Misplaced Pages

#985014

115-533: The dynasty's control over the empire was interrupted by the joint reigns of Macrinus ( r.  217–218 ) and his son Diadumenian ( r.  218 ). The dynasty's women, including Julia Domna, the mother of Caracalla and Geta, and her nieces Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea , the mothers respectively of Elagabalus and Severus Alexander, and their own mother, Julia Maesa , were all powerful augustae and instrumental in securing their sons' imperial positions. Although Septimius Severus restored peace following

230-529: A Libyan - punic family of equestrian rank. He rose through military service to consular rank under the later emperors of the Antonine dynasty . He married Syrian noblewoman Julia Domna and had two children with her: Caracalla and Geta . Julia Domna also held a prominent political role in government during her husband's reign. Severus was proclaimed emperor in 193 by his legionaries in Noricum during

345-503: A cavalry detachment; this should not be confused with the equites singulares Augusti who appeared under the emperor Trajan. The Praetorian could become a cavalryman ( Eques ) after almost five years service in the infantry . These Praetorians remained listed in their Centuries of origin, but operated in a turma of 30 men each commanded by an Optio equitum . There was probably one turma of cavalry for two centuries of infantry. Hence, three turmae per cohorts of

460-545: A praetorian prefect and dealt with Rome's civil affairs. He later conspired against Caracalla and had him murdered in a bid to protect his own life and succeeded Caracalla as emperor. Macrinus was proclaimed emperor of Rome by 11 April 217 while in the eastern provinces of the empire and was subsequently confirmed as such by the Senate; however, for the duration of his reign, he never had the opportunity to return to Rome. His predecessor's policies had left Rome's coffers empty and

575-412: A cost. The fiscal changes that Macrinus enacted might have been tenable had it not been for the military. By this time, the strength of the military was too great and by enacting his reforms he angered the veteran soldiers, who viewed his actions in reducing the pay of new recruits as a foreshadowing of eventual reductions in their own privileges and pay. This significantly reduced Macrinus' popularity with

690-520: A doubling of 800 (since Vespasian), probably organized in 20 centuries) under Commodus in year (187–188) or under Septimius Severus (193–211), which matches the probable numbers of effectives for Urban Cohorts during the time of Cassius Dio . These figures suggest an overall size for the Guard of 4,500–6,000 men under Augustus, 12,800 under Vitellius , 7,200 under Vespasian, 8,000 from Domitian until Commodus or Septimius Severus, and 15,000 later on. At

805-414: A force under Elagabalus' tutor Gannys marched on Antioch and engaged Macrinus' army on 8 June 218 near the village of Immae, located approximately 24 miles from Antioch. At some point during the ensuing Battle of Antioch , Macrinus deserted the field and returned to Antioch. He was then forced to flee from Antioch as fighting erupted in the city as well. Elagabalus himself subsequently entered Antioch as

920-612: A minor garrison of Rome. During the early 4th century, Caesar Flavius Valerius Severus attempted to disband the Praetorian Guard on the orders of Galerius . In response, the Praetorians turned to Maxentius , the son of the retired emperor Maximian, and proclaimed him their emperor on 28 October 306. By 312, however, Constantine the Great marched on Rome with an army in order to eliminate Maxentius and gain control of

1035-533: A new Roman governor to rule over Armenia. These actions angered the Armenian people and they soon rebelled against Rome. Macrinus settled a peace treaty with them by returning the crown and loot to Khosrov's son and successor Tiridates II and releasing his mother from prison, and by restoring Armenia to its status as a client kingdom of Rome. Macrinus made peace with the Dacians by releasing hostages, though this

1150-701: A step which furthered his unpopularity in Rome and contributed to his eventual downfall. Julia Maesa had retired to her home town of Emesa with an immense fortune, which she had accrued over the course of twenty years. She took her children, Julia Soaemias and Julia Mamaea , and grandchildren, including Elagabalus, with her to Emesa. Elagabalus, aged 14, was the chief priest of the Phoenicia n sun-deity Elagabalus (or El-Gabal) in Emesa. Soldiers from Legio III Gallica (Gallic Third Legion), that had been stationed at

1265-501: A troop of 500 soldiers against the sorties of siege warfare aimed at killing Roman field commanders. At the end of 40 BC, two of the three co-rulers who were the Second Triumvirate , Octavian and Mark Antony , had Praetorian Guards. Octavian installed his praetorians within the pomerium , the religious and legal boundary of Rome; this was the first occasion when troops were permanently garrisoned in Rome proper. In

SECTION 10

#1732764961986

1380-638: The stipendum (payment) to 1,500 denarii per year, distributed in January, May and September. Feared and dreaded by the population and by the Roman Senate , the Praetorians received no sympathy from the Roman people. A famous poem by Juvenal recalls the nail left in his foot by the sandal of a Praetorian rushing by him. "Praetorian" has a pejorative sense in French, recalling the often troubling role of

1495-636: The Alamanni . The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are the most enduring monument of his rule. He was assassinated en route to a campaign against the Parthians by a member of the Praetorian Guard . The younger son of Septimius Severus, Geta was made co- augustus alongside his father and older brother Caracalla. Unlike the much more successful joint reign of Marcus Aurelius ( r.  161–180 ) and his brother Lucius Verus ( r.  161–169 )

1610-540: The Battle of Lyon in 197, and accompanied the emperor to the Orient from 197 to 202, then to Britannia from 208 until his death at York in 211. Caracalla , son of Septimius Severus, lost favour with his troops by assassinating his own brother and co-emperor, Geta, immediately after his succession. Finally, in 217, while on campaign in the Orient , he was assassinated at the instigation of his prefect Macrinus . After

1725-747: The Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, the role of the Praetorian prefect in the Empire became purely administrative, ruling large territories ( prefectures ) comprising Roman dioceses (geographical subdivisions of the Roman Empire ) in the name of the Emperor. The Praetorian Cohorts were designated as Equitatae ( cavalry ) Turmae (troops) with centuries formed of infantry , initially of 500 men each. In order not to alienate

1840-605: The Castra Praetoria . In the period of the Roman Republic (509–27 BC) the Praetorian Guard originated as bodyguards for Roman generals . The first historical record of the praetorians is as bodyguards for the Scipio family, ca. 275 BC. Generals with imperium (command authority of an army) also held public office, either as a magistrate or as a promagistrate ; each was provided with lictors to protect

1955-563: The Ioviani and Herculiani (named after the gods Jove, or Jupiter , and Hercules , associated with the senior and junior emperor), replaced the Praetorians as the personal protectors of the emperors, a practice that remained intact with the Tetrarchy . In 297 they were in Africa with Maximian . By the time Diocletian retired on 1 May 305, their Castra Praetoria seems to have housed only

2070-595: The Praetorian prefect was the commanding officer of the Praetorian Guard (previously each cohort was independent and under the orders of a tribune of equestrian rank). This role (chief of all troops stationed in Rome), was in practice a key position of the Roman polity . From Vespasian onwards the Praetorian prefecture was always held by an equestrian of the eques order. ( Equestrians were traditionally that class of citizens who could equip themselves to serve in

2185-460: The Republican veneer of his regime. Thus, he allowed only nine cohorts to be formed, each originally consisting of 500 men. He then increased them to 1,000 men each, allowing three units to be on duty at any given time in the capital. A small number of detached cavalry units ( turmae ) of 30 men each were also organized. While they patrolled inconspicuously in the palace and major buildings,

2300-488: The Urban Cohorts . Commodus fell victim to a conspiracy aided by his Praetorian prefect Quintus Aemilius Laetus in 192. The new emperor Pertinax , who took part in the conspiracy, paid the Praetorians a premium of 3,000 denarii; however he was assassinated three months later, on 28 March 193, by a group of Guards due to his refusal to further increase the premium which had already been paid. The Praetorians then put

2415-539: The Western Roman Empire , leading to the Battle of the Milvian Bridge . Ultimately Constantine's army achieved a decisive victory against the Praetorians, whose emperor was killed during the fighting. With the death of Maxentius, Constantine definitively disbanded the remnants of the Praetorian Guard. The remaining soldiers were sent out to various corners of the empire, and the Castra Praetoria

SECTION 20

#1732764961986

2530-533: The 3rd century. His prosecution of the war against a Germanic invasion of Gaul led to his overthrow by his own troops, whose regard the 27-year-old had lost during the affair. His death was the epochal event beginning the troubled Crisis of the Third Century , where a succession of briefly-reigning military emperors, rebellious generals, and counter-claimants presided over governmental chaos, civil war , general instability and great economic disruption. He

2645-490: The Berber tribes of the region and his pierced ear was an indication of his Berber heritage. He received an education which allowed him to ascend to the Roman political class. Over the years, he earned a reputation as a skilled lawyer; and, under Emperor Septimius Severus , he became an important bureaucrat. Severus' successor Caracalla later appointed him a prefect of the Praetorian Guard . While Macrinus probably enjoyed

2760-480: The Guard auctioned it off after killing Pertinax . Later that year Septimius Severus marched into Rome, disbanded the Guard and started a new formation from his own Pannonian legions. Unruly mobs in Rome often fought with the Praetorians in vicious street battles during Maximinus Thrax 's reign. In 271, Aurelian sailed east to destroy the power of Palmyra , Syria, with a force of legionary detachments, Praetorian cohorts, and other cavalry units, and easily defeated

2875-541: The Jews." Severus continued official persecution of Christians , who did not assimilate their beliefs to the official syncretistic creed. Severus died while campaigning in Britain. He was succeeded by his sons Caracalla and Geta, whom he had elevated as co-emperors in the years preceding his death. The growing hostility between the brothers was initially buffered by Julia Domna's mediation. The eldest son of Severus, he

2990-498: The Orient, Antony commanded three cohorts; in 32 BC, Antony issued coins honouring his Praetorian Guard. According to the historian Orosius , Octavian commanded five cohorts at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC; in the aftermath of Roman civil war, the victorious Octavian then merged his forces with the forces of Antony as symbolic of their political reunification. Later, as Augustus, the first Roman emperor (27 BC–AD 14), Octavian retained

3105-463: The Palmyrenes. This led to the orthodox view that Diocletian and his colleagues evolved the sacer comitatus (the field escort of the emperors). The sacer comitatus included field units that used a selection process and command structure modeled after the old Praetorian cohorts, but it was not of uniform composition and was much larger than a Praetorian cohort. Starting in the year 2 BC,

3220-488: The Parthian ruler Artabanus IV . Rome was at the time also under threat from Dacia and Armenia, so any deal with Parthia would likely have been beneficial to Rome. Next, Macrinus turned his attention to Armenia. In 216, Caracalla had imprisoned Khosrov I of Armenia and his family after Khosrov had agreed to meet with Caracalla at a conference to discuss some issue between himself and his sons. Caracalla instead installed

3335-419: The Praetorian Guard abandon Nero in favor of the contender Galba . Nymphidius Sabinus had promised 7,500 denarii per man, but Galba refused to pay, saying "It is my habit to recruit soldiers and not buy them". This permitted his rival Otho to bribe 23 Speculatores of the Praetorian Guard to proclaim him emperor. Despite the opposition of the cohorts in service in the palace, Galba and his designated successor,

3450-607: The Praetorian Guard becomes rare. In 249, the Praetorians assassinated Philippus II , son of the emperor Philip the Arab . In 272, in the reign of the emperor Aurelian , they took part in an expedition against Palmyra . In 284, Diocletian reduced the status of the Praetorians; they were no longer to be part of palace life, as Diocletian lived in Nicomedia , some 60 miles (100 km) from Byzantium in Asia Minor . Two new corps,

3565-469: The Praetorian Guard to nine cohorts and ensured their political loyalty by appointing his son, Titus , as prefect of the Praetorians. Despite their political power, the Praetorian Guard had no formal role in governing the Roman Empire. Often after an outrageous act of violence, revenge by the new ruler was forthcoming. In 193, Didius Julianus purchased the Empire from the Guard for a vast sum, when

Severan dynasty - Misplaced Pages Continue

3680-598: The Praetorian Guard. In April, Caracalla went to visit a temple of Luna near the site of the battle of Carrhae and was accompanied only by his personal guard, which included Macrinus. On 8 April, while travelling to the temple, Caracalla was stabbed to death by Justin Martialis, a soldier whom Macrinus had recruited to commit the murder. In the aftermath, Martialis was killed by one of Caracalla's men. For two or three days, Rome remained without an emperor. On 11 April, Macrinus proclaimed himself emperor and assumed all of

3795-459: The Praetorian camp. Under the Flavians, the Praetorians formed 9 new cohorts, of which Titus , son of emperor Vespasian, became the prefect. Vespasian returned the effective strength of each unit to five hundred men. He also cancelled the guard service of the Praetorians at the entry to the emperor's palace, but retained guards within the palace itself. Under Vespasian's second son, Domitian ,

3910-584: The Praetorian cavalry and some of the German bodyguard . The German mutiny was put down by Tiberius' nephew and adopted son Germanicus , his intended heir, who then led the legions and detachments of the Guard in an invasion of Germany over the next two years. The Guard saw much action in the Year of the Four Emperors in 69, fighting well for Otho at the first battle of Bedriacum . Under Domitian and Trajan,

4025-464: The Praetorian cohorts in the new camp. Sejanus held the title of prefect jointly with his father, under Augustus, but became sole prefect in AD ;15, and used the position to render himself essential to the new emperor Tiberius, who was unable to persuade the Senate to share the responsibility of governing the Empire. Sejanus, however, alienated Drusus, son of Tiberius, and when Germanicus, the heir to

4140-456: The Praetorian cohorts, were removed near the end of the reign of Augustus; it seemed probable that the last three Praetorian cohorts were simply renamed as urban cohorts . The Praetorians first intervened on a battlefield since the wars of the end of the Republic during the mutinies of Pannonia and the mutinies of Germania . On the death of Augustus in AD 14, his successor Tiberius

4255-416: The Praetorian of antiquity. In ancient Rome , praetors were either civic or military leaders. The praetorians were initially elite guards for military praetors, under the republic. The early Praetorian Guard was very different from what it became later, as a vital force in the power politics of Rome. While Augustus understood the need to have a protector in the maelstrom of Rome, he was careful to uphold

4370-465: The Praetorians as his imperial bodyguard. In the longer campaigns of the Roman army of the late Republic , the personal bodyguard unit was the norm for a commander in the field. At camp, the cohors praetoria , a cohort of praetorians guarding the commander, was posted near the praetorium , the tent of the commander. The legionaries known as the Praetorian Guard were first hand-picked veterans of

4485-559: The Roman Army on horseback ). From the year 2 BC, the cohorts were under the control of two prefectures; however cohorts continued to be organized independently, each commanded by a tribune. Tribunes had as immediate subordinates ordinary Centurions , all of equal rank except for the trecenarius , the first and prime of all centurions of the Praetorian Cohorts, who commanded also the 300 speculatores , and with

4600-513: The Roman army who served as bodyguards to the emperor. First established by Augustus, members of the Guard accompanied him on active campaign, protecting the civic administrations and rule of law imposed by the Senate and the emperor. The Praetorian Guard was ultimately dissolved by Emperor Constantine I in the early 4th century. They were distinct from the Imperial German Bodyguard which provided close personal protection for

4715-510: The army of Elagabalus near Antioch . Despite a good fight by the Praetorian Guard, his soldiers were defeated. Macrinus managed to escape to Chalcedon but his authority was lost. He was betrayed and executed after a reign of only 14 months. Marcus Opelius Diadumenianus (known as Diadumenian ) was the son of Macrinus , born in 208. He was given the imperial rank of caesar in 217, when his father became augustus . After his father's defeat outside Antioch, he tried to escape east to Parthia but

Severan dynasty - Misplaced Pages Continue

4830-533: The ascent of Caracalla. Under Severus Alexander the Praetorian prefecture was held by the lawyer Ulpian until his assassination by the Praetorian Guard in the presence of the emperor himself. In the spring of 238, under Maximinus Thrax , the bulk of the Praetorian Guard was employed on active service. Defended by only a small residual garrison, the Praetorian camp was attacked by a civilian crowd acting in support of senators and Gordian emperors in revolt against Maximinus Thrax. The failure of Maximinus Thrax to win

4945-529: The beginning of the 2nd century, Italians made up 89% of the Praetorian Guard. Under Septimius Severus, recruitment evolved to authorize the inclusion of legionaries of the Roman army, as well as of the battle hardened Army of the Danube . Severus stationed his supporters with him in Rome, and the Praetorian Guards remained loyal to his choices. Initially each cohort included, as for a Roman legion ,

5060-600: The care of Artabanus IV of Parthia , but Diadumenian was also captured before he could reach his destination and executed. After Macrinus' death, the Senate declared him and his son enemies of Rome and had their names struck from the records and their images destroyed, a procedure known as damnatio memoriae . Macrinus was born in Caesarea (modern Cherchell , Algeria) in the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis to an equestrian family of Berber origins. According to David Potter , his family traced its origins to

5175-439: The civil war against the contenders Gordian I and Gordian II led to his death at the hands of his own troops, including the Praetorians. The senatorial candidates for the throne, Pupienus and Balbinus , recalled the Praetorian Guard to Rome, only to find themselves under attack by the Praetorians. Both were killed on 29 July 238 and Gordian III triumphed. After 238, literary and epigraphic sources dry up, and information on

5290-404: The difference. This shortfall left Rome in a dire fiscal situation that Macrinus needed to address. Macrinus was at first occupied by the threat of the Parthians, with whom Rome had been at war since the reign of Caracalla. Macrinus settled a peace deal with the Parthians after fighting an indecisive battle at Nisibis in 217. In return for peace, Macrinus was forced to pay a large indemnity to

5405-519: The early Roman emperors. They benefited from several advantages via their close proximity with the emperor: the Praetorians were the only ones admitted while bearing arms in the center of sacred Rome, the Pomerium . Their mandatory service was shorter in duration, for instance: 12 years with the Praetorians instead of 16 years in the legions starting year 13 BC, then carried to, respectively, 16 to 20 years in year 5 BC according to Tacitus . Their pay

5520-573: The elimination of the latter, the Praetorians opposed the new emperor Elagabalus , priest of the oriental cult of Elagabal, and replaced him by his 13-year-old cousin Severus Alexander in 222. In this period the position of Praetorian prefect in Italy came increasingly to resemble a general administrative post, and there was a tendency to appoint jurists such as Papinian , who occupied the post from 203 until his elimination and execution at

5635-525: The emperor and the members of the imperial family and, if necessary, to act as a sort of riot police. Certain Empresses exclusively commanded their own Praetorian Guard. According to Tacitus, in the year 23 BC, there were nine Praetorian cohorts (4,500 men, the equivalent of a legion) to maintain peace in Italy; three were stationed in Rome, and the others nearby. According to Boris Rankov in 1994, an inscription recently discovered suggested that, towards

5750-474: The emperor by officers of the guard. While the Imperial German Bodyguard sacked all in a search to apprehend the murderers, the Senate proclaimed the restoration of a Republic. The Praetorians, who were pillaging the Palace, discovered Claudius , uncle of Caligula , hidden behind a curtain. Needing an emperor to justify their own existence, they brought him forth to the Praetorian camp and proclaimed him emperor,

5865-494: The emperor's acclamation by the Third Gallica Legion. On March 6, 222, when Alexander was 14, a rumour went around the city's troops that Alexander had been killed, ironically triggering his ascension as emperor. Elagabalus was said to have initiated the rumour or attempted to murder Alexander. The 18-year-old Elagabalus and his mother were taken from the palace, dragged through the streets, murdered and thrown in

SECTION 50

#1732764961986

5980-454: The emperor. Perennis was killed by a delegation of 1,500 Lanciarii of the 3 legions of Britain which had come to complain about his interference in the affairs of the province. Cleander abused his influence to nominate and dismiss prefects. In 188, Cleander obtained the joint command of the Guard with the two prefects. He ordered a massacre of civilians carried out by the equites singulares Augusti , which led to an arranged battle with

6095-438: The empire at war with several kingdoms, including Parthia , Armenia , and Dacia . As emperor, Macrinus first attempted to enact reform to restore economic and diplomatic stability in Rome. While Macrinus' diplomatic actions brought about peace with each of the individual kingdoms, the additional monetary costs and subsequent fiscal reforms generated unrest in the Roman military. Caracalla's aunt, Julia Maesa , took advantage of

6210-437: The empire up to auction and Didius Julianus bought the title of emperor. However, the armies of the Danube chose instead the governor of Pannonia Superior , Septimius Severus , who besieged Rome and tricked the Praetorians when they came out unarmed. The Praetorian Guard was dissolved and replaced by men transferred from Septimius's army. The new Guard of Septimius Severus made their mark against his rival Clodius Albinus at

6325-436: The end of the reign of Augustus , the number of cohorts increased to 12 during a brief period. This inscription referred to one man who was the tribune of two successive cohorts: the eleventh cohort, apparently at the end of the reign of Augustus, and the fourth at the beginning of the reign of Tiberius . According to Tacitus, there were only nine cohorts in 23 AD. The three urban cohorts, which were numbered consecutively after

6440-531: The exception of his second, the princeps castrorum . From the second century the Praetorian prefect oversaw not only the Praetorian Cohorts but also the rest of the garrison of Rome, including the Cohortes urbanae ("urban cohorts") and the equites singulares Augusti , but not the Vigiles cohorts . Following the dissolution of the Praetorian Cohorts by the emperor Constantine after he defeated them at

6555-512: The fidelity of the Praetorians following each failed particular attempted plot (such as that of Messalina against Claudius in AD 48 or Piso against Nero in AD 65). The Praetorians received substantially higher pay than other Roman soldiers in any of the legions, on a system known as sesquiplex stipendum , or by pay-and-a-half. So if the legionaries received 250 denarii , the guards received 375 per annum. Domitian and Septimius Severus increased

6670-428: The film Gladiator II (2024), Denzel Washington portrays the character "Macrinus", who is loosely inspired by the historical figure. In an interview with The Times where Washington addressed the historical inaccuracy of Macrinus being adapted as a Black man in the film, Washington acknowledged that the real Macrinus was not black. Praetorian Guard The Praetorian Guard ( Latin : cohortes praetoriae )

6785-499: The first eight years of his reign (Burrus died in 62 AD). Officers of the Guard, including one of the two successors of Burrus as the Praetorian prefect, participated in Piso's conspiracy in year 65. The other Praetorian prefect, Tigellinus , headed the suppression of the conspiracy, and the members of the Guard were paid a bonus of 500 denarii each. In AD 68, the new colleague of Tigellinus, Nymphidius Sabinus , managed to have

6900-449: The first emperor of Rome, Augustus , designated the Praetorians as his personal security escort. For three centuries, the guards of the Roman emperor were also known for their palace intrigues, by whose influence upon imperial politics the Praetorians could overthrow an emperor and then proclaim his successor as the new caesar of Rome. In AD 312, Constantine the Great disbanded the cohortes praetoriae and destroyed their barracks at

7015-415: The first emperor proclaimed by the Praetorian Guard. He compensated the guard with a prime bonus worth five years their salary. The Praetorians accompanied Emperor Claudius to Britain in 43 AD. When Claudius was poisoned, the Guard transferred their allegiance to Nero through the influence of his Praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus , who exercised a beneficial influence on the new emperor during

SECTION 60

#1732764961986

7130-494: The general staff headquarters of the Roman Army). Every afternoon, the tribunus cohortis would receive the password from the emperor personally. The command of this cohort was assumed directly by the emperor and not by the Praetorian prefect. After the construction of the Praetorian camp in 23 BC, another similar serving tribune was placed in the Praetorian camp. The guards' functions included, among many, escorting

7245-567: The guard took part in wars from Dacia to Mesopotamia , while with Marcus Aurelius, years were spent on the Danubian frontier during the Marcomannic Wars . Throughout the 3rd century, the Praetorians assisted the emperors in various campaigns. The Praetorian Guard influenced and intervened in the imperial succession to name the new Caesar , which was a political decision that the unarmed Senate accepted, ratified, and proclaimed to

7360-521: The guards' principal duty was to mount the Guard at the house of Augustus on the Palatine, where the centuries and the turmae of the cohort in service mounted the guard outside the emperor's palace (the interior guard of the palace was mounted by the Imperial German Bodyguard , often also referred to as Batavi , and the Statores Augusti, a sort of military police which were found in

7475-406: The imperial household until, under Caracalla, he was made prefect of the Praetorian Guard. On account of the cruelty and the treachery of the emperor, Macrinus became involved in a conspiracy to kill him and ordered the Praetorian Guard to do so. On April 8, 217, Caracalla was assassinated travelling to Carrhae . Three days later, Macrinus was declared augustus . His most significant early decision

7590-476: The imperial titles and powers, without waiting for the Senate. The army backed his claim as emperor and the Senate, so far away, was powerless to intervene. Macrinus never returned to Rome as emperor and remained based in Antioch for the duration of his reign. Macrinus was the first emperor to hail from the equestrian class, rather than the senatorial, and also the first emperor of Mauretanian descent. He adopted

7705-631: The last campaign of Trajan against the Parthians of 113–117. During the 2nd century, the Praetorian Guard accompanied Lucius Verus in the Oriental War Campaign of 161–166 AD , and accompanied Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius in his northern campaigns between 169–175 and 178–180. Two prefects were killed during these expeditions. With the accession of Commodus , in 180, the Praetorian Guard returned to Rome. Tigidius Perennis (AD 182–185) and freedman Marcus Aurelius Cleander (AD 186–190) exercised considerable influence on

7820-710: The legions that had declared him emperor. Caracalla's mother Julia Domna was initially left in peace when Macrinus became emperor. This changed when Macrinus discovered that she was conspiring against him and had her placed under house arrest in Antioch. By this time Julia Domna was suffering from a presumed advanced stage of breast cancer and she soon died in Antioch after starving herself. Afterwards, Macrinus sent Domna's sister Julia Maesa and her children back to Emesa in Syria, from where Maesa set in motion her plans to have Macrinus overthrown. Macrinus remained in Antioch instead of going to Rome upon being declared emperor,

7935-601: The murder. At the death of Nerva , at the beginning of 98, the Guard supported Trajan , commander of the Army of the Rhine, as new emperor. He executed the remaining Praetorian prefect and his partisans. Trajan returned to Rome from the Rhine, probably accompanied by the new unit of equites singulares Augusti . The Praetorian Guard had participated in Trajan's two Dacian Wars (101–102 and 105–106). The Praetorian Guard served in

8050-484: The name of Severus, in honour of the Severan dynasty, and conferred the imperial title of Augusta to his wife Nonia Celsa and the title of Caesar and name of Antoninus to his son Diadumenianus in honour of the Antonine dynasty , thus making him second in command. At the time of Diadumenian's accession he was eight years old. Despite his equestrian background, Macrinus was accepted by the Senate for two reasons: for

8165-493: The nearby camp of Raphanea , often visited Emesa and went to see Elagabalus perform his priestly rituals and duties while there. Julia Maesa took advantage of this, to suggest to the soldiers that Elagabalus was indeed the illegitimate son of Caracalla. On 16 May, Elagabalus was proclaimed emperor by the Legio III Gallica at its camp at Raphanea. Upon Elagabalus' revolt, Macrinus travelled to Apamea and conferred

8280-420: The new Caesar of Rome. To ensure the loyalty of the Praetorian Guard, Emperor Otho granted the Praetorians the right to appoint their own prefects. After defeating Otho, Vitellius disbanded the Praetorians and established a new Guard composed of sixteen cohorts . In his war against Vitellius, Vespasian relied upon the disgruntled cohorts dismissed by Emperor Vitellius, and, as Emperor Vespasian, he reduced

8395-542: The new ruler of the Roman Empire. Macrinus fled for Rome; he travelled as far as Chalcedon before being recognized and captured. His son and co-emperor Diadumenianus, sent to the care of Artabanus IV of Parthia , was himself captured in transit at Zeugma and killed in June 218. Diadumenianus' reign as emperor lasted less than one month, and he was about 10 years old when he died. Macrinus, upon learning of his son's death, tried to escape captivity, but he injured himself in

8510-571: The number of cohorts was increased to 10, and the Praetorian Guard participated in fighting in Germania and on the Danube against the Dacians . It was in the course of these actions that the prefect Cornelius Fuscus was defeated and killed in 86. Following assassination of Domitian in 96 the Praetorians demanded the execution of their prefect, Titus Petronius Secundus , who had been implicated in

8625-502: The others were stationed in the towns surrounding Rome. This system was not radically changed with the appointment by Augustus in 2 BC of two Praetorian prefects , Quintus Ostorius Scapula and Publius Salvius Aper , although organization and command were enhanced. Tacitus reports that the number of cohorts was increased to twelve from nine in AD 47. In AD 69 it was briefly increased to sixteen cohorts by Vitellius , but Vespasian quickly reduced it again to nine. In Rome,

8740-423: The pay of Roman legionaries. The soldiers that were already enlisted during Caracalla's reign enjoyed exorbitant payments which were impossible for Macrinus to reduce without risking a potential rebellion. Instead, Macrinus allowed the enlisted soldiers to retain their higher payments, but he reduced the pay of new recruits to the level which had been set by Severus. Macrinus revalued the Roman currency , increasing

8855-411: The people of Rome. After the death of Sejanus , who was sacrificed for the donativum (imperial gift) promised by Tiberius, the Praetorians became exceptionally ambitious in their influence upon the politics of the Roman Empire. Either by volition or for a price, the Praetorian Guard would assassinate an emperor, bully the Praetorian prefects, or attack the Roman populace. In AD 41, conspirators from

8970-523: The person of the office-holder. In practice, the offices of Roman consul and of proconsul each had twelve lictors, whilst the offices of praetor and of propraetor each had six lictors. In the absence of an assigned, permanent personal bodyguard, senior field officers safeguarded themselves with temporary bodyguard units of selected soldiers. In Hispania Citerior , during the Siege of Numantia (134–133 BC), General Scipio Aemilianus safeguarded himself with

9085-519: The political unrest that followed the death of Commodus and secured sole rule over the empire in 197 after defeating his last rival, Clodius Albinus , at the Battle of Lugdunum . Severus fought a successful war against the Parthians , campaigned with success against barbarian incursions in Roman Britain and rebuilt Hadrian's Wall . In Rome, his relations with the Senate were poor, but he

9200-445: The population of Rome, while conserving Republican civilian traditions, the Praetorians did not wear their armor while in the heart of the city. Instead they often wore a formal toga, which distinguished them from civilians but remained in a respectable civilian attire, the mark of a Roman citizen. Augustus, conscious of risking the only military force present in the city, often avoided concentrating them and imposed this dress code. From

9315-476: The previous century, relations were hostile between the two Severan brothers after their father's death. Geta was assassinated in their mother's apartments by order of Caracalla, who then ruled as sole emperor. Marcus Opelius Macrinus was born in 164 at Caesarea in Mauretania (now Cherchell , Algeria ). Although coming from a humble background not dynastically related to the Severan dynasty; he rose through

9430-764: The reign of Tiberius, their camp was situated on the Quirinal Hill, outside Rome. In 26 AD, Sejanus , Praetorian prefect, and the favorite of emperor Tiberius , united the Urban Cohorts with nine Praetorian Cohorts, dispersed at that time throughout Italy, in one large camp situated beyond the Servian Wall , on the Esquiline Hill, the Castra Praetoria . For the 2nd century, calculations from lists of significant demobilisations suggest an increase in size to nearly 1,500 men per cohort (perhaps

9545-465: The removal of Caracalla, and for having received the loyalty of the army. The senators were less concerned by Macrinus' Mauretanian ancestry than by his equestrian social background and scrutinized his actions as emperor. Their opinion of him was reduced by his decisions to appoint to high offices men who were of similarly undistinguished background. Macrinus, not being a senator and having become emperor through force rather than through traditional means,

9660-480: The restoration of the Severan dynasty and persuaded soldiers from the Gallic Third Legion , which was stationed near Emesa, by using her enormous wealth as well as the claim that Caracalla had slept with her daughter and that the boy was his bastard to swear fealty to Elagabalus. He was later invited alongside his mother and daughters to the military camp, clad in imperial purple and crowned as emperor by

9775-481: The river Tiber by the Praetorian Guard, which proclaimed Alexander Severus as Augustus. Ruling from the age of 14 under the influence of his mother, Julia Avita Mamaea , Alexander restored to some extent the moderation that had characterised the rule of Septimius Severus . The rising strength of the Sasanian Empire ( r.  226–651 ) heralded perhaps the greatest external challenge that Rome faced in

9890-584: The scenes included Julia Maesa, sister of Julia Domna, and Maesa's two daughters Julia Soaemias , mother of Elagabalus , and Julia Avita Mamaea , mother of Severus Alexander. Also of interest, Publia Fulvia Plautilla , daughter of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus , the Prefect Commander of the Praetorian Guard, was married to but despised by Caracalla, who had her exiled and eventually executed. Macrinus Marcus Opellius Macrinus ( / m ə ˈ k r ɪ n ə s / ; c.  165 – June 218)

10005-521: The senatorial class and from the Guard killed Emperor Caligula , his wife, and their daughter. Afterwards, the Praetorians installed Caligula's uncle Claudius upon the imperial throne of Rome, and challenged the Senate to oppose the Praetorian decision. In AD 69, the Year of the Four Emperors , after assassinating the Emperor Galba , because he did not offer them a donatium , the Praetorians gave their allegiance to Otho , whom they named as

10120-422: The silver purity and weight of the denarius from 50.78 percent and 1.66 grams at the end of Caracalla's reign to 57.85 percent and 1.82 grams from Autumn 217 to the end of his reign, so that it mirrored Severus' fiscal policy for the period 197 to 209. Macrinus' goal with these policies might have been to return Rome to the relative economic stability that had been enjoyed under Severus' reign, though it came with

10235-399: The soldiers. His reign in Rome has long been known for being outrageous although the historical sources are few and in many cases not to be fully trusted. He is said to have smothered guests at a banquet by flooding the room with rose petals, married his male lover (who was later referred to as the "empress's husband") and married a Vestal Virgin called Aquilia Severa . Dio suggests that he

10350-404: The support of Naevius Sutorius Macro , Sejanus' successor as prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Under Caligula, whose reign lasted until AD 41, the overall strength of the Guard increased from 9 to 12 Praetorian cohorts. In year 41, disgust and hostility of a praetorian tribune, named Cassius Chaerea – whom Caligula teased without mercy due to his squeaky voice – led to the assassination of

10465-507: The throne, died in AD 19 he was worried that Drusus would become the new emperor. Accordingly, he poisoned Drusus with the help of the latter's wife, and immediately launched a ruthless elimination program against all competitors, persuading Tiberius to make him his heir apparent. He almost succeeded, but his plot was discovered and revealed in AD 31, and Tiberius had him killed by the Cohortes urbanae , who were not under Sejanus's control. In AD 37 Caligula became emperor with

10580-446: The title of caesar from his cousin, which enraged the Praetorian Guard. Elagabalus, his mother, and other advisors close to him were assassinated in a Praetorian Guard camp mutiny. Born Marcus Julius Gessius Bassianus Alexianus in around 208, Alexander was adopted as heir apparent by his slightly older and very unpopular cousin, Elagabalus, at the urging of Julia Maesa , who was the grandmother of both cousins and who had arranged for

10695-405: The title of Augustus onto his son, Diadumenianus, and made him co-emperor. Macrinus realised that his life was in danger but struggled to decide upon a course of action and remained at Antioch . He sent a force of cavalry commanded by Ulpius Julianus to regain control of the rebels, but they failed and Ulpius died in the attempt. This failure further strengthened Elagabalus' army. Soon after,

10810-482: The trust of Emperor Caracalla , this may have changed when, according to tradition, it was prophesied that he would depose and succeed the emperor. Macrinus, fearing for his safety, resolved to have Caracalla murdered before he was condemned. In the spring of 217, Caracalla was in the eastern provinces preparing a campaign against the Parthian Empire . Macrinus was among his staff, as were other members of

10925-524: The unrest and instigated a rebellion to have her fourteen-year-old grandson, Elagabalus , recognized as emperor. Macrinus was overthrown at the Battle of Antioch on 8 June 218 and Elagabalus proclaimed himself emperor with support from the rebelling Roman legions. Macrinus fled the battlefield and tried to reach Rome, but was captured in Chalcedon and later executed in Cappadocia . He sent his son to

11040-399: The unsuccessful attempt and was afterward executed in Cappadocia ; his head was sent to Elagabalus. Much like Macrinus, Diadumenianus' head was also cut off and sent to Elagabalus as a trophy. Macrinus and his son Diadumenian were declared hostes , enemies of the state, by the Senate immediately after news had arrived of their deaths and as part of an official declaration of support for

11155-577: The upheaval of the late 2nd century, the dynasty was disturbed by highly unstable family relationships and constant political turmoil, which foreshadowed the imminent Crisis of the Third Century . In particular, the discord between Caracalla and Geta and the tension between Elagabalus and Severus Alexander added to the turmoil. Lucius Septimius Severus was born in Leptis Magna , then in the Roman province of Africa Proconsularis and now in Libya , into

11270-404: The usurper Elagabalus, who was recognized in the Senate as the new Emperor. The declaration of hostes led to two actions being taken against the images of the former Emperors. First, their portraits were destroyed and their names were stricken from inscriptions and papyri. The second action, taken by the Roman soldiers who had rebelled against Macrinus in favour of Elagabalus, was to destroy all of

11385-419: The works and possessions of Macrinus. The damnatio memoriae against Macrinus is among the earliest of such sanctions enacted by the Senate. Many of the marble busts of Macrinus that exist were defaced and mutilated as a response to the damnatio memoriae and many of the coins depicting Macrinus and Diadumenianus were also destroyed. These actions against Macrinus are evidence of his unpopularity in Rome. In

11500-401: The young Piso, were lynched on 15 January. After supporting Otho against a third contender, Vitellius , the Praetorians were restrained following defeat and their centurions executed. They were replaced by 16 cohorts recruited from the legionnaires and auxiliaries loyal to Vitellius, almost 16,000 men. These ex-Praetorians then aided Vespasian , the fourth Emperor, leading the attack against

11615-447: Was transgender and offered large sums to the physician who could give him female genitalia. Seeing that her grandson's outrageous behaviour could mean the loss of power, Julia Maesa persuaded Elagabalus to accept his young cousin Severus Alexander as caesar (and thus the nominal future augustus ). Alexander was popular with the troops, who increasingly objected to Elagabalus's behaviour. Jealous of this popularity, Elagabalus removed

11730-474: Was a Roman emperor who reigned from April 217 to June 218, jointly with his young son Diadumenianus . Born in Caesarea (now called Cherchell, in modern Algeria), in the Roman province of Mauretania Caesariensis to an equestrian family of Berber origins, he became the first emperor who did not hail from the senatorial class and also the first emperor who never visited Rome during his reign. Before becoming emperor, Macrinus served under Emperor Caracalla as

11845-542: Was born Lucius Septimius Bassianus in Lugdunum , Gaul. "Caracalla" was a nickname referring to the Gallic hooded tunic that he habitually wore even while he slept. Years before his father's death, Caracalla was proclaimed co- augustus with his father, and later his younger brother Geta. Conflict between the two culminated in the assassination of the latter less than a year after their father's death. Reigning alone, Caracalla

11960-561: Was captured and killed. Elagabalus was born Varius Avitus Bassianus in 204 and became known later as Marcus Aurelius Antonius. The name "Elagabalus" followed the Latin nomenclature for the Syrian sun god Elagabal , of whom he had become a priest at an early age. Elagabal was represented by a large, dark rock called a baetyl . Elagabalus's grandmother, Julia Maesa , Julia Domna's sister and sister-in-law of Emperor Septimius Severus, arranged for

12075-602: Was confronted by mutinies in the two armies of the Rhine and Pannonia , who were protesting about their conditions of service being worse than the Praetorians. The forces of Pannonia were dealt with by Drusus Julius Caesar , son of Tiberius (distinct from Nero Claudius Drusus , brother of Tiberius), accompanied by two Praetorian cohorts, the Praetorian Cavalry, and Imperial German Bodyguards . The mutiny in Germania

12190-512: Was dismantled in a grand gesture, inaugurating a new age in Roman history and ending that of the Praetorians. While campaigning, the Praetorians were the equal of any formation in the Roman army. On the death of Augustus in 14 AD, his successor, Tiberius, was faced with mutinies among both the Rhine and Pannonian legions. According to Tacitus , the Pannonian forces were dealt with by Tiberius' son Drusus , accompanied by two Praetorian cohorts,

12305-469: Was higher than that of a legionary. Under Nero , the pay of a Praetorian was three and a half times that of a legionary, augmented by prime additions of donativum , granted by each new emperor. This additional pay was the equivalent of several years of pay and was often repeated at important events of the empire or events that touched the imperial family: birthdays, births and marriages. Major monetary distributions or food subsidies renewed and compensated

12420-490: Was likely not handled by himself but by Marcius Agrippa . In matters of foreign policy, Macrinus showed a tendency towards settling disputes through diplomacy and a reluctance to engage in military conflict, though this may have been due more to the lack of resources and manpower than to his own personal preference. Macrinus began to overturn Caracalla's fiscal policies and moved closer towards those that had been set forth by Septimius Severus . One such policy change involved

12535-596: Was looked down upon. Macrinus had several issues that he needed to deal with at the time of his accession, which had been left behind by his predecessor. As Caracalla had a tendency towards military belligerence, rather than diplomacy, this left several conflicts for Macrinus to resolve. Additionally, Caracalla had been a profligate spender of Rome's income. Most of the money was spent on the army; he had greatly increased their pay from 2,000 sesterces to 3,000 sesterces per year. The increased expenditures forced Caracalla to strip bare whatever sources of income he had to supply

12650-413: Was noted for lavish bribes to the legionaries and unprecedented cruelty by authorising numerous assassinations of perceived enemies and rivals. Caracalla was also indifferent to the full responsibilities of the empire during his reign and handed them over to his mother, Julia Domna, who took part in a provincial tour and military campaign and accompanied her son. He campaigned with indifferent success against

12765-514: Was popular with the commoners and with his soldiers, whose salary he raised. Starting in 197, his praetorian prefect , Gaius Fulvius Plautianus , was growing in influence, but he would be executed in 205. One of Plautianus's successors was the jurist Papinian , a relative of Julia Domna. The Jews experienced more favorable conditions under the Severan dynasty . According to Jerome , both Septimius Severus and Antoninus "very greatly cherished

12880-521: Was repressed by the nephew and designated heir of Tiberius, Germanicus , who later led legions and detachments of the Guard in a two-year campaign in Germania, and succeeded in recovering two of the three legionary eagles which had been lost at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest . Sejanus rose in power under Tiberius , and was among the first prefects to exploit his position to pursue his own ambitions. He concentrated under his command all

12995-460: Was succeeded by Maximinus Thrax ( r.  235–238 ), the first of a series of weak emperors, each ruling on average only 2 to 3 years, which ended 50 years later with the Tetrarchy instituted in the reign of Diocletian ( r.  284–305 ). The women of the Severan dynasty, beginning with Septimius Severus's wife Julia Domna, were notably active in advancing the careers of their male relatives. Other notable women who exercised power behind

13110-537: Was the imperial guard of the Imperial Roman army that served various roles for the Roman emperor including being a bodyguard unit, counterintelligence , crowd control and gathering military intelligence . During the Roman Republic , the Praetorian Guards were escorts for high-ranking political officials ( senators and procurators ) and were bodyguards for the senior officers of the Roman legions . In 27 BC, after Rome's transition from republic to empire,

13225-479: Was to make peace with the Parthian Empire , but many thought that the terms were degrading to the Romans. However, his downfall was his refusal to award the pay and privileges promised to the eastern troops by Caracalla. He also kept those forces wintered in Syria, where they became attracted to the young Elagabalus . After months of mild rebellion by the bulk of the army in Syria, Macrinus took his loyal troops to meet

#985014