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75-494: A centurion was promoted for being an exemplary soldier and was then expected to become a strict commander of his subordinates, to lead his troops by example, and coordinate his century's actions. They were also responsible for handling logistics and supplies, as well as any discipline that was required. In a Roman legion , centuries were grouped into cohorts and commanded by a senior centurion. The prestigious first cohort (a formation of five double-strength centuries of 160 men each)

150-493: A cohort . Later, generals and emperors further manipulated these numbers with double and half-strength units. Julius Caesar , for instance, made the first cohort of five double strength centuries. During the Imperial era, centurions gradually rose in seniority in their cohort, commanding centuries with higher precedence, until commanding the senior century and therefore the whole cohort. The best centurions were then promoted to

225-512: A constitutional crisis . This crisis and the civil wars which followed brought an end to the Republic and led to the foundation of the Empire under Augustus in 27 BC. Generals, during the recent Republican civil wars, had formed their own legions and numbered them as they wished. During this time, there was a high incidence of Gemina (twin) legions, where two legions were consolidated into

300-622: A Germanic alliance led by Arminius in the Varian Disaster (September 9, AD 9) and never raised again by the Romans thereafter. Quintili Vare, legiones redde! ( Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions! ) Almost nothing is known about the legion of the Roman Kingdom period that could have included 1000 men from each of the three original Roman tribes . The earliest surviving detailed description comes from Polybius , who

375-410: A Roman legion. This was later changed to nine cohorts of standard size (with six centuries at 80 men each) with the first cohort being of double strength (five double-strength centuries with 160 men each). By the fourth century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. This had come about as the large formation legion and auxiliary unit, 10,000 men,

450-612: A commander, a centurion had to be able to maintain his troops’ morale in peace and inspire his men in battle. Matthew's Gospel and Luke's Gospel relate an incident in which a servant of a centurion based in Capernaum was ill. In the Gospel of Luke, the centurion concerned had a good relationship with the elders of the local Jewish population and had funded the development of the synagogue in Capernaum, and when he heard that Jesus

525-591: A crushing defeat at the Battle of the Allia , in 387 BC the military structure was reformed. Under the Camillan system the legions were initially structured based on social class, with the poorest being the first line of the formation. The legionaries most often fought with hastae (spears) and scuta (large rectangular shields) in a checkered maniple formation with assistance from skirmishers. The exception to this

600-464: A first cohort. Yet for centurions who showed, say, particularly conspicuous bravery during battle, there was the opportunity to be promoted several grades at once. For example, Julius Caesar's reward for a centurion who had greatly pleased him was to advance him eight grades. The precedence during the times of the Republican manipular legion had each centurio command a centuria of sixty men within

675-399: A legion was known as the primus pilus ( lit. "first maniple " ), who directly commanded the first century of the first cohort and commanded the whole first cohort when in battle. Within the second to tenth cohorts, the commander of each cohort's first century was known as a pilus prior and was in command of his entire cohort when in battle. The seniority of the pilus prior centurions

750-674: A loud voice for another… and another...and another!" The vine-stick ( vitis ) was a symbol of the centurion's authority and the implement with which he meted out punishment. Unlike legionaries, centurions carried their swords on their left side as a sign of distinction and carried the pugio (dagger) on the right, as the sidearm. Centurions wore transverse crests on their helmets that would distinguish them from other legionaries. Centurions often had important social status and held powerful positions in society. They seem to have received their status according to their rank. On retirement, they could be eligible for employment as lictors . Each century had

825-401: A manipulus (maniple) of two centuriae which was commanded by the senior centurio. Their order in decreasing seniority but opposite battle order; Of the centuriae of a manipulus of Triarii; Of the centuriae of a manipulus of Principes; Of the centuriae of a manipulus of Hastati; For the Imperial and late Republican legion (post 107 BC) the first centuria of every cohors was its senior, with

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900-482: A military career; they were not paid well, their primary form of income being what they could loot from the battlefield, and were simply called upon when needed and returned to their civilian lives when they were no longer required. In terms of organization and function, the early Republican era military was inherited from the Etruscans and seemingly influenced by the ancient Greek and Macedonian phalanx . After

975-751: A number of organisational changes, the legion system survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire . It was continued within the Eastern Roman Empire until the 7th century, when reforms begun by Emperor Heraclius to supply the increasing need for soldiers resulted in the Theme system . Despite this, the Eastern Roman armies continued to be influenced by the earlier Roman legions, and were maintained with similar levels of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization. Aside from

1050-429: A precedence within the cohort. Centurions' seniority within the cohort and legion depended on the position within the legion of the century they were in charge of, which often took their name from their centurion. Centurions began by leading junior centuries before being promoted to leading a more senior one. Promotion usually came with experience, or at least length of service, but many still never made it as far as leading

1125-452: A single organisation (and was later made official and put under a legatus and six duces ). At the end of the civil war against Mark Antony , Augustus was left with around fifty legions, with several double counts (multiple Legio Xs for instance). For political and economic reasons, Augustus reduced the number of legions to 28 (which diminished to 25 after the Battle of Teutoburg Forest , in which three legions were completely destroyed by

1200-462: A sizeable supplement to their regular pay. All legionary soldiers would also receive a praemia ( veterans' benefits ) on completion of their term of service of 25 years or more: a sizeable sum of money (3,000 denarii from the time of Augustus ) and/or a plot of good farmland (good land was in much demand); farmland given to veterans often helped in establishing control of the frontier regions and over rebellious provinces. Later, under Caracalla ,

1275-411: A small ala , or cavalry unit. By the third century AD, the legion was a much smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them. In the fourth century AD, East Roman border guard legions ( limitanei ) may have become even smaller. In terms of organization and function, the republican era legion may have been influenced by the ancient Greek and Macedonian phalanx . For most of

1350-485: A story in The Annals of a centurion known as "Cedo Alteram", which roughly translates to "Fetch Me Another". "The mutinous soldiers thrust out the tribunes and the camp-prefect; they plundered the baggage of the fugitives, and then killed a centurion, Lucilius, to whom, with soldier's humour, they had given the nickname 'Cedo Alteram', because when he had broken one vine-stick across a soldier's back, he would call in

1425-419: A typical legion varied throughout the history of ancient Rome, with complements ranging from 4,200 legionaries and 300 equites (drawn from the wealthier classes – in early Rome all troops provided their own equipment) in the Republic, to 5,500 in the Imperial period, when most legions were led by a Roman Imperial Legate. A legion had 4,800 legionaries (in 10 cohorts of 6 centuries of 80 legionaries) from

1500-408: A year. However, the soldiers did not receive all the money in cash, as the state deducted a clothing and food tax from their pay. To this wage, a legionary on active campaign would hope to add the booty of war, from the bodies of their enemies and as plunder from enemy settlements. Slaves could also be claimed from the prisoners of war and divided amongst the legion for later sale, which would bring in

1575-552: Is considered by many to be the first Christian. In Luke's Gospel, the centurion at the cross said that Jesus was "innocent". The Book of Acts tells of a centurion named Cornelius whose righteous and generous acts find favor with God. The apostle Simon Peter is told in a vision to visit Cornelius, a Gentile , with whom association was not permitted under Jewish law. The encounter leads Simon Peter to understand that God accepts non-Jews who believe in God and repent. After this revelation,

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1650-568: Is often featured on Roman tombs of the 1st through 4th century as a symbol of a centurion's status. These monuments show a variety of forms. During the early Principate , it was usually straight with a rounded top; it later acquired a mushroom-shaped head, which was continued under the Byzantines . Less often, it appeared in knotted and sinuous forms. One centurion gave his vine staff to the Temple of Jupiter at Heliopolis (modern Baalbek ) as

1725-425: Is undocumented and shrouded in myths, but those myths tell that during the rule of Servius Tullius , the census (from Latin : censeō – accounting of the people) was introduced. With this all Roman able-bodied, property-owning male citizens were divided into five classes for military service based on their wealth and then organised into centuries as sub-units of the greater Roman army or legio (multitude). Joining

1800-546: The accensi , rorarii , and leves were replaced by the velites . Unit sizes were also expanded. Non-citizens or peregrini were also offered a position in the military as auxiliaries. The Republican legion evolved from 3,000 men in the Roman Republic to over 5,200 men in the Roman Empire , consisting of centuries as the basic units. Until the middle of the first century AD, ten cohorts made up

1875-862: The Germanics ). Beside streamlining the army, Augustus also regulated the soldiers' pay. At the same time, he greatly increased the number of auxiliaries to the point where they were equal in number to the legionaries. He also created the Praetorian Guard along with a permanent Roman navy where served the liberti , or freed slaves. The legions also became permanent at this time, and not recruited for particular campaigns. They were also allocated to static bases with permanent castra legionaria (legionary fortresses). Augustus' military policies proved sound and cost effective, and were generally followed by his successors. These emperors would carefully add new legions, as circumstances required or permitted, until

1950-656: The Middle Ages , the Byzantine army 's centurions were known by the name kentarch (Kentarches). In the Roman infantry , the centurions commanded a centuria or "century". During the Mid-Republic these centuries were grouped in pairs to make up a maniple , each century consisting of 30–60 men. After the so-called " Marian reforms ", a century was typically composed of around 80 men, with six such centuries forming

2025-613: The Notitia suggest that the process of creating new legions continued through the 4th century rather than being a single event. The names also suggest that many new legions were formed from vexillationes or from old legions. In addition, there were 24 vexillationes palatini, 73 vexillationes comitatenses ; 305 other units in the Eastern limitanei and 181 in the Western limitanei . A rare instance of apparent direct continuity between

2100-615: The Pannonian Mutiny . Generally, however, soldiers were expected to endure their punishments; seizing the vine staff was cause for demotion and breaking it or harming the centurion were offenses punishable by death. Some scholars state the vine staff was the instrument used to beat the Iceni queen Boadicca . St Marcellus the Centurion was martyred after he cast away his vine staff and repudiated his rank. The vine staff

2175-418: The praemia increased to 5,000 denarii . From 104 BC onwards, each legion used an aquila (eagle) as its standard symbol. The symbol was carried by an officer known as aquilifer , and its loss was considered to be a very serious embarrassment, and often led to the disbanding of the legion itself. Normally, this was because any legion incapable of regaining its eagle in battle was so severely mauled that it

2250-628: The Imperial era, the legions played an important political role. Their actions could secure the empire for a usurper or take it away. For example, the defeat of Vitellius in the Year of the Four Emperors was decided when the Danubian legions chose to support Vespasian . In the Empire, the legion was standardised, with symbols and an individual history where men were proud to serve. The legion

2325-616: The Imperial period, consisted mostly of auxiliaries rather than legions. Many of the legions founded before 40 BC were still active until at least the fifth century, notably Legio V Macedonica , which was founded by Augustus in 43 BC and was in Egypt in the seventh century during the Islamic conquest of Egypt . On the other hand, Legio XVII ("Seventeenth Legion"), Legio XVIII ("Eighteenth Legion") and Legio XIX ("Nineteenth Legion"), founded by Augustus around 41 BC, were destroyed by

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2400-530: The Later Roman Empire, the legion was reduced in size to 1,000 to allow for easier provisioning and to expand the regions under surveillance. Numbers would also vary depending on casualties suffered during a campaign; Julius Caesar 's legions during his campaign in Gaul often only had around 3,500 men. Tactics were not very different from the past, but their effectiveness was largely improved because of

2475-403: The Republic, when warfare was mostly concentrated on raiding, it is uncertain if the full manpower of the legions was summoned at any one time. In 494 BC, when three foreign threats emerged, the dictator Manius Valerius Maximus raised ten legions which Livy says was a greater number than had been raised previously at any one time. Also, some warfare was still conducted by Roman forces outside

2550-541: The Republic. In order of decreasing seniority; 1st Cohors, Centuriones known as the Primi Ordines 2nd Cohors and so on. Note that the Primi Ordines of the first cohors were senior to every centurio except for their Primus Pilus and the Pili Priori of the other first centuries. According to a 5th century text on the Roman military, a centurion was required to have numerous elite traits: The centurion in

2625-520: The Roman Imperial period, the legions formed the Roman army's elite heavy infantry , recruited exclusively from Roman citizens, while the remainder of the army consisted of auxiliaries , who provided additional infantry and the vast majority of the Roman cavalry (provincials who aspired to Roman citizenship gained it when honourably discharged from the auxiliaries). The Roman army, for most of

2700-408: The army was both a duty and a distinguishing mark of Roman citizenship; the wealthiest land owners performed the most years of military service. These individuals would have had the most to lose should the state have fallen. At some point after the overthrow of the Roman monarchy the legio was subdivided into two separate legions, each one ascribed to one of the two consuls . In the first years of

2775-443: The consular armies (two per consul), other units were levied by campaign. Rome's Italian allies were required to provide approximately ten cohorts (auxilia were not organised into legions) to support each Roman Legion. In the middle of the Republic, legions were composed of the following units: Each of these three lines was subdivided into (usually ten) chief tactical units called maniples . A maniple consisted of two centuries and

2850-455: The elite palatini , other legions called comitatenses and pseudocomitatenses , along with the auxilia palatina , provided the infantry of late Roman armies. The Notitia Dignitatum lists 25 legiones palatinae , 70 legiones comitatenses , 47 legiones pseudocomitatenses and 111 auxilia palatina in the field armies, and a further 47 legiones in the frontier armies. Legion names such as Honoriani and Gratianenses found in

2925-407: The enemy's wall or through the breach. The various centurion grades may be loosely compared to modern junior and middle officer grades. Below the centurions were the optiones , seconds-in-command of centuries. Centurions were held personally responsible for the training and discipline of the legionaries under their command, and they had a reputation for dealing out harsh punishment. Tacitus tells

3000-564: The enemy. His comrades, fearing disgrace, 'with one accord, leapt down from the ship' and were followed by troops from the other ships. With the birth of the Roman Empire, the legions created a bond with their leader, the emperor himself. Each legion had another officer, called imaginifer , whose role was to carry a pike with the imago (image, sculpture) of the emperor as pontifex maximus . Vine staff The vine staff , vine-staff , or centurion's staff ( Latin : vitis )

3075-550: The engineers, record-keepers, the praefectus castrorum (commander of the camp) and other specialists such as priests and musicians. In the Later Roman Empire , the number of legions was increased and the Roman army expanded. There is no evidence to suggest that legions changed in form before the Tetrarchy , although there is evidence that they were smaller than the paper strengths usually quoted. The final form of

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3150-476: The entire Roman army , but sources on this period are few and unreliable. The subsequent organisation of legions varied greatly over time but legions were typically composed of around five thousand soldiers. During much of the republican era , a legion was divided into three lines, each of ten maniples. In the late Republic and much of the imperial period (from about 100 BC), a legion was divided into ten cohorts, each of six (or five) centuries. Legions also included

3225-410: The first cohors following suit for the entire legion. There were five centuriae in the first cohors as opposed to the normal number of six, with each centuria having twice the number of legionaries of a normal centuria. The six centuriae of a normal cohors, were, in order of decreasing seniority; The titles of the centuriae and thus their respective centuriones are remnants from the manipular system of

3300-453: The first cohort and known as the primi ordines , commanding one of the cohort's five centuries and taking on a staff role. The most senior centurion of the legion was the primus pilus who commanded the first century of the first cohort. All centurions, however senior, had their own allocated century. There was little difference between the ranks of centurions except for the primus pilus , who also participated in war councils. The primus pilus

3375-647: The infantry is chosen for his size, strength and dexterity in throwing his missile weapons and for his skill in the use of his sword and shield; in short for his expertness in all the exercises. He is to be vigilant, temperate, active and readier to execute the orders he receives than to talk; Strict in exercising and keeping up proper discipline among his soldiers, in obliging them to appear clean and well-dressed and to have their weapons constantly rubbed and bright. Centurions had to be at least 30 years of age, literate (to read written orders), have letters of recommendation, and have at least several years of military service. As

3450-425: The late republic to the time of Julius Caesar . It expanded to 5,280 men plus 120 auxiliaries in the Imperial period (split into 10 cohorts, nine of 480 men each, with the first cohort being almost double-strength at 800 men). These are typical field strengths while "paper strength" was slightly higher (e.g. 600 and 1,200 respectively for Imperial cohorts). In the early Roman Kingdom the term legion may have meant

3525-410: The leader who had hired or raised them. Such independent organisation persisted until the 2nd century BC amongst light infantry and cavalry, but was discarded completely in later periods with the supporting role taken instead by allied troops. The roles of century leader (later formalised as a centurion ), second in command and standard bearer are referenced in this early period. Rome's early period

3600-454: The legate. Centurions received a much higher rate of pay than the average legionary . Veteran legionaries often worked as tenants of their former centurions. Centurions could be elected, appointed by the Senate , or promoted from the ranks for a variety of reasons. Julius Caesar is said to have promoted his centurions for displays of valour. Historians cite examples of them being the first over

3675-450: The legion a formidable siege train of 59 ballistae and 10 onagers, each manned by 10 libritors (artillerymen) and mounted on wagons drawn by oxen or mules. In addition to attacking cities and fortifications, these would be used to help defend Roman forts and fortified camps ( castra ) as well. They would even be employed on occasion, especially in the later Empire, as field artillery during battles or in support of river crossings. Despite

3750-556: The legion originated with the elite legiones palatinae created by Diocletian and the Tetrarchs. These were infantry units of around 1,000 men rather than the 5,000, including cavalry, of the old legions. The earliest legiones palatinae were the Lanciarii , Joviani , Herculiani and Divitenses . The 4th century saw a very large number of new, small legions created, a process which began under Constantine II . In addition to

3825-509: The legionary structure, the most famous example being the campaign in 479 BC by the clan army of gens Fabia against the Etruscan city of Veii (in which the clan was annihilated). Legions became more formally organised in the 4th century BC, as Roman warfare evolved to more frequent and planned operations, and the consular army was raised to two legions each. In the Republic, legions had an ephemeral existence. Except for Legio I to IV, which were

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3900-535: The legions of the early Empire and those of the post-6th century army was Legion V Macedonica ; created in 43 BC, recorded in the Notitia Dignitatum as a legione comitatense under the title of Quinta Macedonica and surviving in Egypt until the Arab conquest of 637 AD. According to the late Roman writer Vegetius ' De re militari , each century had a ballista and each cohort had an onager , giving

3975-509: The manipular legion comprised 4,200 infantry and 300 cavalry. After the Marian reforms in 107 BC, the legions were formed of 5,200 men and were restructured around 10 cohorts, the first cohort being double strength. This structure persisted throughout the Principate and middle Empire, before further changes in the fourth century resulted in new formations of around 1,000 men. The size of

4050-444: The many and varied duties of the Roman army. There were three pay grades within the rank of legionary: standard, one and a half, and twice the basic pay rate. Legionaries received 225 denarii a year (equal to 900 sestertii ) until Domitian , who increased it to 300 denarii . In spite of the steady inflation during the 2nd century, there was no further rise until the time of Septimius Severus , who increased it to 500 denarii

4125-518: The message of Jesus was evangelized to the Gentiles. Another centurion, Julius, is given custody of the apostle Paul for his journey from Caesarea to Rome in Acts 27 . Roman legion The Roman legion ( Latin : legiō , Latin: [ˈɫɛɡioː] ), the largest military unit of the Roman army , was composed of Roman citizens serving as legionaries . During the Roman Republic

4200-414: The more prestigious legions and those stationed on hostile borders or in restive provinces tending to have more auxiliaries. By the time of the emperor Severus , 193–211, the auxiliaries may have composed 55 to 60% of the army, 250,000 of 447,000. Some legions may have even been reinforced at times with units making the associated force near 15,000–16,000 or about the size of a modern division . Throughout

4275-429: The old use of the legion drawn up in three lines of battle using three classes of soldier (each century would then hold a cross-section of this theoretical line, although these century titles were now essentially nominal). Each of the three lines is then sub-divided within the century into a more forward and a more rear century. The Roman army maintained a complex position and grading system for its soldiers that reflected

4350-480: The professional training of the soldiers. Throughout the history of Rome's Late Republic, the legions played an important political role. By the 1st century BC, the threat of the legions under a demagogue was recognised. Roman governors were not allowed to leave their provinces with their legions. When Julius Caesar broke this rule, leaving his province of Gaul and crossing the Rubicon into Italy, he precipitated

4425-416: The punishment respectable." It carried none of the stigma of the whipping (by virgae ) suffered by criminals prior to execution or the cudgeling (by fustes ) endured for severe military offenses. Tacitus mentions Lucilius, a centurion known as "Gimme Another" ( Cedo Alterum or Alteram ) for his tendency to break his vine staffs during beatings; he was one of the first killed during

4500-400: The rank and file legionary (who received the base wage of 10 assēs a day or 225 denarii a year), the following list describes the system of officers which developed within the legions from the late republic (100s BC) until the military reforms of Diocletian ( c.  290 ). The rank of centurion was an officer grade that held much responsibility. The most senior centurion in

4575-467: The strength of the standing army stood at around 30 legions (hence the wry remark of the philosopher Favorinus that It is ill arguing with the master of 30 legions ). With each legion having 5,120 legionaries usually supported by an equal number of auxiliary troops (according to Tacitus), the total force available to a legion commander during the Pax Romana probably ranged from 11,000 downwards, with

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4650-475: Was a vinewood rod of about 1 m (3 ft) in length used in the ancient Roman army and navy . It was the mark and tool of the centurion : both as an implement in the direction of drill and maneuvers ; and to beat wayward or laggard soldiers or sailors under his command. It was also borne by evocati who held an equivalent rank. The vine staff may have derived from the Etruscan lituus and

4725-410: Was also a reconnaissance squad of ten or more light mounted infantry called speculatores , who could also serve as messengers or even as an early form of military intelligence service. A typical legion of this period had 5,120 legionaries as well as a large number of camp followers, servants and slaves. Legions could contain as many as 11,000 fighting men when including the auxiliaries. During

4800-480: Was broken down into smaller units – originally temporary detachments – to cover more territory. In the fourth century AD, East Roman border guard legions ( limitanei ) may have become even smaller. In the period before the raising of the legio and the early years of the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Republic , forces are described as being organised into centuriae of roughly one hundred men. These centuries were grouped together as required and answered to

4875-667: Was certainly in use by the Punic Wars . Following the enactment of the Porcian Laws in the early 2nd century BC, it was the only manner by which Roman citizens could be beaten and is mentioned by various classical authors. A line in Ovid notes that "the good general commits the vitis to one to command one hundred." Pliny : "The centurion's vine staff is an excellent medicine for sluggish troops who don't want to advance..." "and when used to chastise offenses makes even

4950-458: Was commanded by a legatus or legate . Aged around thirty, he would usually be a senator on a three-year appointment. Immediately subordinate to the legate would be six elected military tribunes – five would be staff officers and the remaining one would be a noble heading for the Senate (originally this tribune commanded the legion). There would also be a group of officers for the medical staff,

5025-412: Was commanded by the senior of the two centurions . At this time, each century of hastati and principes consisted of 60 men; a century of triarii was 30 men. These 3,000 men (twenty maniples of 120 men, and ten maniples of 60 men), together with about 1,200 velites and 300 cavalry gave the mid Republican ("manipular") legion a nominal strength of about 4,500 men. Each century had its own standard and

5100-412: Was followed by the five other century commanders of the first cohort, who were known as primi ordines . There is a story of one centurion, Petronius Fortunatus, making rank in four years, then spending the next forty-two years in twelve different legions never once serving in the primi ordines . The six centuries of a normal cohort, were, in order of precedence: The centuries took their titles from

5175-570: Was in the locality, he asked the Jewish elders to request healing for his servant. In the Gospel of Matthew, the centurion makes direct contact with Jesus. The stories report that Jesus marveled at his faith and restored his servant to health . In both the Gospels of Mark and Matthew, the centurion who is present at the Crucifixion said that Jesus was "God's Son". Accordingly, this centurion

5250-561: Was led by the primus pilus , who commanded the primi ordines who were the centurions of the first cohort. A centurion's symbol of office was the vine staff , with which they disciplined even Roman citizens , who were otherwise legally protected from corporal punishment by the Porcian laws . Centurions also served in the Roman navy . They were professional officers, analogous to modern non-commissioned officers in terms of pay-grade, prestige, and responsibilities. In late antiquity and

5325-933: Was made up of ten units ( contubernia ) of eight men who shared a tent, a millstone, a mule and cooking pot . Full Roman citizenship was open to all the regions of Italy. At the same time, the three different types of heavy infantry were replaced by a single, standard type based on the principes : armed with two heavy javelins called pila (singular pilum ), the short sword called gladius , chain mail ( lorica hamata ), helmet and rectangular shield ( scutum ). The role of allied legions would eventually be taken up by contingents of allied auxiliary troops, called auxilia . Auxilia contained immunes (specialist units), engineers and pioneers, artillerymen and craftsmen, service and support personnel and irregular units made up of non-citizens, mercenaries and local militia. These were usually formed into complete units such as light cavalry, light infantry or velites , and labourers. There

5400-485: Was no longer effective in combat. In Gallic War (Bk IV, Para. 25), Julius Caesar describes an incident at the start of his first invasion of Britain in 55 BC that illustrated how fear for the safety of the eagle could drive Roman soldiers. When Caesar's troops hesitated to leave their ships for fear of the Britons, the aquilifer of the tenth legion threw himself overboard and, carrying the eagle, advanced alone against

5475-447: Was so called because his own century was the first file of the first (rightmost) cohort. Only eight officers in a fully officered legion outranked the primus pilus : the legate ( legatus legionis ), commanding the legion; the senior tribune ( tribunus laticlavius ), second-in-command of the legion; the camp prefect ( praefectus castrorum ); and the five other tribunes ( tribuni angusticlavii ) who served as senior staff officers to

5550-539: Was the triarii , the final line of the formation who instead fought as hoplites, using Greek clipei and whose wealth could afford them gladii in the case of a broken spear. By the 3rd century BC, this system was seen to be inefficient. Under the new Polybian system the ranks were no longer structured by wealth, and instead by age and experience. All legionaries had their hastae replaced by gladii , along with two pila , which were used as an opening volley before melee . The former classes of poor legionaries,

5625-467: Was writing c.  150 BC and his account most likely was influenced by the organization of the Roman army after the defeat of Hannibal in the Punic wars some 50 years earlier. The legions of the Republic were only conscripted in times of conflict and usually limited to four legions, two to be commanded by each consul, though more could be levied if needed. Legionaries lacked the opportunity of

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