Kingdom of Romania
107-549: Ion Luca Caragiale ( Romanian pronunciation: [iˈon ˈluka karaˈdʒjale] ; 13 February [ O.S. 30 January] 1852 – 9 June 1912), commonly referred to as I. L. Caragiale , was a Romanian playwright, short story writer, poet, theater manager, political commentator and journalist. Leaving behind an important cultural legacy, he is considered one of the greatest playwrights in Romanian language and literature , as well as one of its most important writers and
214-491: A brochure printed in 1848. The Caragiali brothers had two sisters, Ecaterina and Anastasia. Especially in his old age, the writer emphasized his family's humble background and his status as a self-made man . On one occasion, he defined the landscape of his youth as "the quagmires of Ploiești". Although it prompted his biographer Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea to define him as "a proletarian ", Caragiale's account
321-479: A tutor . Ion Luca made his literary debut in 1873, at the age of 21, with poems and humorous chronicles printed in G. Dem. Teodorescu 's liberal-inspired satirical magazine, Ghimpele . He published relatively few articles under various pen names — among them Car. , the contraction of his family name, and the more elaborate Palicar . He mostly performed basic services for the editorial staff and its printing press , given that, after Luca Caragiali died in 1870, he
428-428: A March 1884 meeting of the society—Maiorescu recorded in his private notes that "[...] Caragiale [was] aggressive and rude toward Alecsandri." Caragiale's wealthy relative, Catinca Momulo Cardini (commonly known Catinca Momuloaia), who was the widow of a famous restaurateur and the cousin of his mother Ecaterina, died in 1885, and the writer had the prospect of inheriting a large fortune. He nonetheless became involved in
535-469: A bank which was supposed to help peasants to buy lots of 5 hectares (12 acres) from landlords. A law passed on April 12, 1908 banned anyone leasing more than 4,000 ha (9,900 acres) at one time. The events continued to resonate in the Romanian conscience, and were the subject of one of the novels of the interwar period, Răscoala ("The Revolt"), by Liviu Rebreanu , published in 1932. A film based on
642-441: A certain degree, misogyny . In 1878, Caragiale and Maiorescu left for Iași, where they attended Junimea ' s 15th anniversary, and where Caragiale read his first draft of the celebrated play O noapte furtunoasă . The work, ridiculing the petite bourgeoisie ' s mix of liberal values and demagogy over a background of superficial culture, immediately struck a chord with the majority-conservative grouping. Its reception
749-563: A daughter, named Lenci. Ion Luca's uncles, Costache and Iorgu Caragiale , managed theater troupes and were very influential figures in the development of early Romanian theatre — in Wallachia and Moldavia alike. Luca Caragiali had himself performed with his brothers during his youth, before opting to settle down. All three had stood criticism for not taking part in the Wallachian Revolution , and defended themselves through
856-504: A direct parallel between art, literature and cutting hair—both the theme and the character were to be reused in his later works. Similarly, a fragment of prose referring to two inseparable friends, Șotrocea and Motrocea, was to serve as the first draft for the Lache and Mache series in Momente și schițe . Another notable work of the time is Pohod la șosea , a rhyming reportage documenting
963-555: A figure of "several thousand". Prince Johann of Schönburg-Hartenstein [ cs ] , the minister plenipotentiary of Austria-Hungary in Bucharest at the time, and also General Averescu estimated the number of dead between 1,000–2,000. According to figures given by Austrian diplomats, between 3,000-5,000 peasants were killed, while the French Embassy mentioned a death toll ranging between 10,000–20,000. Historians put
1070-495: A leading representative of local humour . Alongside Mihai Eminescu , Ioan Slavici and Ion Creangă , he is seen as one of the main representatives of Junimea , an influential literary society with which he nonetheless parted during the second half of his life. His work, spanning four decades, covers the ground between Neoclassicism , Realism , and Naturalism , building on an original synthesis of foreign and local influences. Although few in number, Caragiale's plays constitute
1177-516: A letter dated "12/22 Dec. 1635". In his biography of John Dee , The Queen's Conjurer , Benjamin Woolley surmises that because Dee fought unsuccessfully for England to embrace the 1583/84 date set for the change, "England remained outside the Gregorian system for a further 170 years, communications during that period customarily carrying two dates". In contrast, Thomas Jefferson , who lived while
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#17327825909051284-417: A living, agreed to contribute pieces for the party press, and thus briefly associated with Voința Națională (a journal issued by historian and politician Alexandru Dimitrie Xenopol ). Under the pen name Luca , he contributed two theater chronicles. In parallel, he taught classes at the privately run Sfântul Gheorghe High School in Bucharest. This episode of his career ended in 1888, when Maiorescu ascended to
1391-483: A regular participant in Junimea' s activities, becoming good friends with some of its most important representatives ( Iacob Negruzzi , Vasile Pogor , and Petru Th. Missir ). With Negruzzi, he dramatized Hatmanul Baltag , a short story by Nicolae Gane . He became close to Veronica Micle , a woman writer who was also Eminescu's mistress. For a while, Caragiale and Micle had a love affair, although she continued to see
1498-565: A reputation as a lawyer and judge in Ploiești , and married Ecaterina, the daughter of a merchant from the Transylvanian town of Brașov . Her maiden name was given as Alexovici ( Alexevici ) or as Karaboa ( Caraboa ). She is known to have been Greek herself, and, according to historian Lucian Nastasă, some of her relatives were Hungarian members of the Tabay family. The couple also had
1605-664: A section of Caragiale's fairy tale Kir Ianulea was a likely self-reference: in that fragment of text, the Christian Devil , disguised as an Arvanite trader, is shown taking pride in his Romanian language skills. Investigations carried out by the Center of Theatric Research in Athens , Greece and made public in 2002 offered an alternative take on the Caragiales' origin. According to this perspective, Ștefan Caragiali
1712-911: A start-of-year adjustment works well with little confusion for events before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Agincourt is well known to have been fought on 25 October 1415, which is Saint Crispin's Day . However, for the period between the first introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 15 October 1582 and its introduction in Britain on 14 September 1752, there can be considerable confusion between events in Continental Western Europe and in British domains. Events in Continental Western Europe are usually reported in English-language histories by using
1819-444: A street brawl and believe that a revolution is imminent. It was also then that his first memoirs from the world of theater were published, which coincided with the release of Ion Creangă 's own book of memoirs, the well-known volume Amintiri din copilărie . Accompanied by Maiorescu, Caragiale left for Austria-Hungary . In Vienna , the two of them attended a staging of William Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night's Dream , hosted by
1926-710: A teacher at the Romanian Orthodox Church of Saint George. Soon after, he was taught literary Romanian by the Transylvanian-born Bazilie Dragoșescu (whose influence on his use of the language he was to acknowledge in one of his later works). At the age of seven, he witnessed enthusiastic celebrations of the Danubian Principalities ' union, with the election of Moldavia's Alexandru Ioan Cuza as Prince of Wallachia; Cuza's subsequent reforms were to be an influence on
2033-404: A trial with Momuloaia's other relatives, which prolonged itself until the early 20th century. Months after this, his new comedy, O scrisoare pierdută , was first shown to the public. A fresco of conflicting political machines , provincial corruption , petty ambitions, and incoherent demagogy, it was an instant hit with the public. Arguably the high point of Caragiale's career, it became one of
2140-480: A visit to the house of Dr. Kremnitz, physician to the family of Domnitor Carol I . The doctor's wife and Maiorescu's sister-in-law, Mite Kremnitz , was herself a writer, and later became Eminescu's lover. During several meetings, Caragiale was asked by Maiorescu to write down a series of aphorisms in an album. His concise musings are contemplative in tone, and some of them have been construed by some present-day reviewers to contain evidence of misanthropy and, to
2247-536: Is 9 February 1649, the date by which his contemporaries in some parts of continental Europe would have recorded his execution. The O.S./N.S. designation is particularly relevant for dates which fall between the start of the "historical year" (1 January) and the legal start date, where different. This was 25 March in England, Wales, Ireland and the colonies until 1752, and until 1600 in Scotland. In Britain, 1 January
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#17327825909052354-516: Is assumed that several unsigned chronicles, covering foreign events, are his contributions (as are two short story adaptations of works by the American author Edgar Allan Poe , both published by Timpul in spring-summer 1878). The newspaper was actually issued as a collaborative effort, which makes it hard to identify the authors of many other articles. According to Slavici, Caragiale occasionally completed unfinished contributions by Eminescu whenever
2461-605: The Burgtheater . He was practically unemployed after returning, and, in 1881, gave up his position at Timpul . Nevertheless, that autumn, V. A. Urechia , Minister of Education in the Ion Brătianu National Liberal cabinet, assigned him the office of inspector general for the Moldavian counties of Suceava and Neamț . Profiting from the proximity between his new residence and Iași, Ion Luca Caragiale became
2568-471: The French republican Frédéric Damé , he also headed a short-lived journal, Națiunea Română . It was also then that he contributed a serialized overview of Romanian theater, published by the newspaper România Liberă , in which Caragiale attacked the inferiority of Romanian dramaturgy and the widespread recourse to plagiarism . According to literary historian Perpessicius , the series constituted "one of
2675-410: The Romanian population and about 60% of them owned small plots, or no land at all, while the large landowners owned more than half of the arable land . The National Liberal Party 's policy to encourage peasant cooperatives was not successful, as many landlords feared the organization of the peasants, preferring to lease to individual peasants rather than to cooperatives. According to Ioan Lahovary ,
2782-719: The Romanian Parliament . The data available to the Prime Minister Dimitrie Sturdza indicated 421 deaths between 28 March and 5 April 1907. Likewise, about 112 were injured and 1,751 detained. Newspapers patronized by Constantin Mille, Adevărul and Dimineața , gave a figure of 12,000–13,000 victims. In a conversation with the British ambassador in Bucharest , King Carol I mentioned
2889-537: The Russian Army 's arrival to Bucharest, and the street reactions to the event. Claponul ceased publication in early 1878. It was probably through Eminescu that Ion Luca Caragiale came into contact with the Iași -based Junimea , the influential literary society which was also a center for anti-National Liberal politics. Initially, Caragiale met with Junimea founder, the critic and politician Titu Maiorescu , during
2996-609: The Russian Empire and the very beginning of Soviet Russia . For example, in the article "The October (November) Revolution", the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the format of "25 October (7 November, New Style)" to describe the date of the start of the revolution. The Latin equivalents, which are used in many languages, are, on the one hand, stili veteris (genitive) or stilo vetere (ablative), abbreviated st.v. , and meaning "(of/in) old style" ; and, on
3103-654: The fantasy genre or turned to historical fiction . Ion Luca Caragiale was interested in the politics of the Romanian Kingdom , and oscillated between the liberal current and conservatism . Most of his satirical works target the liberal republicans and the National Liberals , evidencing both his respect for their rivals at Junimea and his connections with the literary critic Titu Maiorescu . He came to clash with National Liberal leaders such as Dimitrie Sturdza and Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu , and
3210-541: The 19th century, a practice that the author Karen Bellenir considered to reveal a deep emotional resistance to calendar reform. 1907 Romanian Peasants%27 Revolt A peasant revolt ( Romanian : Răscoala țărănească din 1907 ) took place in Romania between 21 February and 5 April 1907. It started in northern Moldavia and, after three weeks in which it was localized in that area, it quickly spread, reaching Wallachia , including as far as Oltenia . The main cause
3317-539: The 4th century , had drifted from reality . The Gregorian calendar reform also dealt with the accumulated difference between these figures, between the years 325 and 1582, by skipping 10 days to set the ecclesiastical date of the equinox to be 21 March, the median date of its occurrence at the time of the First Council of Nicea in 325. Countries that adopted the Gregorian calendar after 1699 needed to skip an additional day for each subsequent new century that
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3424-904: The Army were killed in the revolt: an officer, Lt. I. Nițulescu, killed in Stănești , Giurgiu County , two sergeants and seven soldiers. Four others were injured: an officer, Capt. Grigore Mareș, also wounded in Stănești, two sergeants and a soldier. Seventy-five soldiers of the Fifth Dorobanți Regiment ("Vlașca") appeared before military courts and charged with revolt; 61 were sentenced to hard labor for life and 14 to five years in prison. Many intellectuals, among them Nicolae Iorga , Alexandru Vlahuță , Ion Luca Caragiale , Constantin Stere , Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea , and Radu Rosetti , protested against
3531-583: The Boyne was commemorated with smaller parades on 1 July. However, both events were combined in the late 18th century, and continue to be celebrated as " The Twelfth ". Because of the differences, British writers and their correspondents often employed two dates, a practice called dual dating , more or less automatically. Letters concerning diplomacy and international trade thus sometimes bore both Julian and Gregorian dates to prevent confusion. For example, Sir William Boswell wrote to Sir John Coke from The Hague
3638-515: The British Isles and colonies converted to the Gregorian calendar, instructed that his tombstone bear his date of birth by using the Julian calendar (notated O.S. for Old Style) and his date of death by using the Gregorian calendar. At Jefferson's birth, the difference was eleven days between the Julian and Gregorian calendars and so his birthday of 2 April in the Julian calendar is 13 April in
3745-410: The British colonies, changed the start of the year from 25 March to 1 January, with effect from "the day after 31 December 1751". (Scotland had already made this aspect of the changes, on 1 January 1600.) The second (in effect ) adopted the Gregorian calendar in place of the Julian calendar. Thus "New Style" can refer to the start-of-year adjustment , to the adoption of the Gregorian calendar , or to
3852-683: The Caragiales brought Mateiu into their home, and Ion Luca enrolled him at Anghel Demetrescu's Sfântul Gheorghe College. Old Style and New Style dates Old Style ( O.S. ) and New Style ( N.S. ) indicate dating systems before and after a calendar change, respectively. Usually, they refer to the change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar as enacted in various European countries between 1582 and 1923. In England , Wales , Ireland and Britain's American colonies , there were two calendar changes, both in 1752. The first adjusted
3959-494: The Conservative Minister of Domains, a landlord could drive out a peasant refusing to pay his rent, but noted that for driving out a cooperative of 500 peasants, a regiment would be needed and the government may refuse to put it at the landlord's disposal. As such, by the end of 1907, there were only 103 village cooperatives having a membership of 11,118 leasing 37,344 hectares (92,280 acres), most of it leased from
4066-623: The Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Blenheim is always given as 13 August 1704. However, confusion occurs when an event involves both. For example, William III of England arrived at Brixham in England on 5 November (Julian calendar), after he had set sail from the Netherlands on 11 November (Gregorian calendar) 1688. The Battle of the Boyne in Ireland took place a few months later on 1 July 1690 (Julian calendar). That maps to 11 July (Gregorian calendar), conveniently close to
4173-466: The Gregorian calendar. Similarly, George Washington is now officially reported as having been born on 22 February 1732, rather than on 11 February 1731/32 (Julian calendar). The philosopher Jeremy Bentham , born on 4 February 1747/8 (Julian calendar), in later life celebrated his birthday on 15 February. There is some evidence that the calendar change was not easily accepted. Many British people continued to celebrate their holidays "Old Style" well into
4280-481: The Interior and General Alexandru Averescu as Minister of War . On 18 March a state of emergency was declared, and then a general mobilization , with 140,000 soldiers being recruited by 29 March. The Romanian Army began firing on the peasants; thousands of peasants perished and more than 10,000 were arrested. The exact number of peasant deaths is unknown, and even the course of events are not clear, because
4387-430: The Julian and Gregorian dating systems respectively. The need to correct the calendar arose from the realisation that the correct figure for the number of days in a year is not 365.25 (365 days 6 hours) as assumed by the Julian calendar but slightly less (c. 365.242 days). The Julian calendar therefore has too many leap years . The consequence was that the basis for the calculation of the date of Easter , as decided in
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4494-581: The Julian calendar had added since then. When the British Empire did so in 1752, the gap had grown to eleven days; when Russia did so (as its civil calendar ) in 1918, thirteen days needed to be skipped. In the Kingdom of Great Britain and its possessions, the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 introduced two concurrent changes to the calendar. The first, which applied to England, Wales, Ireland and
4601-517: The Julian date of the subsequent (and more decisive) Battle of Aughrim on 12 July 1691 (Julian). The latter battle was commemorated annually throughout the 18th century on 12 July, following the usual historical convention of commemorating events of that period within Great Britain and Ireland by mapping the Julian date directly onto the modern Gregorian calendar date (as happens, for example, with Guy Fawkes Night on 5 November). The Battle of
4708-487: The National Theater, where his main collaborator was actor and manager Constantin I. Nottara . Together, they are credited with having put a stop to the techniques favored by Mihail Pascaly , replacing emphatic declamation with a more natural and studied perspective on acting. In 1880, he printed Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea — a play centered on an uncultured "Red" pensioner and his naive wife, who overhear
4815-415: The acquaintance of republican writer N. T. Orășanu . Several of his articles for Ghimpele were sarcastic in tone, and targeted various literary figures of the day. In June 1874, Caragiale amused himself at the expense of N. D. Popescu-Popnedea , the author of popular almanacs , whose taste he questioned. Soon after, he ridiculed the rising poet Alexandru Macedonski , who had publicized his claim that he
4922-555: The activities of alleged Austro-Hungarian instigators, led the peasants to revolt. The revolt soon spread across most of Moldavia, with several landowners' properties destroyed and many lessors killed or wounded. The Conservative government ( Partidul Conservator ), led by Prime Minister Gheorghe Grigore Cantacuzino , couldn't handle the situation and resigned, and the Liberals ( Partidul Național-Liberal ) of Dimitrie Sturdza assumed power, with Ion I. C. Brătianu as Minister of
5029-417: The attempted coup d'état and his participation in it. He returned to Bucharest later that year, after manager Mihail Pascaly hired him as one of the prompts at the National Theater in the capital, a period about which he reminisced in his Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur . The poet Mihai Eminescu , with whom Ion Luca was to have cordial relations as well as rivalries, had previously been employed for
5136-602: The best-known works of its kind in Romanian literature. Maiorescu was pleased by its success, and believed that it was a sign of maturity in Romanian society, which, as he put it, was "starting to laugh" at the National Liberal rhetoric. Ion Luca Caragiale was romantically involved with an unmarried young woman, Maria Constantinescu, who worked for the Bucharest Town Hall — in 1885, she gave birth to Mateiu , whom Caragiale recognized as his son. During
5243-456: The circumstances of his appointment. In it, he attributed his own rise to the interest Junimea had taken in his work, while defending the literary society, which was, as he put it, "lost from the public eye at a time of political obscurity". Reviewing his own merits as a writer and manager, he elaborated and later put into practice a program for state-run theaters — according to Vianu, it signified "punctuality and rigor". He nonetheless resigned at
5350-430: The clients of some beer gardens in the capital have had the occasion to welcome among them of a noisy young man, a bizarre spirit who seemed destined, were he to have devoted himself to letters or the arts, to be entirely original. Indeed, this young man's appearance, his hasty gestures, his sarcastic smile [...], his always irritated and mocking voice, as well as his sophistic reasoning easily attracted attention." Over
5457-492: The combination of the two. It was through their use in the Calendar Act that the notations "Old Style" and "New Style" came into common usage. When recording British history, it is usual to quote the date as originally recorded at the time of the event, but with the year number adjusted to start on 1 January. The latter adjustment may be needed because the start of the civil calendar year had not always been 1 January and
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#17327825909055564-433: The country's political development". Caragiale also contributed poetry to Ghimpele : two sonnets , and a series of epigrams (one of which was another attack on Macedonski). The first of these works, an 1873 sonnet dedicated to the baritone Agostino Mazzoli, is believed to have been his first contribution to the belles-lettres (as opposed to journalism). In 1896, Macedonski reflected with irony: "As early as 1872,
5671-488: The dramatist to the general public, but also led to a polemic between Maiorescu and the philosopher Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea (a Marxist who claimed that Maiorescu was contradicting himself). Dobrogeanu-Gherea argued in favor of Caragiale's work, but considered D-ale carnavalului to be his weakest play. Despite his earlier conflicts with the National Liberals, Caragiale, who still faced problems in making
5778-543: The end of the following December, 1661/62 , a form of dual dating to indicate that in the following twelve weeks or so, the year was 1661 Old Style but 1662 New Style. Some more modern sources, often more academic ones (e.g. the History of Parliament ) also use the 1661/62 style for the period between 1 January and 24 March for years before the introduction of the New Style calendar in England. The Gregorian calendar
5885-405: The end of the season, and resumed his literary activities. In January 1889, he married Alexandrina, the daughter of architect Gaetano Burelly. She was a member of the Bucharest elite, which served to improve Ion Luca Caragiale's social standing. They had two children of their own: Luca (known as Luky; born 1893) and Ecaterina (or Tușchi; born 1894; later married name: Logadi). Several years later,
5992-591: The figures between 3,000–18,000, the most common being 11,000 victims. Another assessment of the number of victims was made by Major Gheorghe Dabija [ ro ] who in February 1910 was appointed by General Grigore C. Crăiniceanu to analyze 32 files that referred to this event. Based on these documents, Dabija drew up a 117-page report which he submitted to the Ministry of War, from which it emerged that 1,786 peasants had been shot. Only ten members of
6099-457: The first in a series of dementia attacks (owing to a disease that was to kill him in 1889). Caragiale reportedly broke into tears. This succession of events also saw him becoming involved in conflicts among Junimea members: like Pogor, Caragiale objected to the style of Vasile Alecsandri , an aged Junimist poet, and was shocked to find out that he was ridiculing the much younger Eminescu. He thus decided to criticize Alecsandri in public, during
6206-559: The first year. Notably, Caragiale was taught history by Constantin Iennescu, who was later the mayor of Ploiești. The young Caragiale opted to follow in his uncles' footsteps, and was taught declamation and mimic art by Costache at the latter's theater school in Bucharest , where he was accompanied by his mother and sister. It is also probable that he was a supernumerary actor for the National Theater Bucharest . He
6313-578: The following years, Caragiale collaborated on various mouthpieces of the newly created National Liberal Party , and, in May 1877, created the satirical magazine Claponul . Later in 1877, he also translated a series of French-language plays for the National Theater: Alexandre Parodi 's Rome vaincue (it was showcased in late 1877-early 1878), Paul Déroulède 's L'Hetman , and Eugène Scribe 's Une camaraderie . Together with
6420-420: The government, to hide the size of the massacre, ordered the destruction of all documents relating to the uprising. Historian Markus Bauer mentions a greatly underestimated official figure of 419 deaths, while an unofficial figure, circulated by the press and widely accepted, of about 10,000 peasants killed, has never been proven to be true. The same figure of 419 deaths was mentioned by Ion I. C. Brătianu in
6527-635: The government-appointed Head of Theaters, the National Liberal Ion Ghica . When he asked for an official explanation, O noapte furtunoasă was removed from the season's program. Over the following years, independent troupes staged the play or its plagiarized versions for their own benefit. It was restored to the National Theater's repertoire in 1883, and was so successful that state theaters in cities such as Craiova and Iași made efforts to have it included in their own programs. Caragiale subsequently took part in directing his plays at
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#17327825909056634-524: The group came to power with Ion Brătianu as Premier . According to many versions, Eminescu, who was working on the editorial staff of the main Conservative newspaper, Timpul , asked to be joined by Caragiale and the Transylvanian prose writer Ioan Slavici , who were both employed by the paper. This order of events remains unclear, and depends on sources saying that Eminescu was employed by
6741-407: The land for which they previously had only the right to use. However, the peasants remained even after these reforms dependent on the local landlords. Additionally, the peasant population was rising fast, leading to rapidly shrinking properties: from an average family property of 3.42 hectares (8.5 acres) in 1896 down to 3.27 ha (8.1 acres) in 1905 and 3.06 ha (7.6 acres) in 1907. The state
6848-451: The latter had to leave unexpectedly. He concentrated instead on Claponul , which he edited and wrote single-handedly for the duration of the war. Zarifopol believed that, through the series of light satires he contributed for the magazine, Caragiale was trying out his style, and thus "entertaining the suburbanites, in order to study them". A piece he authored of the time featured an imaginary barber and amateur artist, Năstase Știrbu, who drew
6955-525: The leases of the local peasants. Fischer used to lease about 75% of the arable land in three Romanian counties in Moldavia (the so-called "Fischerland"). The peasants, fearing that they would remain without work and, more importantly, without food, began to act violently. Scared, Fischer fled to a friend in Cernăuți , leaving the peasants without signed contracts. The fear of remaining out of work, combined with
7062-425: The lowly position of clerk for the civil registry administration. It is probably during this period that his melodrama O soacră was written and published — Caragiale, who was aware of its faults, indicated that it was a work from his youth, and dated it to 1876. His account is challenged by several details in the text. In June 1883, while visiting Maiorescu's house, he received news that Eminescu had suffered
7169-473: The main element of Junimist discourse, Maiorescu criticism of "forms without a foundation"—the concept itself referred to the negative impact of modernization , which, Junimea argued, had by then only benefited the upper strata of Romanian society, leaving the rest with an incomplete and increasingly falsified culture. Ion Luca Caragiale also associated with Junimea' s mouthpiece, Convorbiri Literare , and continued to contribute there even after 1885, when
7276-824: The most accomplished expression of Romanian theatre, as well as being important venues for criticism of late-19th-century Romanian society. They include the comedies O noapte furtunoasă , Conu Leonida față cu reacțiunea , O scrisoare pierdută , and the tragedy Năpasta . In addition to these, Caragiale authored a large number of essays, articles, short stories, novellas and sketch stories , as well as occasional works of poetry and autobiographical texts such as Din carnetul unui vechi sufleur . In many cases, his creations were first published in one of several magazines he edited — Claponul , Vatra , and Epoca . In some of his later fiction writings, including La hanul lui Mânjoală , Kir Ianulea , Abu-Hasan , Pastramă trufanda and Calul dracului , Caragiale adopted
7383-501: The most solid critical contributions to the history of our theater". Macedonski later alleged that, in his contributions to the liberal newspapers, the young writer had libeled several Conservative Party politicians—when researching this period, Șerban Cioculescu concluded that the accusation was false, and that only one polemical article on a political topic could be traced back to Caragiale. The young journalist began drifting away from National Liberal politics soon after 1876, when
7490-584: The move by voting "yes" during a subsequent plebiscite , and, with tacit approval from the new authorities, even did so several times each. By the age of 18, he was an enthusiastic supporter of the liberal current, and sympathized with its republican ideals. In 1871, he witnessed the Republic of Ploiești — a short-lived stated created by the liberal groups, in an attempt to oust Domnitor Carol I (the future King of Romania ). Later in life, as his opinions veered towards conservatism , Caragiale ridiculed both
7597-498: The office of Minister of Education in the Teodor Rosetti cabinet (formed by a group of Junimist Conservatives). Caragiale requested to be appointed Head of Theaters, which also implied leadership of the National Theater. Although Maiorescu was initially opposed, Caragiale eventually received the post. The ultimate decision was attributed to Romania's Queen Elisabeth having asked Maiorescu to reconsider, or, alternatively, to
7704-456: The other, stili novi or stilo novo , abbreviated st.n. and meaning "(of/in) new style". The Latin abbreviations may be capitalised differently by different users, e.g., St.n. or St.N. for stili novi . There are equivalents for these terms in other languages as well, such as the German a.St. (" alter Stil " for O.S.). Usually, the mapping of New Style dates onto Old Style dates with
7811-579: The paper in March 1876. Other testimonies indicate that it was actually Eminescu who arrived last, beginning work in January 1878. Slavici later recalled that three of them engaged in lengthy discussions at Timpul' s headquarters on Calea Victoriei and in Eminescu's house on Sfinților Street, where they planned to co-author a massive work on Romanian grammar . According to literary historian Tudor Vianu ,
7918-474: The poet. This caused the friendship between Eminescu and Caragiale to sour. The former was jealous of Cargiale's relations with Micle, while she resented the poet's affair with Mite Kremnitz. Just one year after, Caragiale was moved back to Wallachia, becoming inspector general in Argeș and Vâlcea . He was ultimately stripped of this position in 1884, and found himself on the verge of bankruptcy ; he thus accepted
8025-519: The poets George Coșbuc and Mite Kremnitz , the psychologist Constantin Rădulescu-Motru , and the Transylvanian poet and activist Octavian Goga . Ion Luca was the nephew of Costache and Iorgu Caragiale , who were major figures of the 19th century Romanian theatre. His sons Mateiu and Luca were both modernist writers. Ion Luca Caragiale was born into a family of Greek descent, whose members first arrived in Wallachia soon after 1812, during
8132-473: The political choices Caragiale made in his old age. The new ruler visited his primary school later in 1859, being received with enthusiasm by Dragoșescu and all his pupils. Caragiale completed gymnasium at the Sfinții Petru și Pavel school in the city, and never pursued any form of higher education. He was probably enlisted directly in the second grade, as records do not show him to have attended or graduated
8239-847: The present-day poems with a political intent, the odes on solemn days, the theatrical compositions for dynastic glorifications are a simulacrum of art, and not the real art. Even patriotism, the most important sense for the citizen of a state in his actions as a citizen, has no place in art as an ad-hoc form of patriotism [...]. Is there a single lyric of French patriotism in Corneille ? Is there any national spouting in Racine ? Is there one in Molière ? Is there one in Shakespeare ? Is there one in Goethe ?" The article played an essential part in reconciling
8346-725: The relationship between Caragiale and Eminescu partly replicated that between the latter and the Moldavian Ion Creangă . Over that period, Timpul and Eminescu were engaged in a harsh polemic with the Reds, and especially their leader Rosetti. It was also then that Romania entered the Russo-Turkish War as a means to secure her complete independence from the Ottoman Empire . Caragiale reportedly took little interest in editing Timpul over that period, but it
8453-572: The revolt was initially put on Jewish intermediaries, given that many of the lessors were of Jewish background, especially in Northern Moldavia. The revolt quickly spread southward, losing some of its anti-Semitic character and becoming basically a protest against the existing system of land tenure. The revolt began on the lands administered by one lessor, Mochi Fischer, in the village of Flămânzi by Trifan Roman Grosu , Ion Dolhescu , and Grigore Roman , due to Fischer's refusal to renew
8560-442: The revolt. The government also began enacting a series of reforms in order to provide some relief to the peasantry, but without expropriating the landlords. The December 23, 1907 law on agricultural contracts limited the degree to which the peasants could be exploited by the landlords and lessors: it set maximum prices for land leases, it set minimum wages for peasants working on landlords' estates and it established Casa Rurală ,
8667-723: The rule of Prince Ioan Gheorghe Caragea —Ștefan Caragiali, as his grandfather was known locally, worked as a cook for the court in Bucharest . Ion Luca's father, who reportedly originated from the Ottoman capital of Istanbul , settled in Prahova County as the curator of the Mărgineni Monastery (which, at the time, belonged to the Greek Orthodox Saint Catherine's Monastery of Mount Sinai ). Known to locals as Luca Caragiali, he later built
8774-580: The same position by the manager Iorgu Caragiale. In addition to his growing familiarity with the repertoire , the young Caragiale educated himself by reading the philosophical works of Enlightenment-era philosophes . It was also recorded that, at some point between 1870 and 1872, he was employed in the same capacity by the Moldavian National Theater in Iași . During the period, Caragiale also proofread for various publications and worked as
8881-443: The same year, Caragiale's D-ale carnavalului , a lighter satire of suburban morals and amorous misadventures, was received with booing and heckling by members of the public — critics deemed it "immoral", due to its frank depiction of adultery gone unpunished. The controversy saw Maiorescu taking his friend's side and publishing an essay highly critical of National Liberal cultural tenets (titled Comediile domnului Caragiale , it
8988-550: The society began to decline in importance. It was here that all his major comedies were first presented to the public. He did not, however, join Petre P. Carp 's movement, which aimed to consolidate Junimea as a third force in Romanian politics, and remained a staunch independent over the following years. Caragiale was nevertheless associated with the Junimist journal Constituționalul . In early January 1879, O noapte furtunoasă
9095-644: The start of a new year from 25 March ( Lady Day , the Feast of the Annunciation ) to 1 January, a change which Scotland had made in 1600. The second discarded the Julian calendar in favour of the Gregorian calendar, skipping 11 days in the month of September to do so. To accommodate the two calendar changes, writers used dual dating to identify a given day by giving its date according to both styles of dating. For countries such as Russia where no start-of-year adjustment took place, O.S. and N.S. simply indicate
9202-448: The state. By 1900, most large landowners preferred to live in the cities and did not want to bother with the administration of their properties. Therefore, the peasants no longer leased directly from the landowner, but sub-leased it from an intermediary lessor ( arendaș , or Arendators ). The fall of the price of grain on the world markets meant that the lessors would demand ever greater rents in order to make ends meet. The blame for
9309-448: The support offered by the influential Junimist Petre P. Carp . The appointment caused some controversy at the time: Ion Luca Caragiale, unlike all his predecessors (the incumbent C.I. Stăncescu included), was both a professional in the field and a person of modest origins. As the National Liberals intensified their campaign against him, the dramatist drafted an open letter for the Bucharest press, outlining his intentions and explaining
9416-551: The syllable ca twice in a row, which is generally avoided in Romanian due to its scatological connotations. It has however become one of the few cacophonies accepted by the Romanian Academy . Born in the village of Haimanale , Prahova County (the present-day I. L. Caragiale commune , Dâmbovița County ), Caragiale was educated in Ploiești. During his early years, as he later indicated, he learned reading and writing with
9523-558: The violent intervention of the forces of repression. Others emphasized that the government had a special responsibility for the fate of the peasantry and the country in general, and therefore an urgent solution to the "peasant question" was required. The Liberal government began a campaign to repress any kind of political organization of the peasants. Many teachers, priests and other countryside intellectuals were arrested, as were pro- universal suffrage activists Vasile M. Kogălniceanu and Alexandru Vălescu, who were regarded as instigators of
9630-517: The wake of the 1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt , and ultimately joined the Conservative-Democratic Party of Tache Ionescu . He was both a friend and rival to writers such as Mihai Eminescu, Titu Maiorescu, and Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea , while maintaining contacts with, among others, the Junimist essayist Iacob Negruzzi , the socialist philosopher Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea , the literary critic Paul Zarifopol ,
9737-514: The writer considered all references to his lineage to be insults. On several occasions, he preferred to indicate that he was "of obscure birth". Nevertheless, as literary critic Tudor Vianu noted, Caragiale's outlook on life was explicitly Balkanic and Oriental , which, in Vianu's view, mirrored a type "which must have been found in his lineage". A similar opinion was expressed by Paul Zarifopol , who speculated that Caragiale's conservative mindset
9844-443: Was a "Count Geniadevsky", and thus of Polish origin. The article contributed by Caragiale, in which he speculated that Macedonski (referred to with the anagram Aamsky ) was using the name solely because it reminded people of the word "genius", was the first act in a long polemic between the two literary figures. Caragiale turned Aamsky into a character on his own, envisaging his death as a result of overwork in editing magazines "for
9951-646: Was a lifelong adversary of the Symbolist poet Alexandru Macedonski . As a result of these conflicts, the most influential of Caragiale's critics barred his access to the cultural establishment for several decades. During the 1890s, Caragiale rallied with the radical movement of George Panu , before associating with the Conservative Party . After having decided to settle in Berlin , he came to voice strong criticism for Romanian politicians of all colours in
10058-417: Was a native of Kefalonia , and his original surname, Karaialis , was changed on Prince Caragea's request. Various authors also believe that Caragiale's ancestors were Albanian or Aromanian . Originally, Ion Luca was known as Ioanne L. Caragiali . His family and friends knew him as Iancu or, rarely, Iancuțu —both being antiquated hypocoristics of Ion . The definitive full version of his name features
10165-437: Was also a big landholder; however, its policies for selling the land often did not favor poorer peasants, who were in the greatest need for land. Needing to supplement their shrinking properties, the peasants were forced to use land owned by the landlords, who owned large estates. As population grew, the peasants became more and more desperate for land, leading to rapidly rising rents. At that time, peasants formed up to 80% of
10272-480: Was altered at different times in different countries. From 1155 to 1752, the civil or legal year in England began on 25 March ( Lady Day ); so for example, the execution of Charles I was recorded at the time in Parliament as happening on 30 January 164 8 (Old Style). In newer English-language texts, this date is usually shown as "30 January 164 9 " (New Style). The corresponding date in the Gregorian calendar
10379-596: Was celebrated as the New Year festival from as early as the 13th century, despite the recorded (civil) year not incrementing until 25 March, but the "year starting 25th March was called the Civil or Legal Year, although the phrase Old Style was more commonly used". To reduce misunderstandings about the date, it was normal even in semi-official documents such as parish registers to place a statutory new-year heading after 24 March (for example "1661") and another heading from
10486-483: Was disputed by several other researchers, who noted that the family had a good social standing. Ion Luca Caragiale was discreet about his ethnic origin for the larger part of his life. In parallel, his foreign roots came to the attention of his adversaries, who used them as arguments in various polemics. As his relations with Caragiale degenerated into hostility, Mihai Eminescu is known to have referred to his former friend as "that Greek swindler". Aware of such treatment,
10593-424: Was first staged by the National Theater. Its production brought the first association between Caragiale and comedian Mihai Mateescu , who went on to portray some of his most popular characters. The play was a hit, and acclaim reached Caragiale despite the fact that he had refused to have his name printed on the posters. Caragiale was soon outraged to discover that, by the second staging, his text had been toned down by
10700-549: Was implemented in Russia on 14 February 1918 by dropping the Julian dates of 1–13 February 1918 , pursuant to a Sovnarkom decree signed 24 January 1918 (Julian) by Vladimir Lenin . The decree required that the Julian date was to be written in parentheses after the Gregorian date, until 1 July 1918. It is common in English-language publications to use the familiar Old Style or New Style terms to discuss events and personalities in other countries, especially with reference to
10807-624: Was not able to find full employment in this field, and, around the age of 18, worked as a copyist for the Prahova County Tribunal. Throughout his life, Caragiale refused to talk about his training in the theater, and hid it from the people closest to him (including his wife Alexandrina Burelly, who came from an upper middle class environment). In 1866, Caragiale witnessed Cuza's toppling by a coalition of conservatives and liberals — as he later acknowledged in his Grand Hotel "Victoria Română" , he and his friends agreed to support
10914-557: Was of particular importance, serving to explain his political choices and alleged social bias. On one occasion, Caragiale mentioned that his paternal grandfather was "a Greek cook". In several contexts, he referred to his roots as being in the island of Hydra . In one of his photographs, he posed in Oriental costume and sitting cross-legged, which was interpreted by Vianu as an additional reference to his Balkan background. Two of his biographers, Zarifopol and Șerban Cioculescu , noted that
11021-427: Was one of the pivotal moments in the second period of Junimea activities, characterized by the society's expansion to Bucharest and its patronage of the arts. Other writers who marked this stage were Creangă, Slavici, Vasile Alecsandri and Vasile Conta —together with Caragiale, they soon became the foremost representatives of Junimea ' s direct influence on literature. To varying degrees, they all complimented
11128-657: Was possibly owed to the "lazyness of one true Oriental" (elsewhere, he referred to the writer as "a lazy southerner, fitted with definitely supranormal intelligence and imagination"). In his main work on the history of Romanian literature, George Călinescu included Caragiale among a group of "Balkan" writers, whose middle class status and often foreign origin, he argued, set them apart irrespective of their period—others in this category were, in chronological order, Anton Pann , Tudor Arghezi , Ion Minulescu , Urmuz , Mateiu Caragiale , and Ion Barbu . In contrast, critic Garabet Ibrăileanu proposed that Caragiale's Wallachian origin
11235-488: Was the discontent of the peasants over the inequity of land ownership, which was mostly in the hands of just a few large landowners. Following the fall of the Conservative Party government on March 12, the new Liberal government crushed the revolt violently with the help of the Romanian Army , killing thousands of peasants in the process. The 1864 land reforms gave the peasants full ownership rights for part of
11342-480: Was the sole provider for his mother and sister. Following his return to Bucharest, he became even more involved with the radical and republican wing of the liberal trend—a movement commonly referred to as "the Reds". As he later confessed, he frequently attended its congresses, witnessing the speeches held by Reds leader C. A. Rosetti ; he thus became intimately acquainted with a Populist discourse, which he later parodied in his works. Working for Ghimpele , he made
11449-423: Was to be reprinted in 1889, as a preface to Caragiale's collected plays). In it, the critic, who was influenced by the ideas of Arthur Schopenhauer , argued that Caragiale had not failed in uplifting the human spirit, precisely because he had risen above both didacticism and egotism ( see Arthur Schopenhauer's aesthetics ). In reference to accusations that the play was unpatriotic , Maiorescu answered: "[...]
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