, the method of payment has to be mutually agreed upon by the parties involved with the transactions. For example, stores may refuse $ 100 banknotes if they feel that would put them at risk of being counterfeit victims; however, official policy suggests that

2793-419: Is most affected by the hydroelectric project from January to April because rivers have their lowest runoff rates in the winter months when freezing occurs. Additionally, runoff rates in the damming system can be altered to meet power needs, which are highest in the winter and lowest in the summer, thereby more completely reversing the natural water flow cycle. As evidenced by the 500% increase in its winter runoff,

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2926-400: Is not given back as change. The standard set of designs has Canadian symbols, usually wildlife, on the reverse, and an effigy of Charles III on the obverse . A large number of pennies, nickels, and dimes are in circulation bearing the effigy of Elizabeth II , and occasionally some depicting George VI can be found. It is also common for American coins to be found among circulation due to

3059-422: Is only available directly from the mint, therefore seeing very little circulation), $ 1 ( loonie ), and $ 2 ( toonie ). The last 1¢ coin ( penny ) to be minted in Canada was struck on May 4, 2012, and distribution of the penny ceased on February 4, 2013. Ever since, the price for a cash transaction is rounded to the nearest five cents. The penny continues to be legal tender, although it is only accepted as payment and

3192-890: Is part of the Canadian Shield and is largely made up of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks . Relief has been eroded by successive glaciations in the Pleistocene era, as recently as 6,000 years ago, leaving depositions of loose materials: moraines , clay , silt and sand and reshaped the hydrography of the territory. The region's climate is subarctic . Winters are long and last, on average, from October 22 to May 4. Summers are short and mild, with temperatures averaging 13.6 °C (56.5 °F) in July, while dropping to −22.9 °C (−9.2 °F) in January. Annual precipitation averages 765 mm (30.1 in),

3325-480: Is popular with central banks because of Canada's relative economic soundness, the Canadian government's strong sovereign position, and the stability of the country's legal and political systems. The 1850s in Canada were a decade of debate over whether to adopt a £sd -based monetary system or a decimal monetary system based on the US dollar. The British North American provinces, for reasons of practicality in relation to

3458-458: Is the currency of Canada. It is abbreviated with the dollar sign $ . There is no standard disambiguating form, but the abbreviations Can$ , CA$ and C$ are frequently used for distinction from other dollar -denominated currencies (though C$ remains ambiguous with the Nicaraguan córdoba ). It is divided into 100 cents  (¢). Owing to the image of a common loon on its reverse,

3591-478: The 1963 election . The Canadian dollar returned to a fixed exchange rate regime in 1962 when its value was set at US$ 0.925 , where it remained until 1970. As an inflation -fighting measure, the Canadian dollar was allowed to float in 1970. Its value appreciated and it was worth more than the U.S. dollar for part of the 1970s. The high point was on April 25, 1974, when it reached US$ 1.0443 . The Canadian dollar fell in value against its American counterpart during

3724-711: The Broadback and Rupert Rivers , was initially considered to be dammed and developed as part of the James Bay Project . But in 1972 hydro-electric development began on the more northerly La Grande and Eastmain Rivers , and the NBR Project was shelved. With the decision to divert the Rupert River to the La Grande, it is not likely that the Nottaway will be developed in the foreseeable future. Nottaway means

3857-567: The Halifax rating . The new Canadian pound was equal to four US dollars (92.88 grains gold), making £1  sterling equal to £1.4 s .4 d . Canadian. Thus, the new Canadian pound was worth 16 shillings and 5.3 pence sterling. In 1851, the Parliament of the Province of Canada passed an act for the purposes of introducing a sterling-based unit, with decimal fractional coinage. The idea

3990-550: The Rupert River , to the south of the Eastmain River. The project entails the diversion of about 50% of the total water flow of the Rupert River (and 70% of the flow at the diversion point) towards the Eastmain Reservoir and into the La Grande Complex, and the construction of two additional generating stations: Eastmain-1A and Sarcelle, with a combined capacity of 888 MW. The Rupert diversion would generate

4123-627: The State of New York withdrew from a multibillion-dollar power purchasing agreement due to public outcry and a decrease in energy requirements. In 1994, the Government of Quebec and Hydro-Québec suspended the project indefinitely. In 2002, the Quebec government and the Grand Council of the Crees signed a landmark agreement, " La Paix des Braves " (literally "The Peace of the Braves"), ensuring

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4256-494: The chartered banks starting in the 1830s, by several pre- Confederation colonial governments (most notably the Province of Canada in 1866), and after confederation, by the Canadian government starting in 1870. Some municipalities also issued notes, most notably depression scrip during the 1930s. On July 3, 1934, with only 10 chartered banks still issuing notes, the Bank of Canada was founded. This new government agency became

4389-518: The taiga to perform surveys and geological studies to identify potential sites for hydropower development. Faced with budget concerns, Hydro-Québec did cut back exploration budgets between 1968 and 1970, but the company maintained planning and analysis work, since early data showed a large potential for development. On December 16, 1969, Liberal Backbencher Member of the National Assembly Robert Bourassa met with

4522-468: The technological boom of the 1990s that was centred in the United States, and was traded for as little as US$ 0.6179 on January 21, 2002, which was an all-time low. Since then, its value against all major currencies rose until 2013, due in part to high prices for commodities (especially oil ) that Canada exports. The Canadian dollar's value against the U.S. dollar rose sharply in 2007 because of

4655-629: The $ 5 and $ 10 denominations began circulation on November 12, 2013. Since 1935, all banknotes are printed by the Ottawa-based Canadian Bank Note Company under contract to the Bank of Canada. Previously, a second company, BA International (founded in 1866 as the British American Bank Note Company), shared printing duties. In 2011, BA International announced it would close its banknote printing business and cease printing banknotes at

4788-420: The 1¢ plated in copper and the others plated in cupro-nickel . In 2012, the multi-ply plated-steel technology was introduced for $ 1 and $ 2 coins as well. Also in that year mintage of the 1¢ coin ceased and its withdrawal from circulation began in 2013. The first paper money issued in Canada denominated in dollars were British Army bills, issued between 1813 and 1815. Canadian dollar banknotes were later issued by

4921-471: The 2010s, the exchange rate of Canadian to US dollars was approximately US$ 0.70 to Can$ 1.00. Nottaway River The Nottaway River is a river in Quebec , Canada . The river drains Lake Matagami and travels 225 kilometers (140 mi) north-west before emptying into Rupert Bay at the south end of James Bay . Its drainage basin is 65,800 square kilometers (25,400 sq mi) and has

5054-441: The 700 kilometres (430 mi) James Bay Road to the La Grande River was begun in 1971 and completed by October 1974 at a cost of about $ 400 million. In 1973 and 1974, a temporary winter ice road was used to bring in the heavy equipment required for the construction of the roadbed and some 13 major bridges spanning the many rivers of the region. Construction had boomed in Montreal for Expo 67 , leading to an inflated workforce. In

5187-520: The British conquest of Canada in 1760, French coins gradually went out of use, and sou became a nickname for the halfpenny , which was similar in value to the French sou . Spanish dollars and U.S. dollars were also in use, and from 1841 to 1858, the exchange rate was fixed at $ 4 = £1  (or 400¢ = 240 d ). This made 25¢ equal to 15 d , or 30 halfpence ( trente sous ). After decimalization and

5320-506: The Canadian dollar as a stable alternative to the Icelandic króna . Canada was favoured due to its northern geography and similar resource-based economy, in addition to its relative economic stability. The Canadian ambassador to Iceland said that Iceland could adopt the currency; although Iceland ultimately decided not to move on with the proposal. Since 76.7% of Canada's exports go to the U.S., and 53.3% of imports into Canada come from

5453-404: The Canadian dollar have tended to correlate with shifts in oil prices, reflecting the Canadian dollar's status as a petrocurrency owing to Canada's significant oil exports. The Canadian dollar traded at a record high of US$ 2.78 in terms of American greenbacks on July 11, 1864, since the latter was inconvertible paper currency. However, the Canadian dollar remained close to par or 1:1 versus

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5586-407: The Canadian dollar historically tended to move in tandem with the U.S. dollar. An apparently rising Canadian dollar (against the U.S. dollar) was decreasing against other international currencies; however, during the rise of the Canadian dollar between 2002 and 2013, it gained value against the U.S. dollar as well as other international currencies. In recent years, dramatic fluctuations in the value of

5719-589: The Cree villages mostly involves young adults and older Cree with few professional qualifications. Such activities are furthermore sustained by an income replacement program financed by the government of Quebec that offers the equivalent of a modest annual salary for hunters and their families who live in the bush for at least several weeks of the year. 53°46′38″N 77°27′53″W  /  53.777123°N 77.464600°W  / 53.777123; -77.464600 Canadian dollar The Canadian dollar ( symbol : $ ; code : CAD ; French : dollar canadien )

5852-469: The Crown corporation devoted only minimal resources to the vast potential of northern rivers. In 1965, Hydro-Québec survey program included exploration of the territory and hydrographic surveys of areas between the 52nd and 55th parallel. In 1967, the company stepped up the work on the La Grande and Eastmain rivers . Dozens, then hundreds of people were sent by helicopter and seaplanes in inaccessible areas of

5985-515: The Dominion of Canada in 1873. Newfoundland went decimal in 1865, but unlike the Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, it decided to adopt a unit based on the Spanish dollar rather than on the U.S. dollar, and there was a slight difference between these two units. The U.S. dollar was created in 1792 on the basis of the average weight of a selection of worn Spanish dollars. As such,

6118-474: The James Bay Project's initial construction phase in the 1970s, a major environmental research program was conducted before Phase I began. The environmental impacts of the James Bay Project largely stem from the creation of a complex chain reservoir through the integration of all the watersheds of the eastern shores of the Hudson Bay, from the southern tip of James Bay to Ungava Bay in the north. This has had

6251-596: The James Bay area. Additionally, diverting rivers towards the James Bay could cause changes in the geographical pattern of river water discharge into the sea.[36] Caribou populations, which have been expanding since the 1950s, have adopted migration routes throughout much of the Quebec-Labrador Peninsula and have thus been increasingly abundant in the James Bay area, the valley of the Caniapiscau, and around George River (Quebec) .[37] Variations in

6384-525: The James Bay project. In March 1974, when one sub-contractor refused to fire two workers belonging to the rival CSN union, the FTQ workers destroyed the LG-2 site, causing $ 35 million in damage. On 21 March 1974, the workers on the LG-2 site rioted and used their bulldozers to destroy the site that they were working on while other workers set buildings afire. In response to the riot at the LG-2 site, Bourassa created

6517-555: The La Grande River is the pillar of the James Bay project's hydroelectric capacity, with the runoff increasing from an average yearly amount of 1,700 m/s to 3,400 m/s, and from 500 m/s to 5,000 m/s in the winter. This immense harnessing of the area's energy at La Grande was made possible by reducing the Eastmain River's water flow at its mouth by 90% and by reducing that of the Caniaspiscau River's by 45%, and then by diverting these rivers into La Grande. Not only does this alter

6650-426: The La Grande River. The power plants of the first phase of the James Bay Project produce about 65 TWh of power each year, operating at about 60% of their maximum rated generating capacity. During this first phase of construction, over 155,000,000 cubic metres (203,000,000 cu yd) of fill, 138,000 tons of steel, 550,000 tons of cement, and nearly 70,000 tons of explosives were used. Concurrent employment by

6783-535: The Nottaway River flows on 200.2 kilometres (124.4 mi) divided into the following segments: (from the mouth) Lemoine Island, Lavoie Island, Kakupanchish Island, Kaminahikushach Island, Misiministikw Island, D'Herbomez Island, Des Sept Miles Island, Interdite Island (Bras Kapakusipastikuch), Vandry Island (Bras Spipastikw), Desmolier Island, Michikushish Island, Nestipuku Island, Kauskatistin Island. (from

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6916-610: The Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia united into a federation named Canada . As a result, their respective currencies were merged into a singular Canadian dollar. The Canadian Parliament passed the Uniform Currency Act in April 1871, tying up loose ends as to the currencies of the various provinces and replacing them with a common Canadian dollar. The gold standard was temporarily abandoned during World War I and definitively abolished on April 10, 1933. At

7049-551: The Province of Canada. Except for 1¢ coins struck in 1859, no more coins were issued until 1870, when production of the 5¢ and 10¢ was resumed and silver 25¢ and 50¢ were introduced. Between 1908 and 1919, sovereigns (legal tender in Canada for $ 4.86 + 2 ⁄ 3 ) were struck in Ottawa with a "C" mintmark. Canada produced its first gold dollar coins in 1912 in the form of $ 5 and $ 10. These coins were produced from 1912 to 1914. The obverse carries an image of King George V and on

7182-814: The SEBJ, and later the Naskapi First Nations . In the 1990s, forceful opposition by the Crees and their environmental allies caused the cancellation of the Great Whale Project , a proposed 3,000 MW complex north of La Grande River. In February 2002, the Bernard Landry government and the Grand Council of the Crees signed the Peace of the Braves ( French : Paix des Braves ) and the Boumhounan Agreement , establishing

7315-682: The Spanish dollar was worth slightly more than the U.S. dollar, and likewise, the Newfoundland dollar , until 1895, was worth slightly more than the Canadian dollar. The Colony of British Columbia adopted the British Columbia dollar as its currency in 1865, at par with the Canadian dollar. When British Columbia joined Canada as its sixth province in 1871, the Canadian dollar replaced the British Columbia dollar. In 1867,

7448-635: The Supreme Court. In later years, the Cree and Inuit were given a settlement of $ 150 million, negotiated by Cree chief Billy Diamond. In November 1975, the governments of Canada and Quebec signed the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement with the Cree of the James Bay region and the Inuit of northern Quebec, affirming exclusive hunting and fishing rights to about 170,000 km of territory and about $ 250 million in financial compensation in return for

7581-416: The U.S. dollar for the first time in 30 years, at US$ 1.0052. On November 7, 2007, it hit US$ 1.1024 during trading, a modern-day high after China announced it would diversify its US$ 1.43   trillion foreign exchange reserve away from the U.S. dollar. By November 30, however, the Canadian dollar was once again at par with the U.S. dollar, and on December 4, the dollar had retreated back to US$ 0.98, through

7714-437: The U.S. dollar unit. Hence, when the new decimal coins were introduced in 1858, the colony's currency became aligned with the U.S. currency, although the British gold sovereign continued to remain legal tender at the rate of £1 = Can$ 4.86 + 2 ⁄ 3 right up until the 1990s. In 1859, Canadian colonial postage stamps were issued with decimal denominations for the first time. In 1861, Canadian postage stamps were issued with

7847-424: The U.S., Canadians are interested in the value of their currency mainly against the U.S. dollar. Although domestic concerns arise when the dollar trades much lower than its U.S. counterpart, there is also concern among exporters when the dollar appreciates quickly. A rise in the value of the dollar increases the price of Canadian exports to the U.S. On the other hand, there are advantages to a rising dollar, in that it

7980-514: The area is low. An earthquake of magnitude 5 on the Richter magnitude scale occurred in 1941, its epicenter located approximately 150 km from the La Grande-3 generating station. However, episodes of induced seismicity occurred during the initial fill of reservoirs . In 1983, a magnitude 4 tremor was recorded 50 km (31 mi) upstream of LG-3's main dam. Between 1950 and 1959,

8113-404: The area's Cree is attributed to the processes of bioaccumulation and biomagnification . Biaccumulation is the initial consequence of mercury pollution, as the toxin is first incorporated into the given ecosystem's producers. In the James Bay area ecosystem, mercury being released from the decaying flooded trees would be incorporated in trace amounts in zooplankton . Benthic organisms ( benthos ),

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8246-403: The banknotes indefinitely. As of January 1, 2021, the $ 1, $ 2, $ 25, $ 500 and $ 1000 notes issued by the Bank of Canada are no longer legal tender. All other current and prior Canadian dollar banknotes issued by the Bank of Canada remain as legal tender in Canada. However, commercial transactions may legally be settled in any manner agreed by the parties involved. Legal tender of Canadian coinage

8379-422: The close proximity to the United States and the fact that the sizes and colours of the coins are similar. Commemorative coins with differing reverses are also issued on an irregular basis, most often quarters. 50¢ coins are rarely found in circulation; they are often collected and not regularly used in day-to-day transactions in most provinces. In 1858, bronze 1¢ and 0.925 silver 5¢, 10¢ and 20¢ coins were issued by

8512-434: The coastlines of both the James and Hudson Bays during their spring and fall migrations.[38] The James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement provided considerable financial and administrative resources for the Cree and Inuit communities to deal with the environmental and social consequences of the project and provide for future economic development, such as the creation of the local airline Air Creebec . The James Bay Project also

8645-404: The coin). The French pronunciation of cent (pronounced similarly to English as /sɛnt/ or /sɛn/ , not like the word for hundred, /sɑ̃/ or /sã/ ) is generally used for the subdivision; sou is another, informal, term for 1¢. 25¢ coins in Quebec French are often called trente sous ("thirty cents") because of a series of changes in terminology, currencies, and exchange rates. After

8778-444: The company's 8 power stations. With the nationalization of privately owned utilities in 1963 , Hydro-Québec inherited the preliminary studies conducted by Finlayson and his team on the hydroelectric potential of James Bay rivers. However, other projects, such as the Manicouagan-Outardes project on the North Shore and the possibility of building a large power station at Churchill Falls in Labrador proved easier and less expensive and

8911-420: The completion of the last phase of the original James Bay Project: construction of the Eastmain-1 generating station, with a capacity of 480 MW, and the Eastmain Reservoir with a surface area of about 600 km (230 sq mi). A subsequent agreement in April 2004 put an end to all litigation between the two parties and opened the way to a joint environmental assessment of the projected diversion of

9044-446: The consequence of diverting the flow of water from four major rivers into a large body of water, ultimately changing the dynamics of the land, an environmental political phenomenon labelled by some critics as a "first build, then paint green" policy. Two of these main diverted rivers are the Caniapiscau River and the Eastmain River into which the James Bay Project submerged about 11,000 km of boreal forest ( taiga ). Consequently,

9177-428: The construction site. Poverty and social problems remained prevalent in the isolated Cree and Inuit villages of Northern Quebec, even in areas where there were no hydroelectric or mining activities. By the 1980s, the natural ebb and flow of the La Grande, Eastmain and Caniapiscau rivers had been severely modified, notably delaying the formation of a solid ice cover near the Cree village of Chisasibi , and about 4% of

9310-418: The continued strength of the Canadian economy and the U.S. currency's weakness on world markets. During trading on September 20, 2007, it met the U.S. dollar at parity for the first time since November 25, 1976. Inflation in the value of the Canadian dollar has been fairly low since the 1990s. In 2007 the Canadian dollar rebounded, soaring 23% in value. On September 28, 2007, the Canadian dollar closed above

9443-513: The damming. The project, as described at the time, would involve the construction of four generating stations on the La Grande River and the diversion of the Eastmain and Caniapiscau rivers into the La Grande watershed. Responsibility for the project would be overseen by the Société d'énergie de la Baie-James , a newly created mixed corporation (public/private) controlled by Hydro-Québec, headed by Robert A. Boyd . As environmental assessments were not then required under Quebec law, construction of

9576-755: The decision to invest in the Churchill Falls venture with Brinco . Several Parti Québécois spokesmen, including energy critic Guy Joron and economic adviser Jacques Parizeau voiced their opposition to the Bourassa scheme. In an interview with Montreal 's Le Devoir , the former economist and public servant who later became premier of Quebec commented: "We don't have to dam every single river just because they're French Canadian and Catholic." However, Bourassa himself and Hydro-Québec senior management — including President Roland Giroux and commissioners Yvon DeGuise and Robert Boyd — were firmly behind

9709-462: The denominations shown in dollars and cents. In 1860, the colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia followed the Province of Canada in adopting a decimal system based on the U.S. dollar unit. In 1871, Prince Edward Island went decimal within the U.S. dollar unit and introduced coins in the denomination of 1 cent. However, the currency of Prince Edward Island was absorbed into the Canadian system shortly afterwards, when Prince Edward Island joined

9842-468: The derivative word toonie ("two loonies") became the common word for it in Canadian English slang. In French , the currency is also called le dollar ; Canadian French slang terms include piastre or piasse (the original word used in 18th-century French to translate "dollar") and huard (equivalent to loonie , since huard is French for "loon," the bird appearing on

9975-509: The development of its natural resources". Moreover, Bourassa argued his 1969 estimates showed demand for electricity would outstrip supply by 11,000 MW by 1983, concurring with forecasts made at the time by Hydro-Quebec. Six months after his election, Bourassa began working on the details of the scheme with his adviser, financier Paul Desrochers. The two men met secretly with Roland Giroux and Robert A. Boyd for an update in September 1970 and

10108-409: The dollar coin, and sometimes the unit of currency itself, may be referred to as the loonie by English-speaking Canadians and foreign exchange traders and analysts. Accounting for approximately 2% of all global reserves, as of January 2024 the Canadian dollar is the fifth-most held reserve currency in the world, behind the U.S. dollar , euro , yen , and sterling . The Canadian dollar

10241-517: The early 18th century. "Noddaways" in 1715, "Nodaway" in 1743, "Nodaoay" and "Nodway" in 1744. Geologists James Richardson and Albert Peter Low used "Notaway River" in their reports (of 1880 and 1885 respectively). The current spelling "Nottaway" was established in the early twentieth century. It is believed to have come from the Algonquin word nadowe , meaning "snake" and which the Algonquin tribes used to identify or describe their enemies, including

10374-528: The early 1970s. In 1990, Grand Chief Matthew Coon Come organized a canoe trip from Hudson Bay to the Hudson River , in Albany, New York , and this very effective public relations stunt brought international pressure to bear on the government of Quebec. The Cree had experienced considerable culture shock with the introduction of permanent transportation routes to the south and very few Cree were employed on

10507-500: The end of 2012; since then, the Canadian Bank Note Company has been the sole printer of Canadian banknotes. All banknotes from series prior to the current polymer series are now considered unfit for circulation due to their lacking of any modern security features, such as a metallic stripe. Financial institutions must return the banknotes to the Bank of Canada, which will then destroy them. Individuals may keep

10640-518: The first phase of the project covered about 14 years. By 1986, the largest power stations and reservoirs on the La Grande River were mostly completed, including the Robert-Bourassa (originally named La Grande-2), La Grande-3 and La Grande-4 generating stations, with an installed capacity of 10,800 MW, and five reservoirs covering an area of 11,300 km. The Eastmain and Caniapiscau river diversions each added about 800 m/s of water to

10773-497: The flooded vegetation's stored mercury (Hg) was released into the aquatic ecosystem, and due to the diversion of the water flow to contained reservoirs, the sudden abundance of mercury in the James Bay area in 1979 was unable to be dispersed and diluted as would have been the case in natural waters. Because the James Bay Cree ( East Cree ) live a mostly traditional lifestyle including a diet rich in fish and sea mammals, there

10906-412: The flooding of La Grande River , mercury levels in lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) increased up to fourfold their pre-flooding levels, while those in northern pike (Esox lucius) rose up to sevenfold during the same period. In natural lakes, these concentrations are five to six times less than in the James Bay area. This rapid spike of mercury levels in two of the fish species used extensively by

11039-461: The following years, the decreased demand for labor meant that times were tough for the construction industry in Montreal. As Bourassa had promised in the 1970 election that his government would create 100,000 jobs in the construction industry, there was much violent competition between various construction unions to have their workers engaged in the James Bay Project. Canadian historian Desmond Morton noted that there were 540 different incidents between

11172-515: The gold or silver US dollar of the time. Unlike other currencies in the Bretton Woods system , whose values were fixed , the Canadian dollar was allowed to float from 1950 to 1962. Between 1952 and 1960, the Canadian dollar traded at a slight premium over the U.S. dollar, reaching a high of US$ 1.0614 on August 20, 1957. The Canadian dollar fell considerably after 1960, and this contributed to Prime Minister John Diefenbaker 's defeat in

11305-578: The grounds that if the British North American Act was going to be changed, then the federal government should cede more powers to the provinces. The willingness of the Trudeau government to intervene on the side of the Cree and Inuit against the Quebec government was at least in part caused by the feud between Bourassa and Trudeau. In a speech championing the Cree, Chrétien said Bourassa "could go to hell", charging that he did not have

11438-419: The health risks associated with human exposure to mercury." The establishment of reservoirs containing large amounts of standing water has the ability to produce local climate changes. Alteration of annual precipitation patterns, increased abundance of low stratus clouds and fog , and warmer autumns and cooler springs, leading to a delay in the beginning and end of the growing season, have all been observed in

11571-548: The hydroelectric project until after construction of the access road had begun. The federal Indian affairs minister Jean Chrétien intervened on the side of the Cree and the Inuit, hiring lawyers to argue their case in the courts. Both Bourassa and the Prime Minister, Pierre Trudeau were Liberals and federalists, but relations between the two were very strained at best as the French-Canadian nationalist Bourassa

11704-643: The increasing trade with the neighbouring United States, had a desire to assimilate their currencies with the American unit, but the imperial authorities in London still preferred sterling as the sole currency throughout the British Empire . The British North American provinces nonetheless gradually adopted currencies tied to the American dollar. In 1841, the Province of Canada adopted a new system based on

11837-481: The interior and encouraged commercial and social exchanges between the Cree villages and with southern Quebec. A separate road ( Route du Nord ) also links the James Bay Road to Chibougamau , via the Cree village of Nemaska . The building of these newer roads was largely the work of Cree construction companies. The James Bay Road also opened the region to further mineral exploration and clear-cut logging in

11970-431: The large hydroelectric development to be built in northern Quebec. At the time Giroux, a financier, argued that large international investors "are still wary about nuclear energy. If we bring them a good hydroelectric project, and James Bay is a good one, they'll soon show where their preferences lie". As an engineer, Boyd expressed concerns at this early date about the uncertainty of nuclear energy. He recommended maintaining

12103-406: The lost wetland habitats in these zones of periodic fluctuations are destroyed. Other changes in the delicate balance of the James Bay ecosystem can be illustrated through the animal migration patterns, salmon spawning, and destruction of wildlife habitats. The significant loss of wetlands and the blocking of passageways to those wetlands that remain has inhibited salmon spawning and migration in

12236-460: The lower Caniapiscau during the period of caribou migrations, giving hunters greater access to caribou than ever before. About 30,000 caribou are killed each year by Inuit , Cree and American and European hunters. Seasonal reversal in the flow of rivers can potentially rob the rich nutrients that thrive in various mudflats and coastal marshes , affecting millions of migratory birds such as waterfowl, Canada geese , and various inland birds that use

12369-641: The lower course of Lake Matagami and a length of 200.2 kilometres (124.4 mi), of a watercourse which originates in the Mégiscane Lake . The whole is a long river of 776 kilometres (482 mi) units flowing through many lakes. On the way to the northwest, the Nottaway, from Lake Matagami , creates the lakes of Soscumica and Dusaux, collects the waters of several rivers - notably the Kitchigama River and ends its race in Rupert Bay at

12502-774: The mouth) Rapides Kanutinitunanuch, rapides Kasischischiskasich, rapides Kaikunapischechuch, rapides Kachechekuch, Iroquois Falls, rapides Longs, rapides des Taureaux. Major tributaries of the Nottaway River include: In the seventeenth century, the Iroquois invaded the Algonquin territory near James Bay along this river. So when European cartographers started to map the river in the late seventeenth century, they called it " Rivière des Iroquois " (Iroquois River), as shown on maps of Jean-Baptiste-Louis Franquelin in 1699, Guillaume Delisle in 1703, and Jacques-Nicolas Bellin in 1744. Yet various forms of "Nottaway" started to appear in

12635-537: The nearby Cree village of Chisasibi . During the main construction period of the late 1970s, Radisson housed a population several times greater than the Cree population of Chisasibi, although it currently has a population of about 500. Nevertheless, the Cree communities have themselves continued the push to build additional roads from the James Bay Road westward to the Cree coastal villages of Wemindji , Eastmain and Waskaganish . These roads, opened between 1995 and 2001, have further facilitated access to hunting areas of

12768-574: The next month he travelled to New York City in the midst of the October Crisis to negotiate financing for the project, estimated at the time to cost between $ 5 billion and $ 6 billion. Bourassa introduced his plan to the provincial cabinet in March 1971 and recommended hiring the US engineering firm Bechtel to oversee the construction. Liberal strategists then chose to make the announcement before

12901-515: The north. The northerly rivers were selected in May 1972, various studies conducted by engineering firms having concluded the La Grande option would be more cost effective, while having a lesser impact on forestry and would require less flooding, thus minimizing impacts on First Nations fishing and hunting. Another area of concern was the silty nature of the terrain in the NBR area, which would have complicated

13034-415: The notes have occurred since 1935, with new series introduced in 1937, 1954, 1970, 1986, and 2001. In June 2011, newly designed notes printed on a polymer substrate, as opposed to cotton fibre, were announced; the first of these polymer notes, the $ 100 bill, began circulation on November 14, 2011, the $ 50 bill began circulation on March 26, 2012, the $ 20 denomination began circulation on November 7, 2012, and

13167-436: The outbreak of World War II , the exchange rate to the U.S. dollar was fixed at Can$ 1.10 = US$ 1.00. This was changed to parity in 1946. In 1949, sterling was devalued and Canada followed, returning to a peg of Can$ 1.10 = US$ 1.00. However, Canada allowed its dollar to float in 1950, whereupon the currency rose to a slight premium over the U.S. dollar for the next decade. But the Canadian dollar fell sharply after 1960 before it

13300-522: The party leader in January, Bourassa went on to win the general election on April 29, 1970 , and his tenure as Premier of Quebec became closely linked to hydroelectric development in general and with the James Bay project in particular. For Bourassa the development of James Bay project addressed two of his priorities. In Energy in the North , an essay published in 1985, Bourassa, an economist by profession, argued that "Quebec's economic development relies on

13433-492: The president of Hydro-Québec, Roland Giroux over lunch at the parliamentary dining room in Quebec City . After the meeting Bourassa, who was about to launch a leadership bid for the position left vacant by the resignation of former Premier Jean Lesage , became convinced of the probability and suitability of the project and made the development of James Bay hydroelectricity a major plank of its leadership campaign. Elected as

13566-431: The project reached 18,000. Of the 215 dikes and dams, many surpassed the height of skyscrapers, with one reaching 56 stories. The terraced diversion channel at Robert-Bourassa generating station was carved 30 m (one hundred feet) deep into the side of a mountain. Water tumbles from the reservoir to the river below at a height greater than that of Niagara Falls. A 4,800 km (3,000 mi) network of transmission lines

13699-409: The public and the visually unappealing ones were melted. In 1920, the size of the 1¢ was reduced and the silver fineness of the 5¢, 10¢, 25¢ and 50¢ coins was reduced to 0.800 silver/.200 copper. This composition was maintained for the 10¢, 25¢ and 50¢ piece through 1966, but the debasement of the 5¢ piece continued in 1922 with the silver 5¢ being entirely replaced by a larger nickel coin. In 1942, as

13832-440: The region, no seasonal or permanent roads existed at the time. Opposition to the project, however, was strong among the 5,000 Crees of James Bay, the 3,500 Inuit to the north and several environmental groups. They believed the government of Quebec was acting in violation of treaties and committing unlawful expropriation and destruction of traditional hunting and trapping lands. Furthermore, the Cree and Inuit had not been informed of

13965-456: The retailers should evaluate the impact of that approach. In the case that no mutually acceptable form of payment can be found for the tender, the parties involved should seek legal advice. Canadian dollars, especially coins, are accepted by some businesses in the northernmost cities of the United States and in many Canadian snowbird enclaves, just as U.S. dollars are accepted by some Canadian businesses. In 2012, Iceland considered adopting

14098-610: The reverse is a shield with the arms of the Dominion of Canada. Gold from the Klondike River valley in the Yukon accounts for much of the gold in the coins. Two years into the coin's production World War I began and production of the coins stopped in favour of tighter control over Canadian gold reserves. Most of the 1914 coins produced never reached circulation at the time and some were stored for more than 75 years until being sold off in 2012. The high quality specimens were sold to

14231-472: The right to build on or flood the land claimed by the Cree. In 1973, the federal government's lawyers won a court injunction ordering the James Bay project stopped until a treaty could be signed with the Cree and Inuit, but an appeals court overturned the ruling days later. However, Bourassa agreed to negotiate with the First Nations as the federal government announced it was willing to take the matter to

14364-543: The right to develop the hydroelectric resources of Northern Quebec. The planned La Grande-1 power station would be built about 50 km further away from the Cree village of Chisasibi than originally planned. The Agreement also provided for an extensive environmental follow-up of all aspects of the hydroelectric development on the La Grande and Eastmain rivers and the establishment of a joint environmental assessment process for any future hydroelectric project involving other rivers of Northern Quebec. The period of construction of

14497-466: The river. The result has been considerable decay ( decomposition ) of dead trees along the shoreline, consequently releasing stored mercury into the area's terrestrial ecosystem through bioaccumulation in decomposers and detritovores and eventual biomagnification up the food web . This has left the area's Cree susceptible to mercury poisoning from both land and sea. Any shoreline plants that could potentially provide vegetation growth to replace any of

14630-564: The runoff amount of the Eastmain and the Caniaspiscau Rivers, but also their drainage location, since prior to having been directly merged with La Grande, these rivers’ drainage locations were separate from the La Grande River. The summer runoff rate of La Grande increased by 40%, making the average annual runoff rate 91% greater than its natural rate. Because of the change in the runoff rates of James Bay, massively increasing in

14763-560: The social consequences of the hydroelectric project itself pale in comparison to the social impact of the Cree coming into direct contact with the society and economic forces of francophone Quebec. The greatest impact stems from the construction in the early 1970s of the James Bay Road ( Route de la Baie James ) from Matagami to the new town of Radisson , near the Robert-Bourassa generating station (La Grande-2), and on to

14896-573: The sole issuer of all federal notes. In 1935, it issued its first series of notes in denominations of $ 1, $ 2, $ 5, $ 10, $ 20, $ 25, $ 50, $ 100, $ 500 and $ 1000. The $ 25 note was a commemorative issue, released to mark the Silver Jubilee of King George V . In 1944, the chartered banks were prohibited from issuing their own currency, with the Royal Bank of Canada and the Bank of Montreal among the last to issue notes. Significant design changes to

15029-434: The southern James Bay area and substantially reduced the cost of transport. These activities have put further strains on the traditional hunting and trapping activities of the Cree in the southern James Bay region, notably the villages of Waskaganish and Nemaska. Such activities, however, only accounted for about half the economic activity of the Cree communities in 1970 and less than 20% by the late 1990s. Hunting and fishing in

15162-420: The southern edge of the development has shifted noticeably southward since the project's construction. Following construction of the project, the area's water flow was substantially modified. In the James Bay area in general, the average monthly surface runoff rate in the winter increased by 52%, doubling the total freshwater input, while that of the summer months decreased by 6%. The James Bay area's water flow

15295-485: The southern end of James Bay , at the western area of the Broadback River and Rupert River . Its drainage basin is 65,800 square kilometres (25,400 sq mi) and has an average discharge of 1,190 cubic metres per second (42,000 cu ft/s). The course of the river crosses many marsh areas, especially in its lower part. The mouth of Matagami Lake is located: From the mouth of Matagami Lake ,

15428-431: The technology because the USSR lacked suitable rivers to expand its own hydroelectric network of dams and power stations. Two options were considered when Bourassa unveiled his plan for the construction of several large hydroelectric power stations on the rivers flowing into James Bay, either on the Nottaway , Broadback , Rupert and Harricana Rivers in the south (NBR Project), or on the La Grande and Eastmain Rivers to

15561-510: The traditional hunting and trapping territories of the Cree had been lost to the rising waters of the reservoirs, including about 10% of the territories of the Cree village of Chisasibi. At the same time, new roads, snowmobiles and bush airlines facilitated access to distant hunting territories of the interior. While highly motivated, the Cree's opposition to the Great Whale River Project was mainly ineffective until 1992 when

15694-654: The two main construction unions in Quebec on sites associated with the James Bay Project between 1970 and 1974, many of them "very bloody". In the 1973 election, after the Fédération des travailleurs et travailleuses du Québec (FTQ) union had donated generously to the Parti libéral du Québec , Bourassa announced that only companies employing workers from the FTQ-affiliated Conseil des métiers de la construction headed by André "Dédé" Desjardins would work on

15827-472: The vicinity of the project's major reservoirs. The doubling of the freshwater input into James Bay during the winter decreases the salinity of the seawater , thereby increasing the freezing point of the bay. The resultant increased ice content at the northern section of the project in the winter has cooled warm air currents more than usual, bringing harsher Arctic weather, including strong winds and less precipitation, to south-central Quebec. The tree line at

15960-426: The war years between 1939 and 1945. In 1967 both 0.800 silver/0.200 copper and, later that year, 0.500 silver/.500 copper 10¢ and 25¢ coins were issued. 1968 saw further debasement: the 0.500 fine silver dimes and quarters were completely replaced by nickel ones mid-year. All 1968 50¢ and $ 1 coins were reduced in size and coined only in pure nickel. Thus, 1968 marked the last year in which any circulating silver coinage

16093-621: The water flow of the Caniapiscau River from 1981 to 1984, during the period when the Caniapiscau Reservoir was being filled, may have contributed to the death by drowning of 10,000 migratory woodland caribou in September 1984, representing about 1.5% of the herd at that time. On the other hand, the reduced flow of the Caniapiscau River and the Koksoak River has permanently reduced the risk of natural floods on

16226-573: The western side and by the drainage divide with the Saint Lawrence River basin on the eastern side. The topography of the area consist of generally low relief areas and includes three parts: a 150 km (93 mi) coastal plain , a rolling plateau with a maximum elevation of 400 m (1,300 ft) and the Otish Mountains to the east of the territory, with peaks reaching 900 to 1,100 m (3,000 to 3,600 ft) . The area

16359-419: The whitefish's primary prey, consume a great deal of zooplankton, causing the mercury concentration in a single organism to magnify due to accumulation of mercury and its inability to be excreted. In turn, whitefish, due to their greater size, consume large numbers of benthic invertebrates , thus incorporating the individual mercury accumulations of each organism and creating their own store of mercury. The effect

16492-416: The winter months, and increasing considerably in the summer as well, there has been more extreme fluctuation in the water levels. This has killed many trees along the shoreline, which are not equipped with deep enough root systems and tolerance of prolonged exposure to seawater to withstand these fluctuations. As well, the increased riverbank erosion downstream of the dams has washed the flora ’s habitat down

16625-525: The withdrawal of halfpenny coins, the nickname sou began to be used for the 1¢ coin , but the idiom trente sous for 25¢ endured. Coins are produced by the Royal Canadian Mint 's facilities in Winnipeg , Manitoba , and Ottawa , Ontario , in denominations of 5¢ ( nickel ), 10¢ ( dime ), 25¢ ( quarter ), 50¢ ( 50¢ piece ) (though the 50¢ piece is no longer distributed to banks and

16758-584: Was a "soft federalist" who favored devolving the powers of the federal government down to the provinces while the Canadian nationalist Trudeau was a "hard federalist" who favored concentrating power in the hands of the federal government. Relations between Quebec City and Ottawa were brought to the breaking point in 1971 when Bourassa vetoed the Victoria charter for patriating the British North America Act to give Canada its own constitution on

16891-421: Was again pegged in 1962 at Can$ 1.00 = US$ 0.925. This was sometimes pejoratively referred to as the "Diefenbuck" or the "Diefendollar", after the then Prime Minister, John Diefenbaker . This peg lasted until 1970, with the currency's value being floated since then. Canadian English , similar to American English , used the slang term " buck " for a former paper dollar. The Canadian origin of this term derives from

17024-551: Was an impetus for the forging of a collective identity among the Cree of Quebec and for the establishment of the Grand Council of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee) . The Agreement notably provided for major institutional structures for local government, economic development, schools and health services, mostly under the control of the Grand Council of the Crees and the Kativik Regional Government , in Nunavik . Yet,

17157-483: Was controversial. It led to an acrimonious conflict with the 5,000 Crees and 4,000 Inuit of Northern Quebec over land rights, lifestyle and environmental issues. A ruling against the Quebec government in 1973 forced the Robert Bourassa government to negotiate a far-reaching agreement, the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement , involving the Cree, the Inuit, the Quebec and Canadian governments, Hydro-Québec,

17290-438: Was issued in Canada. In 1982, the 1¢ coin was changed to dodecagonal, and the 5¢ was further debased to a cupro-nickel alloy. In 1987 a $ 1 coin struck in aureate-plated nickel was introduced. A bimetallic $ 2 coin followed in 1996. In 1997, copper-plated zinc replaced bronze in the 1¢, and it returned to a round shape. This was followed, in 2000, by the introduction of even cheaper plated-steel 1¢, 5¢, 10¢, 25¢ and 50¢ coins, with

17423-458: Was necessary to bring generated power to consumers in southern Quebec. The network contains several 735-kilovolt lines and one 450-kilovolt DC line directly linked to the U.S. power grid. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, construction of the second phase of the James Bay project centred on the construction of five secondary power plants on the La Grande River and its tributaries (La Grande-1, La Grande-2A, Laforge-1, Laforge-2 and Brisay), adding

17556-405: Was provided for under the 1853 act. Sterling coinage was made legal tender and all other silver coins were demonetized. The British government in principle allowed for a decimal coinage but nevertheless held out the hope that a sterling unit would be chosen under the name of "royal". However, in 1857, the decision was made to introduce a decimal coinage into the Province of Canada in conjunction with

17689-576: Was that the decimal coins would correspond to exact amounts in relation to the U.S. dollar fractional coinage. In response to British concerns, in 1853, an act of the Parliament of the Province of Canada introduced the gold standard into the colony, based on both the British gold sovereign and the American gold eagle coins . This gold standard was introduced with the gold sovereign being legal tender at £1 = US$ 4.86 + 2 ⁄ 3 . No coinage

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