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44-413: Castries is on a flood plain and is built on reclaimed land . It houses the seat of government and the head offices of many foreign and local businesses. The city is laid out in a grid pattern. Its sheltered harbour receives cargo vessels, ferries and cruise ships. It houses duty-free shopping facilities such as Point Seraphine and La Place Carenage. Castries is the birthplace of Arthur Lewis , winner of

88-415: A combination of impermeable liners several metres thick, geologically stable sites and collection systems to contain and capture this leachate. It can then be treated and evaporated. Once a landfill site is full, it is sealed off to prevent precipitation ingress and new leachate formation. However, liners must have a lifespan, be it several hundred years or more. Eventually, any landfill liner could leak, so

132-440: A viable and abundant source of materials and energy . In the developing world, waste pickers often scavenge for still-usable materials. In commercial contexts, companies have also discovered landfill sites, and many have begun harvesting materials and energy. Well-known examples include gas-recovery facilities. Other commercial facilities include waste incinerators which have built-in material recovery. This material recovery

176-551: Is CO 2 . The gas also contains about 5% molecular nitrogen (N 2 ), less than 1% hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), and a low concentration of non-methane organic compounds (NMOC) , about 2700 ppmv . Landfill gases can seep out of the landfill and into the surrounding air and soil. Methane is a greenhouse gas , and is flammable and potentially explosive at certain concentrations, which makes it perfect for burning to generate electricity cleanly. Since decomposing plant matter and food waste only release carbon that has been captured from

220-680: Is a site for the disposal of waste materials. It is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal , although the systematic burial of waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, waste was simply left in piles or thrown into pits (known in archeology as middens ). Landfills take up a lot of land and pose environmental risks. Some landfill sites are used for waste management purposes, such as temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or for various stages of processing waste material, such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. Unless they are stabilized, landfills may undergo severe shaking or soil liquefaction of

264-1960: Is also another method of land reclamation. It is the removal of sediments and debris from the bottom of a body of water. It is commonly used for maintaining reclaimed land masses as sedimentation, a natural process, fills channels and harbors. [REDACTED]   Morocco [REDACTED]   Nigeria [REDACTED]   South Africa [REDACTED]   Tanzania [REDACTED]   Bahrain [REDACTED]   China [REDACTED]   India [REDACTED]   Indonesia [REDACTED]   Japan [REDACTED]   Lebanon [REDACTED]   Maldives [REDACTED]   Malaysia [REDACTED]   Pakistan [REDACTED]   Philippines [REDACTED]   Qatar [REDACTED]   Singapore [REDACTED]   South Korea [REDACTED]   Sri Lanka [REDACTED]   United Arab Emirates [REDACTED]   Belarus [REDACTED]   Belgium [REDACTED]   Denmark [REDACTED]   Estonia [REDACTED]   Finland [REDACTED]   France [REDACTED]   Greece [REDACTED]   Ireland [REDACTED]   Italy [REDACTED]   Monaco [REDACTED]   Netherlands [REDACTED]   Norway [REDACTED]   Russia [REDACTED]   Spain [REDACTED]   Turkey [REDACTED]   United Kingdom [REDACTED]   Ukraine [REDACTED]   Bahamas [REDACTED]   Bermuda [REDACTED]   Canada [REDACTED]   Mexico [REDACTED]   United States [REDACTED]   Australia [REDACTED]   Fiji [REDACTED]   New Zealand [REDACTED]   Argentina [REDACTED]   Brazil [REDACTED]   Chile Landfill A landfill

308-592: Is known as reclamation ground , reclaimed land , or land fill . In Ancient Egypt , the rulers of the Twelfth Dynasty (c. 2000–1800 BC) undertook a far-sighted land reclamation scheme to increase agricultural output. They constructed levees and canals to connect the Faiyum with the Bahr Yussef waterway, diverting water that would have flowed into Lake Moeris and causing gradual evaporation around

352-548: Is possible through the use of filters ( electro filter , active-carbon and potassium filter, quench, HCl-washer, SO 2 -washer, bottom ash -grating, etc.). In addition to waste reduction and recycling strategies, there are various alternatives to landfills, including waste-to-energy incineration, anaerobic digestion , composting , mechanical biological treatment , pyrolysis and plasma arc gasification . Depending on local economics and incentives, these can be made more financially attractive than landfills. The goal of

396-671: Is rapidly displaced by CO 2 in the effluent gas. Hydrolysis of the biodegradable fraction of the solid waste begins in the acid formation phase, which leads to rapid accumulation of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) in the leachate. The increased organic acid content decreases the leachate pH from approximately 7.5 to 5.6. During this phase, the decomposition intermediate compounds like the VFAs contribute much chemical oxygen demand (COD). Long-chain volatile organic acids (VOAs) are converted to acetic acid (C 2 H 4 O 2 ), CO 2 , and hydrogen gas (H 2 ). High concentrations of VFAs increase both

440-464: Is served by George F. L. Charles Airport . Passengers on longer flights arrive at Hewanorra International Airport , near Vieux-Fort . The drive between Hewanorra and Castries can take an hour and a half. Helicopter service between the airports shortens travel time. Ferries run between Castries and Fort-de-France , Martinique . Yachts may dock in Castries, though they must clear customs first. When

484-518: Is the first stage by which wastes are broken down in a landfill. These are followed by four stages of anaerobic degradation. Usually, solid organic material in solid phase decays rapidly as larger organic molecules degrade into smaller molecules. These smaller organic molecules begin to dissolve and move to the liquid phase, followed by hydrolysis of these organic molecules, and the hydrolyzed compounds then undergo transformation and volatilization as carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and methane (CH 4 ), with rest of

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528-403: Is the longest decomposition phase. The rate of microbiological activity slows during the last phase of waste decomposition as the supply of nutrients limits the chemical reactions, e.g. as bioavailable phosphorus becomes increasingly scarce. CH 4 production almost completely disappears, with O 2 and oxidized species gradually reappearing in the gas wells as O 2 permeates downwardly from

572-712: The Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme has been established for local authorities to trade landfill quotas in England. A different system operates in Wales where authorities cannot 'trade' amongst themselves, but have allowances known as the Landfill Allowance Scheme. U.S. landfills are regulated by each state's environmental agency, which establishes minimum guidelines; however, none of these standards may fall below those set by

616-601: The Republic of China (Taiwan) (in Rodney Bay ), Dominican Republic Consulate, French Embassy, Italian Vice Consulate, Jamaican Consulate, Netherlands Consulate, Norwegian Consulate, Brazilian Embassy and Venezuelan Embassy. Reclaimed land Land reclamation , often known as reclamation , and also known as land fill (not to be confused with a waste landfill ), is the process of creating new land from oceans , seas , riverbeds or lake beds. The land reclaimed

660-593: The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Permitting a landfill generally takes between five and seven years, costs millions of dollars and requires rigorous siting, engineering and environmental studies and demonstrations to ensure local environmental and safety concerns are satisfied. The status of a landfill's microbial community may determine its digestive efficiency. Bacteria that digest plastic have been found in landfills. One can treat landfills as

704-574: The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and VOA concentrations, which initiates H 2 production by fermentative bacteria, which stimulates the growth of H 2 -oxidizing bacteria. The H 2 generation phase is relatively short because it is complete by the end of the acid formation phase. The increase in the biomass of acidogenic bacteria increases the amount of degradation of the waste material and consuming nutrients. Metals, which are generally more water-soluble at lower pH, may become more mobile during this phase, leading to increasing metal concentrations in

748-803: The landfill gas utilization and generation of electricity . Landfill gas monitoring alerts workers to the presence of a build-up of gases to a harmful level. In some countries, landfill gas recovery is extensive; in the United States, for example, more than 850 landfills have active landfill gas recovery systems. A Solar landfill is a repurposed used landfill that is converted to a solar array solar farm . Landfills in Canada are regulated by provincial environmental agencies and environmental protection legislation. Older facilities tend to fall under current standards and are monitored for leaching . Some former locations have been converted to parkland. In

792-545: The 1979 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics, as well as of Derek Walcott , winner of the 1992 Nobel Prize for Literature. In 1650, the fort auprès du Petit Cul-de-Sac et de la rivière du Carénage was founded by a group of 40 Frenchmen led by de Rousselan, when St. Lucia was purchased by Capt. du Parquet and Monsieur Houel from the French West India Company . The capital was moved to the south side of

836-566: The 20th century, but gained wide use in the 1960s and 1970s, in an effort to eliminate open dumps and other "unsanitary" waste disposal practices. The sanitary landfill is an engineered facility that separates and confines waste. Sanitary landfills are intended as biological reactors ( bioreactors ) in which microbes will break down complex organic waste into simpler, less toxic compounds over time. These reactors must be designed and operated according to regulatory standards and guidelines (See environmental engineering ). Usually, aerobic decomposition

880-515: The Canadian ocean liner RMS Lady Nelson , which was subsequently refloated in the harbour and taken to Canada to be converted to a hospital ship . Castries has been rebuilt many times, following major fires on 15 October 1805, 6 April 1813, and most notably on 19 June 1948. One of the major tourist areas in St. Lucia, Castries is a port of call for cruise ships . They dock at Pointe Seraphine, to

924-718: The European Union, individual states are obliged to enact legislation to comply with the requirements and obligations of the European Landfill Directive . The majority of EU member states have laws banning or severely restricting the disposal of household trash via landfills. Landfilling is currently the major method of municipal waste disposal in India. India also has Asia's largest dumping ground in Deonar, Mumbai. However, issues frequently arise due to

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968-415: The age of landfill, type of waste, moisture content and other factors. For example, the maximum amount of landfill gas produced can be illustrated a simplified net reaction of diethyl oxalate that accounts for these simultaneous reactions: 4 C 6 H 10 O 4 + 6 H 2 O → 13 CH 4 + 11 CO 2 On average, about half of the volumetric concentration of landfill gas is CH 4 and slightly less than half

1012-514: The alarming growth rate of landfills and poor management by authorities. On and under surface fires have been commonly seen in the Indian landfills over the last few years. Landfilling practices in the UK have had to change in recent years to meet the challenges of the European Landfill Directive . The UK now imposes landfill tax upon biodegradable waste which is put into landfills. In addition to this

1056-506: The area with large amounts of heavy rock and/or cement , then filling with clay and dirt until the desired height is reached. The process is called "infilling" and the material used to fill the space is generally called "infill". Draining of submerged wetlands is often used to reclaim land for agricultural use. Deep cement mixing is used typically in situations in which the material displaced by either dredging or draining may be contaminated and hence needs to be contained. Land dredging

1100-510: The atmosphere through photosynthesis, no new carbon enters the carbon cycle and the atmospheric concentration of CO 2 is not affected. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to climate change . In properly managed landfills, gas is collected and flared or recovered for landfill gas utilization . Poorly run landfills may become nuisances because of vectors such as rats and flies which can spread infectious diseases . The occurrence of such vectors can be mitigated through

1144-741: The capital city of Saint Lucia, Castries hosts the secretariat of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States . Castries also hosts the headquarters of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court . The mayor of Castries is Geraldine Lendor-Gabriel, who took office in September 2021. A number of international embassies and consulates keep their headquarters in Castries. They include the Organization of American States , British High Commission , Mexican Embassy, embassy of

1188-418: The compacted waste and the cover material is called a daily cell. Waste compaction is critical to extending the life of the landfill. Factors such as waste compressibility, waste-layer thickness and the number of passes of the compactor over the waste affect the waste densities. The term landfill is usually shorthand for a municipal landfill or sanitary landfill. These facilities were first introduced early in

1232-421: The customs area is full, yachts must anchor at the quarantine dock to wait; those that do not are fined. Afterward, yachts may anchor in front of Castries Town or Vigie Creek. Standard bus routes run from Castries to all outlying districts on the island. The buses are private (not subsidized by government) bearing green license plates with numbers that start with an M —for example, M456 . As well as being

1276-436: The ground around landfills must be tested for leachate to prevent pollutants from contaminating groundwater . Rotting food and other decaying organic waste create decomposition gases , especially CO 2 and CH 4 from aerobic and anaerobic decomposition, respectively. Both processes occur simultaneously in different parts of a landfill. In addition to available O 2 , the fraction of gas constituents will vary, depending on

1320-525: The ground during an earthquake . Once full, the area over a landfill site may be reclaimed for other uses. Operators of well-run landfills for non-hazardous waste meet predefined specifications by applying techniques to: They can also cover waste (usually daily) with layers of soil or other types of material such as woodchips and fine particles. During landfill operations, a scale or weighbridge may weigh waste collection vehicles on arrival and personnel may inspect loads for wastes that do not accord with

1364-777: The harbor in 1769 by Gov. Baron de Micoud. In 1785, the village of Carénage was renamed Castries, after Charles Eugène Gabriel de La Croix, marquis de Castries , the French Minister of the Navy and Colonies . In 1835, the British built the western wharf in 1642 to facilitate the coal trade and the first steamship arrived in 1841, the RMS Solway . During World War II on 9 March 1942, the German U-161 sailed into Castries harbor at night and sank two allied ships, including

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1408-835: The lake's edges, creating new farmland from the reclaimed land. A similar land reclamation system using dams and drainage canals was used in the Greek Copaic Basin during the Middle Helladic Period (c. 1900–1600 BC). One of the earliest large-scale projects was the Beemster Polder in the Netherlands, realized in 1612 adding 70 square kilometres (27 sq mi) of land. In Hong Kong the Praya Reclamation Scheme added 20 to 24 hectares (50 to 60 acres) of land in 1890 during

1452-427: The landfill bioreactor strata gradually decreases. Microbial populations grow, density increases. Aerobic biodegradation dominates, i.e. the primary electron acceptor is O 2 . The O 2 is rapidly degraded by the existing microbial populations. The decreasing O 2 leads to less aerobic and more anaerobic conditions in the layers. The primary electron acceptors during transition are nitrates and sulphates since O 2

1496-469: The landfill can be significant and can be mitigated by wheel washing systems . Pollution of the local environment , such as contamination of groundwater or aquifers or soil contamination may occur, as well. When precipitation falls on open landfills, water percolates through the garbage and becomes contaminated with suspended and dissolved material, forming leachate. If this is not contained it can contaminate groundwater. All modern landfill sites use

1540-451: The landfill's waste-acceptance criteria. Afterward, the waste collection vehicles use the existing road network on their way to the tipping face or working front, where they unload their contents. After loads are deposited, compactors or bulldozers can spread and compact the waste on the working face. Before leaving the landfill boundaries, the waste collection vehicles may pass through a wheel-cleaning facility. If necessary, they return to

1584-459: The leachate. The acid formation phase intermediary products (e.g., acetic, propionic, and butyric acids) are converted to CH 4 and CO 2 by methanogenic microorganisms. As VFAs are metabolized by the methanogens, the landfill water pH returns to neutrality. The leachate's organic strength, expressed as oxygen demand, decreases at a rapid rate with increases in CH 4 and CO 2 gas production. This

1628-696: The north of the harbour. Landmarks include the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception , Derek Walcott Square (renamed from Columbus Square to honour the island's Nobel Prize-winning poet, Derek Walcott ), the City Library, the Government House, Castries Market , and Fort Charlotte, at the top of Morne Fortune (an 845-foot or 258 m hill). Beaches include Vigie Beach , Malabar Beach, Choc Beach, and La Toc Beach. Castries

1672-558: The second phase of construction. It was one of the most ambitious projects ever taken during the Colonial Hong Kong era. Some 20% of land in the Tokyo Bay area has been reclaimed, most notably Odaiba artificial island. The city of Rio de Janeiro was largely built on reclaimed land, as was Wellington , New Zealand. Land reclamation can be achieved by a number of different methods. The simplest method involves filling

1716-531: The troposphere. This transforms the oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) in the leachate toward oxidative processes. The residual organic materials may incrementally be converted to the gas phase, and as organic matter is composted; i.e. the organic matter is converted to humic -like compounds. Landfills have the potential to cause a number of issues. Infrastructure disruption, such as damage to access roads by heavy vehicles, may occur. Pollution of local roads and watercourses from wheels on vehicles when they leave

1760-432: The use of daily cover . Other potential issues include wildlife disruption due to occupation of habitat and animal health disruption caused by consuming waste from landfills, dust, odor, noise pollution , and reduced local property values. Gases are produced in landfills due to the anaerobic digestion by microbes. In a properly managed landfill, this gas is collected and used. Its uses range from simple flaring to

1804-404: The waste depend on how well microbial populations function in syntrophy , i.e. an interaction of different populations to provide each other's nutritional needs.: The life cycle of a municipal landfill undergoes five distinct phases: As the waste is placed in the landfill, the void spaces contain high volumes of molecular oxygen (O 2 ). With added and compacted wastes, the O 2 content of

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1848-435: The waste remaining in solid and liquid phases. During the early phases, little material volume reaches the leachate , as the biodegradable organic matter of the waste undergoes a rapid decrease in volume. Meanwhile, the leachate's chemical oxygen demand increases with increasing concentrations of the more recalcitrant compounds compared to the more reactive compounds in the leachate. Successful conversion and stabilization of

1892-416: The weighbridge for re-weighing without their load. The weighing process can assemble statistics on the daily incoming waste tonnage, which databases can retain for record keeping. In addition to trucks, some landfills may have equipment to handle railroad containers. The use of "rail-haul" permits landfills to be located at more remote sites, without the problems associated with many truck trips. Typically, in

1936-399: The working face, the compacted waste is covered with soil or alternative materials daily. Alternative waste-cover materials include chipped wood or other "green waste", several sprayed-on foam products, chemically "fixed" bio-solids, and temporary blankets. Blankets can be lifted into place at night and then removed the following day prior to waste placement. The space that is occupied daily by

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