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91-567: In recent decades, the Chapare province has become a haven for illegal cultivation of the coca plant, which can be used to produce cocaine . This is due to Bolivian drug law, which until recently only permitted the Yungas region to legally grow coca, despite Chapare being a historical area for growth due to its fertility. For this reason, Chapare has been a primary target for coca eradication in recent years, with frequent and heated clashes between

182-530: A brownish color, and lack the pungent taste. See also Erythroxylum coca , and Erythroxylum novogranatense spp. Ypadú is an unrefined, unconcentrated powder made from coca leaves and the ash of various other plants. Although coca leaf chewing is common only among the indigenous populations, the consumption of coca tea ( Mate de coca ) is common among all sectors of society in the Andean countries, especially due to their high elevations from sea level, and

273-535: A decree recognizing the drug as essential to the well-being of the Andean Indians but urging missionaries to end its religious use. The Spanish are believed to have effectively encouraged use of coca by an increasing majority of the population to increase their labor output and tolerance for starvation, but it is not clear that this was planned deliberately. Andean people first started chewing coca leaf (Ertyhroxylum) and its popularity has been spread throughout

364-423: A deep green colour on the upper surface, and a grey-green on the lower surface, and have a strong tea -like aroma. When chewed, they produce a pleasurable numbness in the mouth, and have a pleasant, pungent taste. They are traditionally chewed with lime or some other reagent such as bicarbonate of soda to increase the release of the active ingredients from the leaf. Older species have a camphoraceous smell and

455-455: A distinction can be made between a lower narrowed, stalk-like basal part referred to as the claw, and a wider distal part referred to as the blade (or limb). Often, the claw and blade are at an angle with one another. Wind-pollinated flowers often have small, dull petals and produce little or no scent. Some of these flowers will often have no petals at all. Flowers that depend on wind pollination will produce large amounts of pollen because most of

546-495: A floral cup ( hypanthium ) above the ovary, and from which the petals proper extend. A petal often consists of two parts: the upper broader part, similar to a leaf blade, also called the blade; and the lower narrower part, similar to a leaf petiole , called the claw , separated from each other at the limb . Claws are distinctly developed in petals of some flowers of the family Brassicaceae , such as Erysimum cheiri . The inception and further development of petals show

637-416: A flower is referred to as the corolla. The role of the corolla in plant evolution has been studied extensively since Charles Darwin postulated a theory of the origin of elongated corollae and corolla tubes. A corolla of separate petals, without fusion of individual segments, is apopetalous . If the petals are free from one another in the corolla, the plant is polypetalous or choripetalous ; while if

728-451: A graphical written language, but used the quipu , a fiber recording device. Spanish documents make it clear that coca was one of the most important elements of Inca culture. Coca was used in Inca feasts and religious rituals, among many other things. It was a driving factor in the labor efforts that Inca kings asked of their citizens, and also used to barter for other goods. Coca was vital to

819-540: A great variety of patterns. Petals of different species of plants vary greatly in colour or colour pattern, both in visible light and in ultraviolet. Such patterns often function as guides to pollinators and are variously known as nectar guides , pollen guides, and floral guides. The genetics behind the formation of petals, in accordance with the ABC model of flower development , are that sepals, petals, stamens , and carpels are modified versions of each other. It appears that

910-574: A half to upwards of forty years, but only the new fresh growth is harvested. They are considered ready for plucking when they break on being bent. The first and most abundant harvest is in March after the rainy season, the second is at the end of June, and the third in October or November. The green leaves ( matu ) are spread in thin layers on coarse woollen cloths and dried in the sun; they are then packed in sacks, which must be kept dry in order to preserve

1001-399: A height of 2 to 3 m (7 to 10 ft). The branches are curved, and the leaves are thin, opaque, oval, and taper at the extremities. A marked characteristic of the leaf is an areolated portion bounded by two longitudinal curved lines, one line on each side of the midrib, and more conspicuous on the under face of the leaf. The flowers are small, and disposed in clusters on short stalks;

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1092-457: A method to help recovering cocaine addicts to wean off the drug. Traces of coca leaves found in northern Peru dates the communal chewing of coca with lime (the alkaline mineral, not the citrus fruit ) 8,000 years back. Other evidence of coca traces have been found in mummies dating 3,000 years back in northern Chile. Beginning with the Valdivian culture, c.  3000 BC , there

1183-415: A method to withdraw the lime from the coca plant using containers with sticks and have been able to indicate whether the coca leaves were either chewed historically even though many coca leaves haven't been discovered by archaeologists. There have been numerous effects that have been noted from the coca leaf as they are milder and more concentrated compared to pure cocaine. When Andean people began to first use

1274-416: A mild stimulant and suppresses hunger, thirst, pain, and fatigue. Absorption of coca from the leaf is less rapid than nasal application of purified forms of the alkaloid (almost all of the coca alkaloid is absorbed within 20 minutes of nasal application, while it takes 2–12 hours after ingestion of the raw leaf for alkaline concentrations to peak. ). When the raw leaf is consumed in tea, between 59 and 90% of

1365-578: A mixture of coca and llama fat and predict the future based on the appearance of the flame. After the Spanish invasion and colonization of the Inca Empire, the use of coca was restricted and appropriated by the Spaniards. By many historical accounts, the Spaniards tried to eradicate the coca leaf from Inca life. The Spaniards enslaved Inca people and tried to prevent them from having "the luxury" of

1456-464: A number of these medical applications. Raw coca leaves, chewed or consumed as tea or mate de coca, are rich in nutritional properties. Specifically, the coca plant contains essential minerals (calcium, potassium, phosphorus), vitamins ( B1 , B2 , C , and E ) and nutrients such as protein and fiber. Coca has also been a vital part of the religious cosmology of the Andean peoples of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia and northwest Argentina from

1547-462: A protein produced by the glyphosate-resistant soybean, suggesting Bolivana negra was either created in a lab by a different technique or bred in the field. Coca is traditionally cultivated in the lower altitudes of the eastern slopes of the Andes (the Yungas ), or the highlands depending on the species grown. Coca production begins in the valleys and upper jungle regions of the Andean region, where

1638-413: A quid (acullico) held between the mouth and gums. Doing so may cause a tingling and numbing sensation in the mouth, in similar fashion to the formerly ubiquitous dental anaesthetic novocaine (as both cocaine and novocaine belong to the amino ester class of local anesthetics ). Chewing coca leaves is most common in indigenous communities across the central Andean region, particularly in places like

1729-656: A significant role in spiritual, economic, social and political dimensions for numerous indigenous cultures in the Andes and the Western Amazon arising from the use of the leaves as drugs and mild, daily stimulant. The plant is grown as a cash crop in the Argentine Northwest , Bolivia , Alto Rio Negro Territory in Brazil , Colombia , Venezuela , Ecuador , and Peru , even in areas where its cultivation

1820-451: A special device called poporo . The poporo is the mark of manhood; it is regarded by men as a good companion that means "food", "woman", "memory", and "meditation". When a boy is ready to be married, his mother initiates him in the use of the coca. This act of initiation is carefully supervised by the Mamo, a traditional priest-teacher-leader. Fresh samples of the dried leaves, uncurled, are

1911-652: A speech in January 2008 that he chews coca every day, and that his "hook up" is Bolivian president Evo Morales. Chávez reportedly said "I chew coca every day in the morning... and look how I am" before showing his biceps to his audience, the Venezuelan National Assembly . On the other hand, the Colombian government has recently moved in the opposite direction. For years, Bogotá has allowed indigenous coca farmers to sell coca products, promoting

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2002-415: A variety of shapes acting to aid with the landing of the visiting insect and also influence the insect to brush against anthers and stigmas (parts of the flower). One such example of a flower is the pohutukawa ( Metrosideros excelsa ), which acts to regulate colour in a different way. The pohutukawa contains small petals also having bright large red clusters of stamens. Another attractive mechanism for flowers

2093-460: A wide variety of health benefits. The original version of Coca-Cola was among these. These products became illegal in most countries outside of South America in the early 20th century, after the addictive nature of cocaine was widely recognized. In 1859, Albert Niemann of the University of Göttingen became the first person to isolate the chief alkaloid of coca, which he named "cocaine". In

2184-662: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Coca Coca is any of the four cultivated plants in the family Erythroxylaceae , native to western South America. Coca is known worldwide for its psychoactive alkaloid , cocaine . Different early- Holocene peoples in different areas of South America independently transformed Erythroxylum gracilipes plants into quotidian stimulant and medicinal crops now collectively called Coca. Archaeobotanical evidence show that Coca crops have been grown for well over 8,000 years in South America. They have had and still have

2275-495: Is a relatively new form of coca that is resistant to a herbicide called glyphosate . Glyphosate is a key ingredient in the multibillion-dollar aerial coca eradication campaign undertaken by the government of Colombia with U.S. financial and military backing known as Plan Colombia . The herbicide resistance of this strain has at least two possible explanations: that a " peer-to-peer " network of coca farmers used selective breeding to enhance this trait through tireless effort, or

2366-492: Is an unbroken record of coca leaf consumption by succeeding cultural groups on the coast of Ecuador until European arrival as shown in their ceramic sculpture and abundant caleros or lime pots. Lime containers found in the north coast of Peru date around 2000 BC as evidenced by the findings at Huaca Prieta and the Jetetepeque river valley. Extensive archaeological evidence for the chewing of coca leaves dates back at least to

2457-506: Is derived from it to be drought tolerant, and Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense was further derived from Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense in a linear series. In addition, E. coca var. ipadu was separately derived from E. coca var. coca when plants were taken into the Amazon basin. Genetic evidence (Johnson et al. in 2005, Emche et al. in 2011, and Islam 2011 ) does not support this linear evolution. None of

2548-450: Is generally legal in the countries – such as Bolivia, Peru, Chile, and Argentine Northwest – where traditional use is established, although cultivation is often restricted in an attempt to control the production of cocaine. In the case of Argentina, it is legal only in some northwest provinces where the practice is so common that the state has accepted it. The prohibition of the use of the coca leaf except for medical or scientific purposes

2639-500: Is in "Pomona", the fifth book of Abraham Cowley 's posthumously published Latin work, Plantarum libri sex (1668; translated as Six Books of Plants in 1689). In the series of Aubrey–Maturin novels by Patrick O'Brian , set during the Napoleonic wars, Dr. Stephen Maturin, a naval physician, naturalist, and British intelligence agent discovers the use of coca leaves on a mission to Peru, and makes regular use of them in several of

2730-674: Is not cocaine. During his speech to the General Assembly of the United Nations on September 19, 2006, he held a coca leaf in his hand to demonstrate its innocuity. Alan García , former president of Peru, has recommended its use in salads and other edible preparations. A Peruvian-based company has announced plans to market a modern version of Vin Mariani , which will be available in both natural and de-cocainized varieties. In Venezuela, former president Hugo Chávez said in

2821-402: Is possible that Amazonian coca was produced by yet a third independent domestication event from Erythroxylum gracilipes . Thus, different early-Holocene peoples in different areas of South America independently transformed Erythroxylum gracilipes plants into quotidian stimulant and medicinal crops now collectively called coca. Also known as supercoca or la millionaria , Boliviana negra

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2912-702: Is the use of scents which are highly attractive to humans. One such example is the rose. On the other hand, some flowers produce the smell of rotting meat and are attractive to insects such as flies. Darkness is another factor that flowers have adapted to as nighttime conditions limit vision and colour-perception. Fragrancy can be especially useful for flowers that are pollinated at night by moths and other flying insects. Flowers are also pollinated by birds and must be large and colourful to be visible against natural scenery. In New Zealand, such bird–pollinated native plants include: kowhai ( Sophora species), flax ( Phormium tenax ) and kaka beak ( Clianthus puniceus ). Flowers adapt

3003-505: Is unlawful. There are some reports that the plant is being cultivated in the south of Mexico , by using seeds imported from South America, as an alternative to smuggling its recreational product cocaine . It also plays a fundamental role in many traditional Amazonian and Andean cultures as well as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia. The cocaine alkaloid content of dry Erythroxylum coca var. coca leaves

3094-494: Is used industrially in the cosmetics and food industries. A decocainized extract of coca leaf is one of the flavoring ingredients in Coca-Cola . Before the criminalization of cocaine, however, the extract was not decocainized, and hence Coca-Cola's original formula did indeed include cocaine. Coca tea is produced industrially from coca leaves in South America by a number of companies, including Enaco S.A. (National Company of

3185-588: Is well documented wherever local native populations have cultivated the plant. For example, the Tayronas of Colombia's Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta would chew the plant before engaging in extended meditation and prayer. In Bolivia bags of coca leaves are sold in local markets and by street vendors. The activity of chewing coca is called mambear , chacchar or acullicar , borrowed from Quechua , coquear (Northwest Argentina), or in Bolivia, picchar , derived from

3276-536: Is widely held to be beneficial to health, mood, and energy. Coca leaf is sold packaged into teabags in most grocery stores in the region, and establishments that cater to tourists generally feature coca tea. Coca tea is legal in Colombia , Peru , Bolivia , Argentina , and Ecuador . In the Andes commercially manufactured coca teas, granola bars, cookies, hard candies, etc. are available in most stores and supermarkets, including upscale suburban supermarkets. Coca

3367-529: Is with a tiny quantity of ilucta (a preparation of the ashes of the quinoa plant) added to the coca leaves; it softens their astringent flavor and activates the alkaloids . Other names for this basifying substance are llipta in Peru and the Spanish word lejía , bleach in English. The consumer carefully uses a wooden stick (formerly often a spatula of precious metal) to transfer an alkaline component into

3458-688: The Arabian Peninsula , Tobacco in North America and Australia , and Areca nut in South/Southeast Asia & the Pacific Basin. Tobacco leaves were also traditionally chewed in the same way in North America (modern chewing tobacco is typically heavily processed). Khat chewing also has a history as a social custom dating back thousands of years analogous to the use of coca leaves. One option for chewing coca

3549-470: The Aymara language . The Spanish masticar is also frequently used, along with the slang term "bolear," derived from the word "bola" or ball of coca pouched in the cheek while chewing. Typical coca consumption varies between 20 and 60 grams per day, and contemporary methods are believed to be unchanged from ancient times. Coca is kept in a woven pouch ( chuspa or huallqui ). A few leaves are chosen to form

3640-578: The La Paz area of Bolivia is a product known as lejía dulce ( sweet lye ), which is made from quinoa ashes mixed with aniseed and cane sugar, forming a soft black putty with a sweet and pleasing flavor. In some places, baking soda is used under the name bico . In the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta , on the Caribbean Coast of Colombia, coca is consumed by the Kogi , Arhuaco , and Wiwa by using

3731-466: The calyx and lie just beneath the corolla. The calyx and the corolla together make up the perianth , the non-reproductive portion of a flower. When the petals and sepals of a flower are difficult to distinguish, they are collectively called tepals . Examples of plants in which the term tepal is appropriate include genera such as Aloe and Tulipa . Conversely, genera such as Rosa and Phaseolus have well-distinguished sepals and petals. When

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3822-422: The pea family . In many plants of the aster family such as the sunflower, Helianthus annuus , the circumference of the flower head is composed of ray florets. Each ray floret is anatomically an individual flower with a single large petal. Florets in the centre of the disc typically have no or very reduced petals. In some plants such as Narcissus , the lower part of the petals or tepals are fused to form

3913-587: The pre-Inca period through to the present. Coca leaves play a crucial part in offerings to the apus (mountains), Inti (the sun), or Pachamama (the earth). Coca leaves are also often read in a form of divination analogous to reading tea leaves in other cultures. As one example of the many traditional beliefs about coca, it is believed by the miners of Cerro de Pasco to soften the veins of ore , if masticated (chewed) and thrown upon them (see Cocamama in Inca mythology ). In addition, coca use in shamanic rituals

4004-468: The 6th century AD Moche period, and the subsequent Inca period, based on mummies found with a supply of coca leaves, pottery depicting the characteristic cheek bulge of a coca chewer, spatulas for extracting alkali and figured bags for coca leaves and lime made from precious metals, and gold representations of coca in special gardens of the Inca in Cuzco . Coca chewing may originally have been limited to

4095-536: The Aztecs, the Inca participated in sacrifices as well. It is clear that the Incas had a strong belief in the divinity of the coca leaf as there is now evidence that both the living and the dead were subjected to coca use. They even sent their sacrifices off to their death with a sacrificial bag of coca leaves. The coca leaf affected all stages of life for the Inca. Coca was also used in divination as ritual priests would burn

4186-625: The British in India), but with the exception of the Japanese in Formosa , these were relatively unsuccessful. In recent times (2006), the governments of several South American countries, such as Peru, Bolivia and Venezuela, have defended and championed the traditional use of coca, as well as the modern uses of the leaf and its extracts in household products such as teas and toothpaste. The coca plant

4277-612: The Coca), a government enterprise in Peru. Coca leaves are also found in a brand of herbal liqueur called "Agwa de Bolivia" (grown in Bolivia and de-cocainized in Amsterdam), and a natural flavouring ingredient in Red Bull Cola , that was launched in March 2008. Coca has figured more prominently in the politics of Bolivia and Peru in the early 21st century. President Morales asserted that " la coca no es cocaína "—the coca leaf

4368-459: The Inca Empire, the Spaniards had direct access to the Inca. They had insight to their everyday lives, and it is through their lens that we learn about religion in the Inca Empire . While the indigenous author Pedro Cieza de León wrote about the effects coca had on the Inca, multiple Spanish men wrote about the importance of coca in their spirituality. For example Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa , Father Bernabé Cobo , and Juan de Ulloa Mogollón noted how

4459-399: The Inca civilization and its culture. The Incas valued coca so much that they colonized tropical rain forests to the north and east of their capital in Cuzco so that they could increase and control their supply. The Incas colonized more humid regions because coca cannot grow above 2600 meters in elevation (coca is not frost-resistant). One of the most common uses of coca during the reign of

4550-436: The Inca was in the context of mit'a labor, a labor tax required of all able-bodied men in the Inca empire, and also in military service. Pedro Cieza de León wrote that the indigenous people of the Andes always seemed to have coca in their mouths. Mit'a laborers, soldiers, and others chewed coca to alleviate hunger and thirst while they were working and fighting. The results of this are evident in monumental construction and

4641-561: The Incas would leave coca leaves at important locations throughout the empire. They considered coca to be the highest form of plant offering that the Incas made. The Incas would put coca leaves in the mouths of mummies, which were a sacred part of Inca culture. Mummies of Inca emperors were regarded for their wisdom and often consulted for important matters long after the body had deteriorated. Not only did many Inca mummies have coca leaves in their mouths, but they also carried coca leaves in bags. These are believed to be Inca sacrifices, and like

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4732-638: The Las Vegas Culture in Ecuador, the Huaca Prieta site in Peru, and the Nanchoc valley in Peru – where leaf fragments and lime "cal" additives have been dated to over 8,000 years before present. An initial theory of the origin and evolution of the cocas by Plowman and Bohm suggested that Erythroxylum coca var. coca is ancestral, while Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense

4823-537: The Northern and Central Andes, making its way down to Southern Central America, including areas like Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. The coca leaf itself includes the active cocaine alkaloid which may be released through chewing or consumed in a powder-like form. This powder is usually extracted and made from burnt plant ashes, limestone or granite, and seashells. Andean people living in Central America have used

4914-597: The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration and Bolivian cocaleros . The law has since been changed by a deal that was struck between Evo Morales (a former coca activist and the country's first indigenous President (2006-2019)) and former President Carlos Mesa . This deal permits the region to grow a limited amount of coca every year . Chapare Province is divided into three municipalities which are further subdivided into cantons. 16°50′S 66°10′W  /  16.833°S 66.167°W  / -16.833; -66.167 This Cochabamba Department location article

5005-475: The coca alkaloid is absorbed. Coca users ingest between 60 and 80 milligrams of cocaine each time they chew the leaves according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). The coca leaf, when consumed in its natural form, does not induce a physiological or psychological dependence, nor does abstinence after long-term use produce symptoms typical to substance addiction. Due to its alkaloid content and non-addictive properties, coca has been suggested as

5096-485: The coca leaf, they noticed that it could produce a "high" and can be very addictive compared to tobacco if consumed in large quantities. Many Andean and Inca civilizations used to chew the coca leaf instead of consuming it as it provided a better "high" experience. Because of its strong addiction and high, the Incas only allowed this substance within honorary celebrations and rituals. Workers dealing with rigorous tasks such as long-distance travels, and more were allowed to take

5187-509: The coca leaf. Although the Spaniards noticed the state-controlled storage facilities that the Inca had built to distribute to its workers, they were still ignorant to plant spirit, divinity of coca, and the Incan admittance of the former. "This is my blood, this is my body" remembrance now was overshadowed by gates of behavior meeting efforts of worker control and service within work to spread concepts within outreach to support divinity and rights of

5278-419: The coming into force of this Convention" (Article 49, 2.e). Petal Petals are modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers . They are often brightly coloured or unusually shaped to attract pollinators . All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the corolla . Petals are usually accompanied by another set of modified leaves called sepals , that collectively form

5369-559: The corolla is composed of five yellowish-white petals , the anthers are heart-shaped, and the pistil consists of three carpels united to form a three-chambered ovary. The flowers mature into red berries . The leaves are sometimes eaten by the larvae of the moth Eloria noyesi . There are two species of coca crops, each with two varieties: All four of the cultivated cocas were domesticated from Erythroxylum gracilipes in pre-Columbian times, with significant archaeological sites reaching from Colombia to northern Chile, including

5460-669: The countries of Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia are host to more than 98 percent of the global land area planted with coca. In the early 19th century, coca was cultivated in what is today the Dominican Republic (see Mayorasgo de Koka ). In 2014, coca plantations were discovered in Mexico , and in 2020 in Honduras , which could have major implications for the illegal cultivation of the plant. The seeds are sown from December to January in small plots ( almacigas ) sheltered from

5551-495: The divine to exist in the divine's works. Not only that, enslaved Inca people were not capable of enduring the arduous labour the Spaniards made them do without using coca. Even though Spaniards were trying to push Catholicism onto the Inca, which did not allow them to eat before the Eucharist (the Spaniards thought coca to be food), they allowed them to continue to use coca to endure the labor associated with slavery. After seeing

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5642-581: The early 20th century, the Dutch colony of Java became a leading exporter of coca leaf. By 1912 shipments to Amsterdam, where the leaves were processed into cocaine, reached 1000 tons, overtaking the Peruvian export market. Apart from the years of the First World War, Java remained a greater exporter of coca than Peru until the end of the 1920s. Other colonial powers also tried to grow coca (including

5733-503: The eastern Andes before its introduction to the Inca. As the plant was viewed as having a divine origin, its cultivation became subject to a state monopoly and its use restricted to nobles and a few favored classes (court orators, couriers, favored public workers, and the army) by the rule of the Topa Inca (1471–1493). As the Incan empire declined, the leaf became more widely available. After some deliberation, Philip II of Spain issued

5824-477: The effects and powers of the coca plant, many Spaniards saw another opportunity and started growing and selling coca themselves. Traditional medical uses of coca are foremost as a stimulant to overcome fatigue, hunger, and thirst. It is considered particularly effective against altitude sickness . It also is used as an anesthetic and analgesic to alleviate the pain of headache, rheumatism , wounds and sores, etc. Before stronger anaesthetics were available, it also

5915-571: The enterprise as one of the few successful commercial opportunities available to recognized tribes like the Nasa , who have grown it for years and regard it as sacred. In December 2005, the Paeces – a Tierradentro ( Cauca ) indigenous community – started to produce a carbonated soft drink called " Coca Sek ". The production method belongs to the resguardos of Calderas (Inzá) and takes about 150 kg (331 lb) of coca per 3,000 produced bottles. The drink

6006-432: The flower/petals are important in selecting the type of pollinators they need. For example, large petals and flowers will attract pollinators at a large distance or that are large themselves. Collectively, the scent, colour, and shape of petals all play a role in attracting/repelling specific pollinators and providing suitable conditions for pollinating. Some pollinators include insects, birds, bats, and wind. In some petals,

6097-652: The four coca varieties are found in the wild, despite prior speculation by Plowman that wild populations of E. coca var. coca occur in the Huánuco and San Martín provinces of Peru. Recent phylogenetic evidence shows the closest wild relatives of the coca crops are Erythroxylum gracilipes Peyr. and Erythroxylum cataractarum Spruce ex. Peyr, and dense sampling of these species along with the coca crops from throughout their geographic ranges supports independent origins of domestication of Erythroxylum novogranatense and Erythroxylum coca from ancestor Erythroxylum gracilipes . It

6188-496: The highlands of Argentina, Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru, where the cultivation and consumption of coca is a part of the national culture, similar to chicha . It also serves as a powerful symbol of indigenous cultural and religious identity, amongst a diversity of indigenous nations throughout South America. Chewing plants for medicinal mostly stimulating effects has a long history throughout the world: Khat in East Africa &

6279-476: The later novels in the series. Coca leaf is the raw material for the manufacture of the drug cocaine, a powerful stimulant and anaesthetic extracted chemically from large quantities of coca leaves. Today, since it has mostly been replaced as a medical anaesthetic by synthetic analogues such as procaine , cocaine is best known as an illegal recreational drug . The cultivation, sale, and possession of unprocessed coca leaf (but not of any processed form of cocaine)

6370-427: The mechanism on their petals to change colour in acting as a communicative mechanism for the bird to visit. An example is the tree fuchsia ( Fuchsia excorticata ), which are green when needing to be pollinated and turn red for the birds to stop coming and pollinating the flower. Flowers can be pollinated by short-tailed bats. An example of this is the dactylanthus ( Dactylanthus taylorii ). This plant has its home under

6461-411: The mechanisms to form petals evolved very few times (perhaps only once), rather than evolving repeatedly from stamens. Pollination is an important step in the sexual reproduction of higher plants. Pollen is produced by the male flower or by the male organs of hermaphroditic flowers. Pollen does not move on its own and thus requires wind or animal pollinators to disperse the pollen to the stigma of

6552-665: The petals are at least partially fused, it is gamopetalous or sympetalous . In the case of fused tepals, the term is syntepalous . The corolla in some plants forms a tube. Petals can differ dramatically in different species. The number of petals in a flower may hold clues to a plant's classification. For example, flowers on eudicots (the largest group of dicots ) most frequently have four or five petals while flowers on monocots have three or six petals, although there are many exceptions to this rule. The petal whorl or corolla may be either radially or bilaterally symmetrical (see Symmetry in biology and Floral symmetry ). If all of

6643-514: The petals are essentially identical in size and shape, the flower is said to be regular or actinomorphic (meaning "ray-formed"). Many flowers are symmetrical in only one plane (i.e., symmetry is bilateral) and are termed irregular or zygomorphic (meaning "yoke-" or "pair-formed"). In irregular flowers, other floral parts may be modified from the regular form, but the petals show the greatest deviation from radial symmetry. Examples of zygomorphic flowers may be seen in orchids and members of

6734-531: The petals in aiding the pollinator towards the nectar. Pollinators have the ability to determine specific flowers they wish to pollinate. Using incentives, flowers draw pollinators and set up a mutual relation between each other in which case the pollinators will remember to always guard and pollinate these flowers (unless incentives are not consistently met and competition prevails). The petals could produce different scents to allure desirable pollinators or repel undesirable pollinators. Some flowers will also mimic

6825-500: The plant was genetically modified in a laboratory. In 1996, a patented glyphosate-resistant soybean was marketed by Monsanto Company , suggesting that it would be possible to genetically modify coca in an analogous manner. Spraying Boliviana negra with glyphosate would serve to strengthen its growth by eliminating the non-resistant weeds surrounding it. Joshua Davis, in the Wired article cited below, found no evidence of CP4 EPSPS,

6916-399: The pollen scattered by the wind tends to not reach other flowers. Flowers have various regulatory mechanisms to attract insects. One such helpful mechanism is the use of colour guiding marks. Insects such as the bee or butterfly can see the ultraviolet marks which are contained on these flowers, acting as an attractive mechanism which is not visible towards the human eye. Many flowers contain

7007-459: The quality of the leaves. The pharmacologically active ingredient of coca is the cocaine alkaloid, which has a concentration of about 0.3 to 1.5%, averaging 0.8%, in fresh leaves. Besides cocaine, the coca leaf contains a number of other alkaloids, including methylecgonine cinnamate , benzoylecgonine , truxilline , hydroxytropacocaine , tropacocaine , ecgonine , cuscohygrine , dihydrocuscohygrine , and hygrine . When chewed, coca acts as

7098-433: The quid without touching his flesh with the corrosive substance. The alkali component, usually kept in a gourd ( ishcupuro or poporo ), can be made by burning limestone to form unslaked quicklime , burning quinoa stalks, or the bark from certain trees, and may be called llipta , tocra or mambe depending on its composition. Many of these materials are salty in flavor, but there are variations. The most common base in

7189-420: The same or nearby flowers. However, pollinators are rather selective in determining the flowers they choose to pollinate. This develops competition between flowers and as a result flowers must provide incentives to appeal to pollinators (unless the flower self-pollinates or is involved in wind pollination). Petals play a major role in competing to attract pollinators. Henceforth pollination dispersal could occur and

7280-407: The scents produced by materials such as decaying meat, to attract pollinators to them. Various colour traits are used by different petals that could attract pollinators that have poor smelling abilities, or that only come out at certain parts of the day. Some flowers can change the colour of their petals as a signal to mutual pollinators to approach or keep away. Furthermore, the shape and size of

7371-426: The substance as it eased their hardships along the way. There is little history before Andean people and the Incas to indicate if coca was restricted before these times and what instances it was initially used in. Sometimes coca leaves from the plant were used as offerings in rituals. Due to the nature of politics and religion in the Inca Empire, wealthy inhabitants handed out coca leaves during ritual ceremonies. Coca

7462-476: The successful expansion of the Inca empire through conquest. By chewing coca, laborers and soldiers were able to work harder and for longer periods. Some historians believe that coca and chicha (fermented corn beer) made it possible for the Incas to move large stones in order to create architectural masterpieces, especially ones of monolithic construction such as Sacsayhuamán . Due to the Spanish conquest of

7553-443: The sun, and the young plants when at 40 to 60 cm (16 to 24 in) in height are placed in final planting holes ( aspi ), or if the ground is level, in furrows ( uachos ) in carefully weeded soil. The plants thrive best in hot, damp and humid locations, such as the clearings of forests; but the leaves most preferred are obtained in drier areas, on the hillsides. The leaves are gathered from plants varying in age from one and

7644-414: The survival of many species of flowers could prolong. Petals have various functions and purposes depending on the type of plant. In general, petals operate to protect some parts of the flower and attract/repel specific pollinators. This is where the positioning of the flower petals are located on the flower is the corolla e.g. the buttercup having shiny yellow flower petals which contain guidelines amongst

7735-463: The undifferentiated tepals resemble petals, they are referred to as "petaloid", as in petaloid monocots , orders of monocots with brightly coloured tepals. Since they include Liliales , an alternative name is lilioid monocots. Although petals are usually the most conspicuous parts of animal-pollinated flowers, wind-pollinated species, such as the grasses , either have very small petals or lack them entirely (apetalous). The collection of all petals in

7826-415: Was also the inspiration for Bolivia's Coca Museum . While many historians are in agreement that coca was a contributing factor to the daily life of the Inca , there are many different theories as to how this civilization came to adopt it as one of its staple crops and as a valued commodity. The Incas were able to accomplish significant things while stimulated by the effects of coca. The Incas did not have

7917-470: Was established by the United Nations in the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs . The coca leaf is listed on Schedule I of the 1961 Single Convention together with cocaine and heroin. The Convention determined that "The Parties shall so far as possible enforce the uprooting of all coca bushes which grow wild. They shall destroy the coca bushes if illegally cultivated" (Article 26), and that, "Coca leaf chewing must be abolished within twenty-five years from

8008-470: Was first introduced to Europe in the 16th century, but did not become popular until the mid-19th century, with the publication of an influential paper by Dr. Paolo Mantegazza praising its stimulating effects on cognition. This led to the invention of coca wine and the first production of pure cocaine. Coca wine (of which Vin Mariani was the best-known brand) and other coca-containing preparations were widely sold as patent medicines and tonics, with claims of

8099-411: Was measured ranging from 0.23% to 0.96%. Coca-Cola used coca leaf extract in its products from 1885 until about 1903, when it began using decocainized leaf extract. Extraction of cocaine from coca requires several solvents and a chemical process known as an acid–base extraction , which can fairly easily extract the alkaloids from the plant. The coca plant resembles a blackthorn bush, and grows to

8190-567: Was never sold widely in Colombia and efforts to do so ended in May 2007 when it was abruptly banned by the Colombian government. Coca Colla is an energy drink which is produced in Bolivia with the use of coca extract as its base. It was launched on the Bolivian markets in La Paz , Santa Cruz , and Cochabamba in mid-April 2010. Probably the earliest reference to coca in English literature

8281-530: Was used for broken bones, childbirth, and during trepanning operations on the skull. The high calcium content in coca explains why people used it for bone fractures. Because coca constricts blood vessels, it also serves to oppose bleeding, and coca seeds were used for nosebleeds . Indigenous use of coca has also been reported as a treatment for malaria , ulcers , asthma , to improve digestion , to guard against bowel laxity, as an aphrodisiac , and credited with improving longevity . Modern studies have supported

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