Misplaced Pages

#274725

39-643: Its location was only confirmed in recent decades and excavations since 2010 have revealed much new information on the town. Finds from the Iron Age (9th century BC) and from the archaic Etruscan period show their presence in the area prior to the Roman colony. The anchorage was already active in Etruscan times. It was founded as a colony in about 264 BC probably superimposed on an Etruscan settlement along with nearby Pyrgi and other coastal colonies in defense of

78-451: A brittle structure that was most likely created in a "hot-mixing" technique with quicklime rather than traditional slaked lime , causing cracks to preferentially move through the lime clasts, thus potentially playing a critical role in the self-healing mechanism. Concrete and, in particular, the hydraulic mortar responsible for its cohesion, was a type of structural ceramic whose utility derived largely from its rheological plasticity in

117-463: A herm of veiled Aspasia, statues of emperors, a small statue of Bacchus, a statue of a lying mastiff dog; of exceptional interest was the discovery in 1778 of a casket containing 122 gold coins dating back to the 1st and 2nd century AD. Numerous wall structures, marble mosaic floors, basins and colonnades from the imperial phase have been found recently. Masonry in opus reticulatum and brick, floors and sewers are visible in land exposed by erosion along

156-507: A large scale until the inception of the Principate. Augustus , who needed to settle over a hundred thousand of his veterans after the end of his civil wars , began a massive colony creation program throughout his empire. However, not all colonies were new cities. Many were created from already-occupied settlements and the process of colonization just expanded them. Some of these colonies would later grow into large cities (modern day Cologne

195-547: A potential reserve of veterans which could be called upon during times of emergency. However, these colonies more importantly served to produce future Roman citizens and therefore recruits to the Roman army . Roman colonies played a major role in the spread of the Latin language within the central and southern Italian peninsula during the early empire. The colonies showed surrounding native populations an example of Roman life. Since

234-465: A variety of causes, they continue to stand to this day. Another technology used to improve the strength and stability of concrete was its gradation in domes. One example is the Pantheon , where the aggregate of the upper dome region consists of alternating layers of light tuff and pumice , giving the concrete a density of 1,350 kilograms per cubic metre (84 lb/cu ft). The foundation of

273-466: Is built in cement with facings almost all in opus reticulatum with the exception of the arches connecting the tanks and the external wall of the central tank built in bricks. The internal depth of the tanks today reaches 2 m in some points, but probably would have been greater. There are also traces of the openings and of the hydraulic devices which distributed the water in the farm and regulated its outflow. Three long submarine channels that extend from

312-472: Is formed by a single rectangular basin with the side facing the sea curved to form a semicircle. The whole complex is today almost completely submerged and therefore visible only from an aerial view. The villa opened directly onto the Via Aurelia, which at this point was 5.3 m wide. Recent excavations have brought to light room from two main construction phases, i.e. the end of the 1st and the beginning of

351-399: Is very close to that of modern cement to which blast furnace slag , fly ash , or silica fume have been added. The strength and longevity of Roman 'marine' concrete is understood to benefit from a reaction of seawater with a mixture of volcanic ash and quicklime to create a rare crystal called tobermorite , which may resist fracturing. As seawater percolated within the tiny cracks in

390-521: The Italian peninsula , interruptions and internal constructions within walls and domes created discontinuities in the concrete mass. Portions of the building could then shift slightly when there was movement of the earth to accommodate such stresses, enhancing the overall strength of the structure. It was in this sense that bricks and concrete were flexible. It may have been precisely for this reason that, although many buildings sustained serious cracking from

429-1257: The Second Carthaginian War . In the Empire colonies became large centres for the settlement of army veterans, especially in Roman north Africa which had the largest density of Roman colonies per region in the Roman Empire, where the Italic population constituted more than one third of the total population during the second century AD. New bilateral defence contracts with Falerii, Tarquinii (Etruria) Caere (again), Pomptina and Poplilia tribus (tribes) formed in territories of Antium New Roman municipia made from small towns around Rome: Aricia, Lanuvium, Nomentum, Pedum , Tusculum. Latin ius contracts made with Tibur , Praeneste, Lavinium , Cora (Latium) Ius comercii contracts made with Circei , Notba, Setia , Signia , Nepi , Ardea , Gabii Ius migrationi and ius connubii Ufentina tribus established (on territories of Volscus city Antium), Privernum , Velitrae , Terracia , Fondi and Fotmiae made contract with Rome (cives sine suffragio) Colonies were not founded on

SECTION 10

#1732772173275

468-449: The 2nd century AD, One room still retains traces of a mosaic floor of black and white tesserae . At km 66 on the Via Aurelia at Punta della Vipera, large, partially submerged fishponds can be seen, in good condition, built on stone banks outcropping from the sea. It is one of the most complete and interesting examples of a Roman fishpond along the entire Tyrrhenian coast north of Rome. A remarkable rectangular basin, 48 m long and 30 m wide,

507-550: The 6th century BC, Velitrae and Norba in the 5th century BC, and Ostia , Antium , and Tarracina in the late 4th century. In this first period of colonisation, which lasted down to the end of the Punic Wars , colonies were primarily military in purpose, being intended to defend Roman territory. The first Roman colony outside Italy was probably Italica in Hispania founded in 206 BC by Publius Cornelius Scipio during

546-617: The Roman concrete, it reacted with phillipsite naturally found in the volcanic rock and created aluminous tobermorite crystals. The result is a candidate for "the most durable building material in human history". In contrast, modern concrete exposed to saltwater deteriorates within decades. The Roman concrete at the Tomb of Caecilia Metella is another variation higher in potassium that triggered changes that "reinforce interfacial zones and potentially contribute to improved mechanical performance". For an environment as prone to earthquakes as

585-571: The Statilii and Ateii families: a porticus, theatre and a temple. From the Republican age magnificent seaside villas were built nearby along the coast by patricians from Rome. Their most recent construction phases are from the Severan dynasty at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. Over the last three centuries a large number of architectural and sculptural fragments have been found including

624-508: The University of California Berkeley published an article that described for the first time the mechanism by which the suprastable calcium-aluminium-silicate-hydrate compound binds the material together. During its production, less carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere than any modern concrete production process. It is no coincidence that the walls of Roman buildings are thicker than those of modern buildings. However, Roman concrete

663-530: The aggregates often included larger components; hence, it was laid rather than poured. Roman concretes, like any hydraulic concrete, were usually able to set underwater, which was useful for bridges and other waterside construction. Vitruvius , writing around 25 BC in his Ten Books on Architecture , distinguished types of materials appropriate for the preparation of lime mortars . For structural mortars, he recommended pozzolana ( pulvis puteolanus in Latin),

702-418: The ancient Via Aurelia and overlooking the fishpond below. In the basement of the private villa Galliano (510 and 512 via Aurelia) are remains of baths with hypocausts. Intended for fish and shellfish farming and probably built at the end of the 1st century BC, the fishponds are divided into several rectangular tanks distributed around a large central circular basin of over 20 m in diameter. The mighty structure

741-571: The beach, for a long stretch below the modern stilt houses. In 2022 a large and elegant theatre from the Imperial age which overlooked on the Tyrrhenian Sea was uncovered. Near the site of Castrum Novum at km 64.6 of the Via Aurelia are the remains of a baths and other interesting structures of a Roman maritime villa. It is equipped with a remarkable complex of fishponds which extend along the coast line for almost 400 m. The largest fishpond

780-483: The colony had to protest against Rome's will to take away some privileges. However, in 207 BC, it does not appear among the colonies that sent delegates to Rome to defend their military exemption after Hasdrubal 's invasion. But in 191 BC it took part in the revolt against the praetor Gaius Livy , who intended to impose naval levies on the maritime colonies when Rome needed soldiers for the Roman–Seleucid War . It

819-409: The concrete more resistant to salt water than modern-day concrete. Pozzolanic mortar had a high content of alumina and silica . Research in 2023 found that lime clasts, previously considered a sign of poor aggregation technique, react with water seeping into any cracks. This produces reactive calcium, which allows new calcium carbonate crystals to form and reseal the cracks. These lime clasts have

SECTION 20

#1732772173275

858-475: The curia and the tabularium restored, donating the theatre and its arcades to the city. From inscriptions found in Santa Marinella we know of the existence of decuriones (members of the colony's senate), duumviri quinquennales (supreme magistrates of the city), Augustales (priests of the imperial cult), magistri vici (local administrators). Inscriptions inform about the foundation of public buildings by

897-590: The development of the brick and concrete industries. Roman concrete, like any concrete , consists of an aggregate and hydraulic mortar , a binder mixed with water that hardens over time. The composition of the aggregate varied, and included pieces of rock, ceramic tile, lime clasts, and brick rubble from the remains of previously demolished buildings. In Rome, readily available tuff was often used as an aggregate. Gypsum and quicklime were used as binders. Volcanic dusts, called pozzolana or "pit sand", were favoured where they could be obtained. Pozzolana makes

936-419: The end of the 2nd century BC. The harbour of Caesarea is an example (22-15 BC) of the use of underwater Roman concrete technology on a large scale, for which enormous quantities of pozzolana were imported from Puteoli . For rebuilding Rome after the fire in 64 AD which destroyed large portions of the city, Nero 's new building code largely called for brick-faced concrete. This appears to have encouraged

975-481: The northern coast of the territory of Caere . The town had originally a rectangular plan in the form of a castrum (fort) of 120 x 63 m, surrounded by walls as its name suggests. Since the 3rd century BC the colony was charged with protecting the coastal waters, as did Pyrgi and Gravisca . A small harbour nearby would have held a few ships. During the first years the inhabitants of Castrum Novum had plots of land of modest size (compared to Terracina , for example) as

1014-570: The paste state. The setting and hardening of hydraulic cements derived from hydration of materials and the subsequent chemical and physical interaction of these hydration products. This differed from the setting of slaked lime mortars , the most common cements of the pre-Roman world. Once set, Roman concrete exhibited little plasticity, although it retained some resistance to tensile stresses. The setting of pozzolanic cements has much in common with setting of their modern counterpart, Portland cement . The high silica composition of Roman pozzolana cements

1053-452: The plots were only 2 iugera , i.e. half a hectare, which suggests that they were poor Romans attracted by the idea of owning some land. The Via Aurelia was constructed in approximately 241 BC to serve the needs of Roman expansion, including swift army movements and quicker communication with Roman colonies and allowed Castrum Novum to become well connected to Rome and to the two military colonies of Cosa and Pyrgi. On several occasions,

1092-521: The side facing the sea ensured the water supply to the ponds, the constant purification of the water and the equilibrium of the temperature of the tanks. Towards the land, between the rocks of the coast, two symmetrical pockets branch off from the upper eastern corners of the fish pond, perhaps for use by Moray Eels . 42°02′14″N 11°50′02″E  /  42.0371178°N 11.8338331°E  / 42.0371178; 11.8338331 Colonia (Roman) A Roman colonia ( pl. : coloniae )

1131-518: The structure used travertine as an aggregate, having a much higher density of 2,200 kilograms per cubic metre (140 lb/cu ft). Scientific studies of Roman concrete since 2010 have attracted both media and industry attention. Because of its unusual durability, longevity, and lessened environmental footprint, corporations and municipalities are starting to explore the use of Roman-style concrete in North America. This involves replacing

1170-712: The urban poor to become farmers again in new colonies as agricultural settlements (e.g. Tarentum in 122 BC). Under Caesar and in the Imperial era starting from Augustus , thousands of Roman legionary veterans were granted lands in many coloniae in the empire and were responsible for the Romanization of many territories (mainly in the spread of Latin language and of Roman laws and customs ). According to Livy , Rome's first colonies were established in about 752 BC at Antemnae and Crustumerium , both in Latium . Other early colonies were established at Signia in

1209-624: The veterans settled there were usually single until discharge and married local women, colonies tended to become culturally integrated in their surroundings within a few generations. Opus caementicium Roman concrete , also called opus caementicium , was used in construction in ancient Rome . Like its modern equivalent , Roman concrete was based on a hydraulic-setting cement added to an aggregate . Many buildings and structures still standing today, such as bridges, reservoirs and aqueducts, were built with this material, which attests to both its versatility and its durability. Its strength

Castrum Novum - Misplaced Pages Continue

1248-423: The volcanic ash with coal fly ash that has similar properties. Proponents say that concrete made with fly ash can cost up to 60% less, because it requires less cement. It also has a reduced environmental footprint, due to its lower cooking temperature and much longer lifespan. Usable examples of Roman concrete exposed to harsh marine environments have been found to be 2000 years old with little or no wear. In 2013,

1287-400: The volcanic sand from the beds of Pozzuoli , which are brownish-yellow-gray in colour in that area around Naples, and reddish-brown near Rome. Vitruvius specifies a ratio of 1 part lime to 3 parts pozzolana for mortar used in buildings and a 1:2 ratio for underwater work. The Romans first used hydraulic concrete in coastal underwater structures, probably in the harbours around Baiae before

1326-511: Was developed a century before that. It was often used in combination with facings and other supports, and interiors were further decorated by stucco , fresco paintings, or coloured marble. Further innovative developments in the material, part of the so-called concrete revolution , contributed to structurally complicated forms. The most prominent example of these is the Pantheon dome, the world's largest and oldest unreinforced concrete dome. Roman concrete differs from modern concrete in that

1365-474: Was first founded as a Roman colony). During this time, provincial cities can gain the rank of colony, gaining certain rights and privileges. After the era of the Severan emperors the new "colonies" were only cities that were granted a status (often of tax exemption), and in most cases during the Late Imperial times there was no more settlement of retired legionaries. Roman colonies sometimes served as

1404-559: Was originally a settlement of Roman citizens , establishing a Roman outpost in federated or conquered territory, for the purpose of securing it. Eventually, however, the term came to denote the highest status of a Roman city. It is also the origin of the modern term " colony ". Under the Roman Republic , which had no standing army , their own citizens were planted in conquered towns as a kind of garrison. There were two types: After 133 BC tribunes introduced reforms to support

1443-409: Was protected from the sea by a breakwater in opus caementicium consisting of three orthogonal arms about 3 m thick. It is similar to the types described by ancient authors in particular by Columella and was part of an adjacent seaside villa. Several walls in opus mixtum and brick, traces of mosaic floors, capitals and marble decorations document the richness and extension of the villa connected to

1482-460: Was re-colonised perhaps under Caesar as Colonia Iulia Castronovo(rum) from inscriptions. This brought new wealth to the settlement as gold coins dating from Nero to Marcus Aurelius indicate. In the imperial era it grew into a town with a theatre, a curia , an archive (tabularium), an altar sacred to Apollo and an aqueduct, as inscriptions show. Probably in the Augustan age, L. Ateius Capitus had

1521-467: Was sometimes enhanced by the incorporation of pozzolanic ash where available (particularly in the Bay of Naples ). The addition of ash prevented cracks from spreading. Recent research has shown that the incorporation of mixtures of different types of lime, forming conglomerate "clasts" allowed the concrete to self-repair cracks. Roman concrete was in widespread use from about 150 BC; some scholars believe it

#274725