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120-435: As of 2019, the population of the region was 1,578,075 with 53.5% females. The population in the region was 7.7% of the total population of the country. The child mortality rate was 39, infant mortality rate was 56 and the mortality of children under five was 93. As of 2007, the literacy rate in the region was 16.6%, compared with a national average of 28.3%. Most of Burkino Faso is a wide plateau formed by riverine systems and

240-470: A coup d'état on 23 and 24 January 2022 , overthrowing President Roch Marc Kaboré . On 31 January, the military junta restored the constitution and appointed Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba as interim president, but he was himself overthrown in a second coup on 30 September and replaced by military captain Ibrahim Traoré . Burkina Faso remains one of the least developed countries in the world, with

360-432: A curfew . On 31 October 2014, Compaoré resigned. Lt. Col. Isaac Zida said that he would lead the country during its transitional period before the planned 2015 presidential election , but there were concerns over his close ties to the former president. In November 2014 opposition parties, civil-society groups and religious leaders adopted a plan for a transitional authority to guide Burkina Faso to elections. Under

480-561: A sanitation technology at any step of the sanitation chain. Hygiene is a broad concept. "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases ." Hygiene can comprise many behaviors, including hand washing , menstrual hygiene and food hygiene . In the context of WASH, hand washing with soap and water is regarded as a top priority in all settings, and has been chosen as an indicator for national and global monitoring of hygiene access. "Basic hygiene facilities" are those were people have

600-505: A GDP of $ 16.226 billion in 2022. Approximately 63.8% of its population practices Islam , while 26.3% practices Christianity. The country's official language of government and business was French , until January 2024, by ratification of a constitutional amendment, the status of French was demoted to that of a "working language" of the country, alongside English . While the Burkinabè government officially recognizes 60 indigenous languages,

720-422: A broader WASH intervention) was also found to have a protective effect on under-five diarrhea incidence but not on household diarrhea incidence. Women and girls are particularly burdened from lack of proper WASH services. Inadequate access to water and sanitation affect women and girls in several ways because of social norms in some cultures that position them as principal household water collectors and managers,

840-542: A causal relationship between decreased morbidity and the intervention. For example, researchers may conclude that educating communities about handwashing is effective at reducing disease, but cannot conclude that handwashing reduces disease. Point-of-use water supply and point-of-use water quality interventions also show similar effectiveness to handwashing, with those that include provision of safe storage containers demonstrating increased disease reduction in infants. Specific types of water quality improvement projects can have

960-464: A coup d'état organized by Blaise Compaoré, Sankara's former colleague, who took over as Burkina Faso's president. He held the position until October 2014. After the coup and although Sankara was known to be dead, some CDRs mounted an armed resistance to the army for several days. A majority of Burkinabè citizens hold that France's foreign ministry , the Quai d'Orsay , was behind Compaoré in organizing

1080-432: A false sense of security. Studies on the effect of sanitation interventions alone on health are rare. When studies do evaluate sanitation measures, they are mostly included as part of a package of different interventions. A pooled analysis of the limited number of studies on sanitation interventions suggest that improving sanitation has a protective effect on health. A UNICEF funded sanitation intervention (packaged into

1200-811: A hand washing facility with soap and water available on their premises. Hand washing facilities can consist of a sink with tap water , buckets with taps, tippy-taps and portable basins. In the context of SDG 6, hygiene is included in the indicator for Target 6.2: "Proportion of population using [...] (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water" In 2017, the global situation was reported as follows: Only 1 in 4 people in low-income countries had hand washing facilities with soap and water at home; only 14% of people in Sub-Saharan Africa have hand washing facilities.  Worldwide, at least 500 million women and girls lack adequate, safe, and private facilities for managing menstrual hygiene . Approximately 40% of

1320-786: A higher risk of diseases and illness due to limited WASH access. Heavily pregnant women face severe hardship walking to and from a water collection site. The consumption of unclean water leading to infection in the fetus accounts for 15% of deaths for women during pregnancy globally. Illnesses and diseases that can come from poor menstrual hygiene management become more likely when clean water and toilets are unavailable. In Bangladesh and India, women rely on old cloths to absorb menstrual blood and use water to clean and reuse them. Without access to clean water and hygiene, these women my experience unnecessary health problems in connection with their periods. Occupational safety and health issues for sanitation workers include: diseases related to contact with

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1440-488: A lack of WASH include diarrhea , malnutrition , and stunting , in addition to neglected tropical diseases . Lack of WASH poses additional health risks for women, for example, during pregnancy or in connection with menstrual hygiene management . Chronic diarrhea can have long-term negative effects on children in terms of both physical and cognitive development. Still, collecting precise scientific evidence regarding health outcomes that result from improved access to WASH

1560-455: A military coup d'état on 4 August 1983. The coup brought Sankara to power and his government began to implement a series of revolutionary programs which included mass-vaccinations, infrastructure improvements, the expansion of women's rights, encouragement of domestic agricultural consumption, and anti-desertification projects. On 2 August 1984, on Sankara's initiative, the country's name changed from "Upper Volta" to "Burkina Faso", or land of

1680-749: A minimum of 116 mostly Fulani civilians were killed by military forces without trial. The attacks increased significantly in 2019 . According to the ACLED , armed violence in Burkina Faso jumped by 174% in 2019, with nearly 1,300 civilians dead and 860,000 displaced. Jihadist groups also began to specifically target Christians . On 8 July 2020, the United States raised concerns after a Human Rights Watch report revealed mass graves with at least 180 bodies, which were found in northern Burkina Faso where soldiers were fighting jihadists. On 4 June 2021,

1800-568: A national average of 28.3 per cent. The gross primary enrolment was 64.8 per cent, pos-primary was 18 per cent and gross secondary school enrolment was 4.4. There were 118 boys and 112 girls enrolled in the primary and post-secondary level. There were 17 teachers in primary and post-secondary level, while there were 500 teachers in post-primary and post-secondary level. As of 2007, there were 583.9 km (362.8 mi) of highways, 142.7 km (88.7 mi) of regional roads and 214.2 km (133.1 mi) of county roads. The first set of car traffic

1920-412: A nationwide literacy campaign, land redistribution to peasants , vaccinations for over 2 million children, railway and road construction, equalized access to education, and the outlawing of female genital mutilation , forced marriages , and polygamy . He served as the country's president until 1987 when he was deposed and assassinated in a coup led by Blaise Compaoré , who became president and ruled

2040-402: A need for longer-term studies of technology efficacy, greater analysis of sanitation interventions, and studies of combined effects from multiple interventions in order to more sufficiently gauge WASH health outcomes. Many scholars have attempted to summarize the evidence of WASH interventions from the limited number of high quality studies. Hygiene interventions, in particular those focusing on

2160-519: A negative effect on child development (both physical and cognitive). Numerous studies have shown that improvements in drinking water and sanitation (WASH) lead to decreased risks of diarrhea. Such improvements might include for example use of water filters, provision of high-quality piped water and sewer connections. Diarrhea can be prevented - and the lives of 525,000 children annually be saved (estimate for 2017) - by improved sanitation , clean drinking water , and hand washing with soap. In 2008

2280-473: A piped sewer system, connection to a septic system , flush or pour-flush to a pit latrine , pit latrine with slab, ventilated improved pit latrine , composting toilet . Access to sanitation services is included in Target 6.2 of Sustainable Development Goal 6, which is: "By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to

2400-540: A popular uprising ended his rule. As per Law No.40/98/AN in 1998, Burkina Faso adhered to decentralization to provide administrative and financial autonomy to local communities. There are 13 administrative regions, each governed by a Governor. The regions are subdivided into 45 provinces, which are further subdivided into 351 communes. The communes may be urban or rural and are interchangeable. There are other administrative entities like department and village. An urban commune has typically 10,000 people under it. If any commune

2520-469: A protective effect on morbidity and mortality. A randomized control trial in India concluded that the provision of chlorine tablets for improving water quality led to a 75% decrease in incidences of cholera among the study population. A quasi-randomized study on historical data from the United States also found that the introduction of clean water technologies in major cities was responsible for close to half

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2640-635: A toilet or latrine with other households, and 892 million people practice open defecation . There are many barriers that make it difficult to achieve sanitation for all. These include social, institutional, technical and environmental challenges. Therefore, the problem of providing access to sanitation services cannot be solved by focusing on technology alone. Instead, it requires an integrated perspective that includes planning, using economic opportunities (e.g. from reuse of excreta ), and behavior change interventions. Sanitation services would not be complete without safe fecal sludge management (FSM), which

2760-605: A total of 127. The Congress for Democracy and Progress (CDP), the party of former President Blaise Compaoré, was distant second with 20 seats. A Jihadist insurgency began in August 2015, part of the Islamist insurgency in the Sahel . Between August 2015 and October 2016, seven different posts were attacked across the country. On 15 January 2016, terrorists attacked the capital city of Ouagadougou , killing 30 people. Al-Qaeda in

2880-441: A total population 10 times that size. In February 2011, the death of a schoolboy provoked the 2011 Burkinabè protests , a series of popular protests, coupled with a military mutiny and a magistrates' strike, that called for Compaoré's resignation, democratic reforms, higher wages for troops and public servants and economic freedom. As a result, governors were replaced and wages for public servants were raised. In April 2011, there

3000-621: A water quality monitoring tool. The term improved water source refers to piped water on premises (piped household water connection located inside the user's dwelling plot or yard, and other improved drinking water sources such as public taps or standpipes , tube wells or boreholes , protected dug wells , protected springs , and rainwater collection ). Access to drinking water is included in Target 6.1 of Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6), which states: "By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all." This target has one indicator: Indicator 6.1.1

3120-725: Is Ouagadougou . The largest ethnic group in Burkina Faso is the Mossi people , who settled the area in the 11th and 13th centuries. They established powerful kingdoms such as the Ouagadougou, Tenkodogo, and Yatenga. In 1896, it was colonized by the French as part of French West Africa ; in 1958, Upper Volta became a self-governing colony within the French Community . In 1960, it gained full independence with Maurice Yaméogo as president . Since it gained its independence,

3240-649: Is a landlocked country in West Africa , bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the south, and Ivory Coast to the southwest. It covers an area of 274,223 km (105,878 sq mi). In 2021, the country had an estimated population of approximately 23,674,480. Previously called the Republic of Upper Volta (1958–1984), it was renamed Burkina Faso by former president Thomas Sankara . Its citizens are known as Burkinabè , and its capital and largest city

3360-657: Is a member of the United Nations , La Francophonie and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . On 18 January 2024, Burkina Faso announced its exit from ECOWAS and the African Union . Formerly the Republic of Upper Volta , the country was renamed "Burkina Faso" on 4 August 1984 by then-President Thomas Sankara . The words "Burkina" and "Faso" stem from different languages spoken in the country: "Burkina" comes from Mooré and means "upright", showing how

3480-559: Is also an important component of achieving water security. Improving access to WASH services can improve health, life expectancy, student learning, gender equality , and other important issues of international development . It can also assist with poverty reduction and socio-economic development. Health impacts resulting from a lack of safe sanitation systems fall into three categories: The WHO has investigated which proportion of death and disease worldwide can be attributed to insufficient WASH services. In their analysis they focus on

3600-399: Is another potential source for drinking water. People without access to safe, reliable, domestic water supplies face lower water security at specific times throughout the year due to cyclical changes in water quantity or quality. For example, where access to water on-premises is not available, drinking water quality at the point of use (PoU) can be much worse compared to the quality at

3720-527: Is called falaise de Banfora. There are three major rivers, the Red Volta , Black Volta and White Volta , which cuts through different valleys. Gold and quartz are common minerals found across the country, while manganese deposits are also common. The soil texture is porous and hence the yield is also poor. The average elevation is around 200 m (660 ft) to 300 m (980 ft) above mean sea level. Among West African countries, Burkino Faso has

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3840-404: Is debate about the exact dates when Burkina Faso's many ethnic groups arrived to the area. The Proto-Mossi arrived in the far eastern part of what is today Burkina Faso sometime between the 8th and 11th centuries, and accepted Islam as their religion in the 11th century. The Samo arrived around the 15th century. The Dogon lived in Burkina Faso's north and northwest regions until sometime in

3960-707: Is difficult due to a range of complicating factors. Scholars suggest a need for longer-term studies of technology efficacy, greater analysis of sanitation interventions, and studies of the combined effects of multiple interventions to better analyze WASH health outcomes. Access to WASH needs to be provided at the household level but also in non-household settings like schools, healthcare facilities , workplaces (including prisons ), temporary use settings, and for dislocated populations. In schools, group handwashing facilities can improve hygiene. Lack of WASH facilities at schools often prevents female students from attending school, thus reducing their educational achievements. It

4080-445: Is difficult to provide safely managed WASH services in urban slums . WASH systems can also fail quite soon after installation (e.g., leaking water distribution systems ). Further challenges include polluted water sources and the impacts of climate change on water security . Planning approaches for more reliable and equitable access to WASH include, for example, national WASH plans and monitoring, women's empowerment , and improving

4200-684: Is estimated that 263 million people worldwide spent over 30 minutes per round trip to collect water from an improved source. In sub-Saharan Africa, women and girls carry water containers for an average of three miles each day, spending 40 billion hours per year on water collection (walking to the water source, waiting in line, walking back). The time to collect water can come at the expense of education, income generating activities, cultural and political involvement, and rest and recreation. For example, in low-income areas of Nairobi , women carry 44 pound containers of water back to their homes, taking anywhere between an hour and several hours to wait and collect

4320-522: Is fully connected to unsafe WASH; its "population-attributable fraction" is estimated to be 100%. The connection between lack of WASH and burden of disease is primarily one of poverty and poor access in developing countries: "the WASH-attributable mortality rates were 42, 30, 4.4 and 3.7 deaths per 100 000 population in low-income, lower-middle income, upper-middle income and high-income countries, respectively." The regions most affected are in

4440-912: Is increasing in Sub-Saharan Africa as development programs work towards improving water access and strengthening resilience to climate change. In lower-income areas, groundwater supplies are typically installed without water quality treatment infrastructure or services. This practice is underpinned by an assumption that untreated groundwater is typically suitable for drinking due to the relative microbiological safety of groundwater compared to surface water; however, chemistry risks are largely disregarded. Chemical contaminants occur widely in groundwater that are used for drinking but are not regularly monitored. Example priority parameters are fluoride , arsenic , nitrate , or salinity . Sanitation systems are grouped into several types. The ladder of sanitation services includes (from lowest to highest): open defecation , unimproved , limited, basic, safely managed. A distinction

4560-402: Is made between sanitation facilities that are shared between two or more households (a "limited service") and those that are not shared (a "basic service"). The definition of improved sanitation facilities is facilities designed to hygienically separate excreta from human contact. With regards to toilets , improved sanitation includes the following kind of toilets: flush toilet , connection to

4680-410: Is not able to get 75 per cent of its planned budget in revenues for three years, the autonomy is taken off. The communes are administered by elected Mayors. The communes are stipulated to develop economic, social and cultural values of its citizens. A commune has financial autonomy and can interact with other communes, government agencies or international entities. Burkino Faso Burkina Faso

4800-472: Is primarily transmitted through fecal–oral routes . In 2011, infectious diarrhea resulted in about 0.7 million deaths in children under five years old and 250 million lost school days. This equates to about 2000 child deaths per day. Children suffering from diarrhea are more vulnerable to become underweight (due to stunted growth ). This makes them more vulnerable to other diseases such as acute respiratory infections and malaria . Chronic diarrhea can have

4920-530: Is the "Proportion of population using safely managed drinking water services." In 2017, 844 million people still lacked even a basic drinking water service. In 2019, it was reported that 435 million people used unimproved sources for their drinking water, and 144 million still used surface waters, such as lakes and streams. Drinking water can be sourced from the following water sources : surface water , groundwater , or rainwater, in each case after collection, treatment, and distribution. Desalinated seawater

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5040-404: Is the storage, collection, transport, treatment, and safe end use or disposal of fecal sludge. Fecal sludge is defined very broadly as what accumulates in onsite sanitation systems (e.g. pit latrines , septic tanks and container-based solutions) and specifically is not transported through a sewer . Sanitation workers are the people needed for cleaning, maintaining, operating, or emptying

5160-402: Is today Burkina Faso. At times these colonialists and their armies fought the local peoples; at times they forged alliances with them and made treaties. The colonialist officers and their home governments also made treaties among themselves. The territory of Burkina Faso was invaded by France , becoming a French protectorate in 1896. The eastern and western regions, where a standoff against

5280-716: Is transmitted via worm eggs in feces which in turn contaminate soil in areas where sanitation is poor. An integrated approach to NTDs and WASH benefits both sectors and the communities they are aiming to serve. This is especially true in areas that are endemic with more than one NTD. Since 2015, the World Health Organization (WHO) has a global strategy and action plan to integrate WASH with other public health interventions in order to accelerate elimination of NTDs. The plan aimed to intensify control or eliminate certain NTDs in specific regions by 2020. It refers to

5400-455: Is usually from October to May and rains are common during the wet season from June to September. The northern regions are generally arid and usually have scrub land and semi-deserts. The average rainfall in the region is around 25 cm (9.8 in) compared with southern regions that receive only 100 cm (39 in) rainfall. The region has dry conditions but extreme events ( flooding and drought ) also occur frequently. As of 2019,

5520-585: The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank . His domestic policies included a nationwide literacy campaign, land redistribution to peasants, railway and road construction and the outlawing of female genital mutilation , forced marriages and polygamy . Sankara pushed for agrarian self-sufficiency and promoted public health by vaccinating 2,500,000 children against meningitis , yellow fever , and measles . His national agenda also included planting over 10,000,000 trees to halt

5640-470: The Middle East . Women and girls usually bear the responsibility for collecting water, which is often very time-consuming and arduous, and can also be dangerous for them. Women and girls who collect water may also face physical assault and sexual assault along the way ( violence against women ). This includes vulnerability to rape when collecting water from distant areas, domestic violence over

5760-489: The Mooré language is spoken by over half the population. The country's territory is geographically biodiverse, and includes plentiful reserves of gold , manganese , copper and limestone . Due to its multicultural make-up, Burkinabè art has a rich and long history, and is globally renowned for its orthodox style. The country is governed as a semi-presidential republic , with executive, legislative and judicial powers. It

5880-530: The climate resilience of WASH services. Adaptive capacity in water management systems can help to absorb some of the impacts of climate-related events and increase climate resilience. Stakeholders at various scales, i.e., from small urban utilities to national governments, need to have access to reliable information about the regional climate and any expected changes due to climate change . The concept of WASH groups together water supply i.e. access to drinking water services, sanitation , and hygiene because

6000-546: The human right to water and sanitation , reducing the burden of collecting drinking water for women, and improving education and health outcomes at schools and health facilities. Access to WASH services is also an important component of water security . Universal, affordable, and sustainable access to WASH is a key issue within international development and is the focus of the first two targets of Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6). Targets 6.1 and 6.2 aim for equitable and accessible water and sanitation for all. In 2017, it

6120-519: The 15th or 16th centuries, and many of the other ethnic groups that make up the country's population arrived in the region during this time. During the Middle Ages , the Mossi established several separate kingdoms including those of Tenkodogo, Yatenga, Zandoma, and Ouagadougou. Sometime between 1328 and 1338, Mossi warriors raided Timbuktu but the Mossi were defeated by Sonni Ali of Songhai at

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6240-465: The 1970s as president of military or mixed civil-military governments. Lamizana's rule coincided with the beginning of the Sahel drought and famine which had a devastating impact on Upper Volta and neighboring countries. After conflict over the 1976 constitution, a new constitution was written and approved in 1977. Lamizana was re-elected by open elections in 1978. Lamizana's government faced problems with

6360-461: The 3rd to the 13th centuries CE, the Iron Age Bura culture existed in the territory of present-day southeastern Burkina Faso and southwestern Niger. Various ethnic groups of present-day Burkina Faso, such as the Mossi , Fula and Dioula , arrived in successive waves between the 8th and 15th centuries. From the 11th century, the Mossi people established several separate kingdoms . There

6480-675: The Associated Press reported that according to the government of Burkina Faso, gunmen killed at least 100 people in Solhan village in northern Burkina Faso near the Niger border. A local market and several homes were also burned down. A government spokesman blamed jihadists. Heni Nsaibia, senior researcher at the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data Project said it was the deadliest attack recorded in Burkina Faso since

6600-861: The Battle of Kobi in Mali in 1483. During the early 16th century, the Songhai conducted many slave raids into what is today Burkina Faso. During the 18th century, the Gwiriko Empire was established at Bobo Dioulasso and ethnic groups such as the Dyan, Lobi, and Birifor settled along the Black Volta . Starting in the early 1890s during the European Scramble for Africa , a series of European military officers made attempts to claim parts of what

6720-638: The Council of Popular Salvation (CSP) in the 1982 Upper Voltan coup d'état . The CSP continued to ban political parties and organizations, yet promised a transition to civilian rule and a new constitution. Infighting developed between the right and left factions of the CSP. The leader of the leftists, Capt. Thomas Sankara , was appointed prime minister in January 1983, but was subsequently arrested. Efforts to free him, directed by Capt. Blaise Compaoré , resulted in

6840-717: The French Union. On 5 August 1960, it attained full independence from France . The first president, Maurice Yaméogo , was the leader of the Voltaic Democratic Union (UDV). The 1960 constitution provided for election by universal suffrage of a president and a national assembly for five-year terms. Soon after coming to power, Yaméogo banned all political parties other than the UDV. The government lasted until 1966. After much unrest, including mass demonstrations and strikes by students, labor unions, and civil servants,

6960-687: The French embassy in Ouagadougou as well as the general staff of the Burkinabè army. Eight soldiers and eight attackers were killed, and a further 61 soldiers and 24 civilians were injured. The insurgency expanded to the east of the country and, in early October, the Armed Forces of Burkina Faso launched a major military operation in the country's East, supported by French forces. According to Human Rights Watch , between mid-2018 to February 2019, at least 42 people were murdered by jihadists and

7080-492: The Islamic Maghreb and Al-Mourabitoune , which until then had mostly operated in neighbouring Mali , claimed responsibility for the attack. In 2016, attacks increased after a new group Ansarul Islam , led by imam Ibrahim Malam Dicko , was founded. Its attacks focused particularly on Soum province and it killed dozens of people in the attack on Nassoumbou on 16 December. Between 27 March – 10 April 2017,

7200-697: The NTD roadmap milestones that included for example eradication of dracunculiasis by 2015 and of yaws by 2020, elimination of trachoma and lymphatic filariasis as public health problems by 2020, intensified control of dengue , schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiases. The plan consists of four strategic objectives: improving awareness of benefits of joint WASH and NTD actions; monitoring WASH and NTD actions to track progress; strengthening evidence of how to deliver effective WASH interventions; and planning, delivering and evaluating WASH and NTD programs with involvement of all stakeholders . Women tend to face

7320-580: The Nouaho sub-basin in 2021 found that "Water was described as inadequate every year between November and June, and respondents perceived lower water availability during the dry season compared with 10–20 years ago due to changes in climate, migrants to the area, growing populations, and increased numbers of animals." There are usually long wait times for people (mainly women) who are collecting water from improved water sources (boreholes with hand pumps). The travel and wait time for collecting water from boreholes

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7440-475: The Nouaho sub-basin, with around 66% of the population using open defecation instead of toilets (as of 2021). Burkina Faso gained independence from France in 1960. It was originally called Upper Volta. There have been military coups until 1983 when Captain Thomas Sankara took control and implemented radical left wing policies. He was ousted by Blaise Compaore, who continued for 27 years until 2014, when

7560-517: The Revolution youth programme was also established. Sankara launched an ambitious socioeconomic programme for change, one of the largest ever undertaken on the African continent. His foreign policies centred on anti-imperialism , with his government rejecting all foreign aid , pushing for odious debt reduction, nationalising all land and mineral wealth and averting the power and influence of

7680-1099: The WHO Africa and South-East Asia regions. Here, between 66% and 76% of the diarrheal disease burden could be prevented if access to safe WASH services was provided. Most of the diseases resulting from lack of sanitation have a direct relation to poverty. For example, open defecation – which is the most extreme form of "lack of sanitation" – is a major factor in causing various diseases, most notably diarrhea and intestinal worm infections . An earlier report by World Health Organization which analyzed data up to 2016 had found higher values: "The WASH-attributable disease burden amounts to 3.3% of global deaths and 4.6% of global DALYs. Among children under 5 years, WASH-attributable deaths represent 13% of deaths and 12% of DALYs. Worldwide, 1.9 million deaths and 123 million DALYs could have been prevented in 2016 with adequate WASH." An even earlier study from 2002 had estimated even higher values, namely that up to 5 million people die each year from preventable waterborne diseases . These changes in

7800-408: The available data with the following key findings: "In 2019, use of safe WASH services could have prevented the loss of at least 1.4 million lives and 74 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) from four health outcomes. This represents 2.5% of all deaths and 2.9% of all DALYs globally." Of the four health outcomes studied, it was diarrheal disease that had the most striking correlation, namely

7920-406: The beginning of the jihadist insurgency. WASH WASH (or Watsan , WaSH ; stemming from the first letters of "water, sanitation and hygiene") is a sector in development cooperation or within local governments that provides water , sanitation , and hygiene services to people. The main purposes of providing access to WASH services include achieving public health gains, implementing

8040-620: The colonial period in Dakar. The indigenous population was highly discriminated against. For example, African children were not allowed to ride bicycles or pick fruit from trees, "privileges" reserved for the children of colonists. Violating these regulations could land parents in jail. Draftees from the territory participated in the European fronts of World War I in the battalions of the Senegalese Rifles . Between 1915 and 1916,

8160-539: The colony of Upper Volta, with its previous boundaries, as a part of the French Union . The French designated its colonies as departments of metropolitan France on the European continent. On 11 December 1958 the colony achieved self-government as the Republic of Upper Volta ; it joined the Franco-African Community. A revision in the organization of French Overseas Territories had begun with

8280-412: The constitution and extend his 27-year rule. On 30 October some protesters set fire to the parliament building and took over the national TV headquarters. Ouagadougou International Airport closed and MPs suspended the vote on changing the constitution (the change would have allowed Compaoré to stand for re-election in 2015). Later in the day, the military dissolved all government institutions and imposed

8400-436: The constitutional council ruled that, because Compaoré was the sitting president in 2000, the amendment would not apply to him until the end of his second term in office. This cleared the way for his candidacy in the 2005 election . On 13 November 2005, he was reelected in a landslide, because of a divided political opposition. In the 2010 presidential election , Compaoré was re-elected. Only 1.6 million Burkinabè voted, out of

8520-519: The country back into the IMF fold, and ultimately spurned most of Sankara's legacy. Following an alleged coup-attempt in 1989 , Compaoré introduced limited democratic reforms in 1990. Under the new (1991) constitution , Compaoré was re-elected without opposition in December 1991. In 1998 Compaoré won election in a landslide. In 2004, 13 people were tried for plotting a coup against President Compaoré and

8640-447: The country has been subject to instability, droughts , famines and corruption. There have also been various coups , in 1966 , 1980 , 1982 , 1983 , 1987 , and twice in 2022 ( January and September ). There were also unsuccessful coup attempts in 1989 , 2015 , and 2023 . Thomas Sankara came to power following a successful coup in 1983. As president, Sankara embarked on a series of ambitious socioeconomic reforms which included

8760-558: The country until his removal on 31 October 2014 . Since the mid-2010s, Burkina Faso has been severely affected by the rise of insurgencies in the Sahel. Several militias , partly allied with the Islamic State (IS) or al-Qaeda , operate in Burkina Faso and across the border in Mali and Niger . More than one million of the country's 21 million inhabitants are internally displaced persons . Burkina Faso's military seized power in

8880-515: The country's traditionally powerful trade unions, and on 25 November 1980, Col. Saye Zerbo overthrew President Lamizana in a bloodless coup . Colonel Zerbo established the Military Committee of Recovery for National Progress as the supreme governmental authority, thus eradicating the 1977 constitution. Colonel Zerbo also encountered resistance from trade unions and was overthrown two years later by Maj. Dr. Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo and

9000-484: The coup's alleged mastermind was sentenced to life imprisonment. In 2000, the constitution was amended to reduce the presidential term to five years and set term limits to two, preventing successive re-election. The amendment took effect during the 2005 elections. If passed beforehand, it would have prevented Compaoré from being reelected. Other presidential candidates challenged the election results. But in October 2005,

9120-442: The coup. There is some evidence for France's support of the coup. Compaoré gave the deterioration in relations with neighbouring countries as one of the reasons for the coup. He argued that Sankara had jeopardised foreign relations with the former colonial power ( France ) and with neighbouring Ivory Coast . Following the coup, Compaoré immediately reversed the nationalizations, overturned nearly all of Sankara's policies, returned

9240-483: The districts in the western part of what is now Burkina Faso and the bordering eastern fringe of Mali became the stage of one of the most important armed oppositions to colonial government: the Volta-Bani War . The French government finally suppressed the movement but only after suffering defeats. It also had to organize its largest expeditionary force of its colonial history to send into the country to suppress

9360-652: The estimates of death and disease can partly be explained by the progress that has been achieved in some countries in improving access to WASH. For example, several large Asian countries ( China , India , Indonesia ) have managed to increase the "safely managed sanitation services" in their country from the year 2015 to 2020 by more than 10% points. There are at least the following twelve diseases which are more likely to occur when WASH services are inadequate: There are also other diseases where adverse health outcomes are likely to be linked to inadequate WASH but which are not yet quantified. These include for example: Diarrhea

9480-441: The excreta; injuries related to the physical effort of extracting and transporting the waste, including falls from height ; injuries related to cuts from non-fecal waste (e.g. glass or needles) disposed of down the toilet. There are also the general dangers of working in confined spaces , including lack of oxygen. Global climate change can increase the health risks for some of the infectious diseases mentioned above, see below in

9600-411: The following four health outcomes: diarrhea , acute respiratory infections , malnutrition , and soil-transmitted Helminthiasis (STHs). These health outcomes are also included as an indicator for achieving Sustainable Development Goal 3 ("Good Health and Well-being"): Indicator 3.9.2 reports on the "mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, sanitation, and lack of hygiene". In 2023, WHO summarized

9720-483: The forces of the powerful ruler Samori Ture complicated the situation, came under French occupation in 1897. By 1898, the majority of the territory corresponding to Burkina Faso was nominally conquered; however, French control of many parts remained uncertain. The Franco-British Convention of 14 June 1898 created the country's modern borders. In the French territory, a war of conquest against local communities and political powers continued for about five years. In 1904,

9840-614: The governments of Mali , France, and Burkina Faso launched a joint operation named " Operation Panga ", which involved 1,300 soldiers from the three countries, in the Fhero Forest, near the Burkina Faso-Mali border , considered a sanctuary for Ansarul Islam. The head of Ansarul Islam, Ibrahim Malam Dicko, was killed in June 2017 and Jafar Dicko became leader. On 2 March 2018, Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin attacked

9960-493: The growing desertification of the Sahel . Sankara called on every village to build a medical dispensary and had over 350 communities build schools with their own labour. In the 1980s, when ecological awareness was still very low, Sankara was one of the few African leaders to consider environmental protection a priority. He engaged in three major battles: against bush fires "which will be considered as crimes and will be punished as such"; against cattle roaming "which infringes on

10080-477: The highest number of "attributable burden of disease": over 1 million deaths and 55 million DALYs from diarrheal diseases was linked with lack of WASH. Of these deaths, 564,000 deaths were linked to unsafe sanitation in particular. Acute respiratory infections was the second largest cause of WASH-attributable burden of disease in 2019, followed by malnutrition and soil-transmitted helminthiasis . The latter does not lead to such high death numbers (in comparison) but

10200-604: The honest men ; (the literal translation is land of the upright men ). The presidential decree was confirmed by the National Assembly on 4 August 1984. Sankara's government comprised the National Council for the Revolution (CNR – French : Conseil national révolutionnaire ), with Sankara as its president, and established popular Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDRs). The Pioneers of

10320-414: The impact of deficiencies in each area overlap strongly. WASH consists of access to drinking water services, sanitation services and hygiene. As stated by WHO and UNICEF , a safe drinking water service is one that is located in an accessible location, available to those who need it when needed, and uncontaminated. WHO and UNICEF also uses the terms improved water source and unimproved water source as

10440-716: The inability to urinate easily outside of an unclean stall or where no toilets are nearby, and due to the effects of menstruation beginning during puberty. These effects include low participation in the labor market and community activities, adverse biomedical outcomes, psychosocial stress, and poor educational outcomes. Women and girls often bear higher health and social costs associated with water and sanitation insecurity than men and boys, such as higher exposure to water-related disease, discriminatory taboos, and unrealized economic productivity. The lack of accessible, sufficient, clean and affordable water supply has adverse impacts specifically related to women in developing nations . It

10560-610: The insurrection. Armed opposition wracked the Sahelian north when the Tuareg and allied groups of the Dori region ended their truce with the government. French Upper Volta was established on 1 March 1919. The French feared a recurrence of armed uprising and had related economic considerations. To bolster its administration, the colonial government separated the present territory of Burkina Faso from Upper Senegal and Niger. The new colony

10680-667: The largely pacified territories of the Volta basin were integrated into the Upper Senegal and Niger colony of French West Africa as part of the reorganization of the French West African colonial empire. The colony had its capital in Bamako . The language of colonial administration and schooling became French. The public education system started from humble origins. Advanced education was provided for many years during

10800-467: The largest elephant population and the country is replete with game reserves. The principal river is the Red Volta, that originates in the northern region and drains into Ghana . The areas near the rivers usually have flies like tsetse and similium, which are carriers of sleep sickness and river blindness. The climate is generally hot, with unreliable rains across different seasons. The dry season

10920-493: The military intervened. The 1966 military coup deposed Yaméogo, suspended the constitution, dissolved the National Assembly, and placed Lt. Col. Sangoulé Lamizana at the head of a government of senior army officers. The army remained in power for four years. On 14 June 1976, the Voltans ratified a new constitution that established a four-year transition period toward complete civilian rule. Lamizana remained in power throughout

11040-445: The needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations." This target has one indicator: Indicator 6.2.1 is the "proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water". In 2017, 4.5 billion people did not have toilets at home that could safely manage waste, despite improvements in access to sanitation over the past decades. Approximately 600 million people share

11160-493: The passage of the Basic Law (Loi Cadre) of 23 July 1956. This act was followed by reorganization measures approved by the French parliament early in 1957 to ensure a large degree of self-government for individual territories. Upper Volta became an autonomous republic in the French community on 11 December 1958. Full independence from France was received in 1960. The Republic of Upper Volta (French: République de Haute-Volta )

11280-525: The people are proud of their integrity, while "Faso" comes from the Dioula language (as written in N'Ko : ߝߊ߬ߛߏ߫ faso ) and means "fatherland" (literally, "father's house"). The "-bé" suffix added onto "Burkina" to form the demonym "Burkinabé" comes from the Fula language and means "women or men". The CIA summarizes the etymology as "land of the honest (incorruptible) men". The French Colony of Upper Volta

11400-625: The plan Michel Kafando became the transitional president and Lt. Col. Zida became the acting Prime Minister and Defense Minister. On 16 September 2015, the Regiment of Presidential Security (RSP) carried out a coup d'état , seizing the president and prime minister and then declaring the National Council for Democracy the new national government. However, on 22 September 2015, the coup leader, Gilbert Diendéré , apologized and promised to restore civilian government. On 23 September 2015

11520-420: The planting of wooded strips about fifty kilometers wide, crossing the country from east to west. Cereal production, close to 1.1 billion tons before 1983, was predicted to rise to 1.6 billion tons in 1987. Jean Ziegler, former UN special rapporteur for the right to food, said that the country "had become food self-sufficient." On 15 October 1987, Sankara and twelve other government officials were assassinated in

11640-401: The point of collection (PoC). Correct household practices around hygiene, storage, and treatment are therefore important. There are interactions between weather, water source, and management, and these in turn impact drinking water safety. Groundwater provides critical freshwater supply, particularly in dry regions where surface water availability is limited. Globally, more than one-third of

11760-412: The population of the region was 1,578,075 with 53.5% females. The population in the region was 7.7% of the total population of the country. The child mortality rate was 39, infant mortality rate was 56 and the mortality of children under five was 93. As of 2007, among the working population, there were 68.9% employees, 11.9% under employed, 18.2% inactive people, 19.2% not working and 1% unemployed people in

11880-746: The portion of malnutrition that is caused by infectious diseases which are in turn caused by unsafe WASH practices. Based on expert opinions and a literature survey, researchers at WHO arrived at the conclusion that approximately half of all cases of malnutrition (which often leads to stunting) in children under five is associated with repeated diarrhea or intestinal worm infections as a result of unsafe water, inadequate sanitation or insufficient hygiene. Water, sanitation and hygiene interventions help to prevent many neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), for example soil-transmitted helminthiasis . Approximately two billion people are infected with soil-transmitted helminths worldwide. This type of intestinal worm infection

12000-575: The prime minister and interim president were restored to power. General elections took place on 29 November 2015. Roch Marc Christian Kaboré won the election in the first round with 53.5% of the vote, defeating businessman Zéphirin Diabré , who took 29.7%. Kaboré was sworn in as president on 29 December 2015. Kaboré was re-elected in the general election of 22 November 2020 , but his party Mouvement du Peuple pour le Progrès (MPP), failed to reach absolute parliamentary majority. It secured 56 seats out of

12120-429: The probability of severe drought occurrence. The anthropogenic effects on groundwater resources are mainly due to groundwater pumping and the indirect effects of irrigation and land use changes. Groundwater plays a central role in sustaining water supplies and livelihoods in sub-Saharan Africa . In some cases, groundwater is an additional water source that was not used previously. Reliance on groundwater

12240-550: The promotion of handwashing, appear to be especially effective in reducing morbidity. A meta-analysis of the literature found that handwashing interventions reduced the relative risk of diarrhea by approximately 40%. Similarly, handwashing promotion has been found to be associated with a 47% decrease in morbidity. However, a challenge with WASH behavioral intervention studies is an inability to ensure compliance with such interventions, especially when studies rely on self-reporting of disease rates. This prevents researchers from concluding

12360-480: The reduction in total mortality and over three-quarters of the reduction in infant mortality. Distributing chlorine products, or other water disinfectants, for use in the home may reduce instances of diarrhea. However, most studies on water quality improvement interventions suffer from residual confounding or poor adherence to the mechanism being studied. For instance, a study conducted in Nepal found that adherence to

12480-467: The region. In the rural communities in the sub-basin Nouaho sub-basin, which is part of the larger Nakanbé basin, there are several ethnic groups: the Mossi (mainly agriculturalists who are now (as of 2021) also moving towards livestock production), and the Peul (mainly pastoralists who are now also turning to growing crops). As of 2007, the literacy rate in the region was 16.6 per cent, compared with

12600-412: The rights of peoples because unattended animals destroy nature"; and against the illegitimate cutting of firewood "whose profession will have to be organized and regulated". As part of a development program involving a large part of the population, ten million trees were planted in Burkina Faso in fifteen months during the revolution. To face the advancing desert and recurrent droughts, Sankara also proposed

12720-505: The same figure was estimated as 1.5 million children. The combination of direct and indirect deaths from malnutrition caused by unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) practices was estimated by the World Health Organization in 2008 to lead to 860,000 deaths per year in children under five years of age. The multiple interdependencies between malnutrition and infectious diseases make it very difficult to quantify

12840-797: The section on negative impacts of climate change . There is debate in the academic literature about the effectiveness on health outcomes when implementing WASH programs in low- and middle-income countries. Many studies provide poor quality evidence on the causal impact of WASH programs on health outcomes of interest. The nature of WASH interventions is such that high quality trials, such as randomized controlled trials (RCTs), are expensive, difficult and in many cases not ethical. Causal impact from such studies are thus prone to being biased due to residual confounding. Blind studies of WASH interventions also pose ethical challenges and difficulties associated with implementing new technologies or behavioral changes without participant's knowledge. Moreover, scholars suggest

12960-479: The use of chlorine tablets or chlorine solution to purify water was as low as 18.5% among program households. A study on a water well chlorination program in Guinea-Bissau in 2008 reported that families stopped treating water within their households because of the program which consequently increased their risk of cholera . It was concluded that well chlorination without proper promotion and education led to

13080-439: The water used originates from underground. In the mid-latitude arid and semi-arid regions lacking sufficient surface water supply from rivers and reservoirs, groundwater is critical for sustaining global ecology and meeting societal needs of drinking water and food production. The demand for groundwater is rapidly increasing with population growth, while climate change is imposing additional stress on water resources and raising

13200-635: The water. In many places of the world, getting and providing water is considered "women's work," so gender and water access are intricately linked. Water gathering and supply to family units remains primarily a woman's task in less developed countries where water gathering is considered a main chore. This water work is also largely unpaid household work based on patriarchal gender norms and often related to domestic work, such as laundry, cooking and childcare. Areas that rely on women to primarily collect water include countries in Africa , South Asia and in

13320-533: The world's population live without basic hand washing facilities with soap and water at home. The purposes of providing access to WASH services include achieving public health gains, improving human dignity in the case of sanitation , implementing the human right to water and sanitation , reducing the burden of collecting drinking water for women, reducing risks of violence against women , improving education and health outcomes at schools and health facilities, and reducing water pollution . Access to WASH services

13440-528: Was 28, first set of two-wheeler traffic was 2,258 and the total classified road network was 941. The total corn produced during 2015 was 78,512 tonnes, cotton was 43,308 tonnes, cowpea was 45,678 tonnes, ground nut was 42,492 tonnes, millet was 42,342 tonnes, rice was 66,104 tonnes and sorghum was 118,227 tonnes. The coverage of cereal need compared with the total production of the region was 158.00 per cent. A study that investigated water security of households and women's vulnerability to climate-related risks in

13560-522: Was about twice as long in the dry season (70 minutes round trip) compared to the rainy season (36 minutes). Dug wells are also used but have a poorer water quality. The area has water user associations to manage the operation and maintenance of boreholes and to interact with local authorities. They charge an annual fee to their users "ranging from 500–1000 CFA (1-2 USD) for women and 1000–2000 CFA (2-4 USD) for men, as well as fees for children and animals in some cases". Sanitation facilities are very poor in

13680-614: Was an Iron-Age civilization centred in the southwest portion of modern-day Niger and in the southeast part of contemporary Burkina Faso. Iron industry , in smelting and forging for tools and weapons, had developed in Sub-Saharan Africa by 1200 BCE. To date, the oldest evidence of iron smelting found in Burkina Faso dates from 800 to 700 BCE and forms part of the Ancient Ferrous Metallurgy World Heritage Site. From

13800-611: Was an army mutiny ; the president named new chiefs of staff, and a curfew was imposed in Ouagadougou . Compaoré's government played the role of negotiator in several West-African disputes, including the 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis , the Inter-Togolese Dialogue (2007), and the 2012 Malian Crisis . As of 2014 , Burkina Faso remained one of the least-developed countries in the world. Starting on 28 October 2014 protesters began to march and demonstrate in Ouagadougou against President Compaoré, who appeared ready to amend

13920-413: Was dismantled on 5 September 1932, being split between the French colonies of Ivory Coast , French Sudan and Niger . Ivory Coast received the largest share, which contained most of the population as well as the cities of Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso. France reversed this change during the period of intense anti-colonial agitation that followed the end of World War II . On 4 September 1947, it revived

14040-532: Was established on 11 December 1958 as a self-governing colony within the French Community . The name Upper Volta related to the nation's location along the upper reaches of the Volta River . The river's three tributaries are called the Black , White and Red Volta . These were expressed in the three colors of the former national flag . Before attaining autonomy, it had been French Upper Volta and part of

14160-405: Was estimated that 2.3 billion people live without basic sanitation facilities, and 844 million people live without access to safe and clean drinking water. The acronym WASH is used widely by non-governmental organizations and aid agencies in developing countries . The WASH-attributable burden of disease and injuries has been studied in depth. Typical diseases and conditions associated with

14280-426: Was named Haute Volta for its location on the upper courses of the Volta River (the Black , Red and White Volta ), and François Charles Alexis Édouard Hesling became its first governor . Hesling initiated an ambitious road-making program to improve infrastructure and promoted the growth of cotton for export. The cotton policy – based on coercion – failed, and revenue generated by the colony stagnated. The colony

14400-446: Was named for its location on the upper courses of the Volta River (the Black , Red and White Volta ). The northwestern part of present-day Burkina Faso was populated by hunter-gatherers from 14,000 BCE to 5,000 BCE. Their tools, including scrapers , chisels and arrowheads , were discovered in 1973 through archaeological excavations . Agricultural settlements were established between 3600 and 2600 BCE. The Bura culture

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