Coca is any of the four cultivated plants in the family Erythroxylaceae , native to western South America. Coca is known worldwide for its psychoactive alkaloid , cocaine .
130-516: Different early- Holocene peoples in different areas of South America independently transformed Erythroxylum gracilipes plants into quotidian stimulant and medicinal crops now collectively called Coca. Archaeobotanical evidence show that Coca crops have been grown for well over 8,000 years in South America. They have had and still have a significant role in spiritual, economic, social and political dimensions for numerous indigenous cultures in
260-732: A broad trend of very gradual cooling known as Neoglaciation , which lasted from the end of the HCO to before the Industrial Revolution . From the 10th-14th century, the climate was similar to that of modern times during a period known as the Mediaeval Warm Period (MWP), also known as the Mediaeval Climatic Optimum (MCO). It was found that the warming that is taking place in current years is both more frequent and more spatially homogeneous than what
390-526: A brownish color, and lack the pungent taste. See also Erythroxylum coca , and Erythroxylum novogranatense spp. Ypadú is an unrefined, unconcentrated powder made from coca leaves and the ash of various other plants. Although coca leaf chewing is common only among the indigenous populations, the consumption of coca tea ( Mate de coca ) is common among all sectors of society in the Andean countries, especially due to their high elevations from sea level, and
520-445: A chemical process known as an acid–base extraction , which can fairly easily extract the alkaloids from the plant. The coca plant resembles a blackthorn bush, and grows to a height of 2 to 3 m (7 to 10 ft). The branches are curved, and the leaves are thin, opaque, oval, and taper at the extremities. A marked characteristic of the leaf is an areolated portion bounded by two longitudinal curved lines, one line on each side of
650-512: A divine origin, its cultivation became subject to a state monopoly and its use restricted to nobles and a few favored classes (court orators, couriers, favored public workers, and the army) by the rule of the Topa Inca (1471–1493). As the Incan empire declined, the leaf became more widely available. After some deliberation, Philip II of Spain issued a decree recognizing the drug as essential to
780-507: A fundamental role in many traditional Amazonian and Andean cultures as well as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia. The cocaine alkaloid content of dry Erythroxylum coca var. coca leaves was measured ranging from 0.23% to 0.96%. Coca-Cola used coca leaf extract in its products from 1885 until about 1903, when it began using decocainized leaf extract. Extraction of cocaine from coca requires several solvents and
910-450: A graphical written language, but used the quipu , a fiber recording device. Spanish documents make it clear that coca was one of the most important elements of Inca culture. Coca was used in Inca feasts and religious rituals, among many other things. It was a driving factor in the labor efforts that Inca kings asked of their citizens, and also used to barter for other goods. Coca was vital to
1040-574: A half to upwards of forty years, but only the new fresh growth is harvested. They are considered ready for plucking when they break on being bent. The first and most abundant harvest is in March after the rainy season, the second is at the end of June, and the third in October or November. The green leaves ( matu ) are spread in thin layers on coarse woollen cloths and dried in the sun; they are then packed in sacks, which must be kept dry in order to preserve
1170-604: A larger effect on the mid-to-low latitudes and mid-to-high latitudes after ~5600 B.P. Human activity through land use changes already by the Mesolithic had major ecological impacts; it was an important influence on Holocene climatic changes, and is believed to be why the Holocene is an atypical interglacial that has not experienced significant cooling over its course. From the start of the Industrial Revolution onwards, large-scale anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions caused
1300-564: A marine transgression occurred in southeastern Africa; in the Lake Lungué basin, this sea level highstand occurred from 740 to 910 AD, or from 1,210 to 1,040 BP, as evidenced by the lake's connection to the Indian Ocean at this time. This transgression was followed by a period of transition that lasted until 590 BP, when the region experienced significant aridification and began to be extensively used by humans for livestock herding. In
1430-533: A method to help recovering cocaine addicts to wean off the drug. Traces of coca leaves found in northern Peru dates the communal chewing of coca with lime (the alkaline mineral, not the citrus fruit ) 8,000 years back. Other evidence of coca traces have been found in mummies dating 3,000 years back in northern Chile. Beginning with the Valdivian culture, c. 3000 BC , there is an unbroken record of coca leaf consumption by succeeding cultural groups on
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#17327649514501560-415: A method to withdraw the lime from the coca plant using containers with sticks and have been able to indicate whether the coca leaves were either chewed historically even though many coca leaves haven't been discovered by archaeologists. There have been numerous effects that have been noted from the coca leaf as they are milder and more concentrated compared to pure cocaine. When Andean people began to first use
1690-412: A mild stimulant and suppresses hunger, thirst, pain, and fatigue. Absorption of coca from the leaf is less rapid than nasal application of purified forms of the alkaloid (almost all of the coca alkaloid is absorbed within 20 minutes of nasal application, while it takes 2–12 hours after ingestion of the raw leaf for alkaline concentrations to peak.). When the raw leaf is consumed in tea, between 59 and 90% of
1820-577: A mixture of coca and llama fat and predict the future based on the appearance of the flame. After the Spanish invasion and colonization of the Inca Empire, the use of coca was restricted and appropriated by the Spaniards. By many historical accounts, the Spaniards tried to eradicate the coca leaf from Inca life. The Spaniards enslaved Inca people and tried to prevent them from having "the luxury" of
1950-587: A more sustainable sedentary lifestyle . This form of lifestyle change allowed humans to develop towns and villages in centralized locations, which gave rise to the world known today. It is believed that the domestication of plants and animals began in the early part of the Holocene in the tropical areas of the planet. Because these areas had warm, moist temperatures, the climate was perfect for effective farming. Culture development and human population change, specifically in South America, has also been linked to spikes in hydroclimate resulting in climate variability in
2080-584: A much wetter climate from 11,400 to 11,100 BP due to intensification of the ISM. Over the Early Holocene, the region was very wet, but during the Middle Holocene from 6,200 to 3,900 BP, aridification occurred, with the subsequent Late Holocene being relatively arid as a whole. Coastal southwestern India experienced a stronger ISM from 9,690 to 7,560 BP, during the HCO. From 3,510 to 2,550 BP, during
2210-535: A near unanimous vote, the rejection of the working group's Anthropocene Epoch proposal for inclusion in the Geologic Time Scale. The Holocene is a geologic epoch that follows directly after the Pleistocene . Continental motions due to plate tectonics are less than a kilometre over a span of only 10,000 years. However, ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 m (115 ft) in
2340-608: A negative excursion in the δ O record lasting 400 years, is the most prominent climatic event occurring in the Holocene Epoch, and may have marked a resurgence of ice cover. It has been suggested that this event was caused by the final drainage of Lake Agassiz , which had been confined by the glaciers, disrupting the thermohaline circulation of the Atlantic . This disruption was the result of an ice dam over Hudson Bay collapsing sending cold lake Agassiz water into
2470-460: A number of these medical applications. Raw coca leaves, chewed or consumed as tea or mate de coca, are rich in nutritional properties. Specifically, the coca plant contains essential minerals (calcium, potassium, phosphorus), vitamins ( B1 , B2 , C , and E ) and nutrients such as protein and fiber. Coca has also been a vital part of the religious cosmology of the Andean peoples of Peru, Chile, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia and northwest Argentina from
2600-512: A protein produced by the glyphosate-resistant soybean, suggesting Bolivana negra was either created in a lab by a different technique or bred in the field. Coca is traditionally cultivated in the lower altitudes of the eastern slopes of the Andes (the Yungas ), or the highlands depending on the species grown. Coca production begins in the valleys and upper jungle regions of the Andean region, where
2730-412: A quid (acullico) held between the mouth and gums. Doing so may cause a tingling and numbing sensation in the mouth, in similar fashion to the formerly ubiquitous dental anaesthetic novocaine (as both cocaine and novocaine belong to the amino ester class of local anesthetics ). Chewing coca leaves is most common in indigenous communities across the central Andean region, particularly in places like
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#17327649514502860-475: A role. Drangajökull, Iceland's northernmost glacier, melted shortly after 9,200 BP. In Northern Germany , the Middle Holocene saw a drastic increase in the amount of raised bogs, most likely related to sea level rise. Although human activity affected geomorphology and landscape evolution in Northern Germany throughout the Holocene, it only became a dominant influence in the last four centuries. In
2990-472: A special device called poporo . The poporo is the mark of manhood; it is regarded by men as a good companion that means "food", "woman", "memory", and "meditation". When a boy is ready to be married, his mother initiates him in the use of the coca. This act of initiation is carefully supervised by the Mamo, a traditional priest-teacher-leader. Fresh samples of the dried leaves, uncurled, are a deep green colour on
3120-651: A speech in January 2008 that he chews coca every day, and that his "hook up" is Bolivian president Evo Morales. Chávez reportedly said "I chew coca every day in the morning... and look how I am" before showing his biceps to his audience, the Venezuelan National Assembly . On the other hand, the Colombian government has recently moved in the opposite direction. For years, Bogotá has allowed indigenous coca farmers to sell coca products, promoting
3250-458: A supply of coca leaves, pottery depicting the characteristic cheek bulge of a coca chewer, spatulas for extracting alkali and figured bags for coca leaves and lime made from precious metals, and gold representations of coca in special gardens of the Inca in Cuzco . Coca chewing may originally have been limited to the eastern Andes before its introduction to the Inca. As the plant was viewed as having
3380-459: A wide variety of health benefits. The original version of Coca-Cola was among these. These products became illegal in most countries outside of South America in the early 20th century, after the addictive nature of cocaine was widely recognized. In 1859, Albert Niemann of the University of Göttingen became the first person to isolate the chief alkaloid of coca, which he named "cocaine". In
3510-459: Is a form of coca ( Erythroxylum coca ) that is purportedly resistant to the herbicide glyphosate . The coca plant is the source of the potentially addictive stimulant cocaine , a prescription drug and one of the most widely consumed illegal drugs in the world and the source of large amounts of money to various criminal organizations . Glyphosate is a key ingredient in the multibillion-dollar aerial coca eradication campaign undertaken by
3640-450: Is generally legal in the countries – such as Bolivia, Peru, Chile, and Argentine Northwest – where traditional use is established, although cultivation is often restricted in an attempt to control the production of cocaine. In the case of Argentina, it is legal only in some northwest provinces where the practice is so common that the state has accepted it. The prohibition of the use of the coca leaf except for medical or scientific purposes
3770-498: Is in "Pomona", the fifth book of Abraham Cowley 's posthumously published Latin work, Plantarum libri sex (1668; translated as Six Books of Plants in 1689). In the series of Aubrey–Maturin novels by Patrick O'Brian , set during the Napoleonic wars, Dr. Stephen Maturin, a naval physician, naturalist, and British intelligence agent discovers the use of coca leaves on a mission to Peru, and makes regular use of them in several of
3900-673: Is not cocaine. During his speech to the General Assembly of the United Nations on September 19, 2006, he held a coca leaf in his hand to demonstrate its innocuity. Alan García , former president of Peru, has recommended its use in salads and other edible preparations. A Peruvian-based company has announced plans to market a modern version of Vin Mariani , which will be available in both natural and de-cocainized varieties. In Venezuela, former president Hugo Chávez said in
4030-457: Is resistant to a herbicide called glyphosate . Glyphosate is a key ingredient in the multibillion-dollar aerial coca eradication campaign undertaken by the government of Colombia with U.S. financial and military backing known as Plan Colombia . The herbicide resistance of this strain has at least two possible explanations: that a " peer-to-peer " network of coca farmers used selective breeding to enhance this trait through tireless effort, or
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4160-504: Is used for all the seven epochs of the Cenozoic Era. The International Commission on Stratigraphy has defined the Holocene as starting approximately 11,700 years before 2000 CE (11,650 cal years BP , or 9,700 BCE). The Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS) regards the term 'recent' as an incorrect way of referring to the Holocene, preferring the term 'modern' instead to describe current processes. It also observes that
4290-491: Is used industrially in the cosmetics and food industries. A decocainized extract of coca leaf is one of the flavoring ingredients in Coca-Cola . Before the criminalization of cocaine, however, the extract was not decocainized, and hence Coca-Cola's original formula did indeed include cocaine. Coca tea is produced industrially from coca leaves in South America by a number of companies, including Enaco S.A. (National Company of
4420-587: Is well documented wherever local native populations have cultivated the plant. For example, the Tayronas of Colombia's Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta would chew the plant before engaging in extended meditation and prayer. In Bolivia bags of coca leaves are sold in local markets and by street vendors. The activity of chewing coca is called mambear , chacchar or acullicar , borrowed from Quechua , coquear (Northwest Argentina), or in Bolivia, picchar , derived from
4550-584: Is widely held to be beneficial to health, mood, and energy. Coca leaf is sold packaged into teabags in most grocery stores in the region, and establishments that cater to tourists generally feature coca tea. Coca tea is legal in Colombia , Peru , Bolivia , Argentina , and Ecuador . In the Andes commercially manufactured coca teas, granola bars, cookies, hard candies, etc. are available in most stores and supermarkets, including upscale suburban supermarkets. Coca
4680-528: Is with a tiny quantity of ilucta (a preparation of the ashes of the quinoa plant) added to the coca leaves; it softens their astringent flavor and activates the alkaloids . Other names for this basifying substance are llipta in Peru and the Spanish word lejía , bleach in English. The consumer carefully uses a wooden stick (formerly often a spatula of precious metal) to transfer an alkaline component into
4810-687: The Arabian Peninsula , Tobacco in North America and Australia , and Areca nut in South/Southeast Asia & the Pacific Basin. Tobacco leaves were also traditionally chewed in the same way in North America (modern chewing tobacco is typically heavily processed). Khat chewing also has a history as a social custom dating back thousands of years analogous to the use of coca leaves. One option for chewing coca
4940-468: The Aymara language . The Spanish masticar is also frequently used, along with the slang term "bolear," derived from the word "bola" or ball of coca pouched in the cheek while chewing. Typical coca consumption varies between 20 and 60 grams per day, and contemporary methods are believed to be unchanged from ancient times. Coca is kept in a woven pouch ( chuspa or huallqui ). A few leaves are chosen to form
5070-684: The French Alps , geochemistry and lithium isotope signatures in lake sediments have suggested gradual soil formation from the Last Glacial Period to the Holocene climatic optimum , and this soil development was altered by the settlement of human societies. Early anthropogenic activities such as deforestation and agriculture reinforced soil erosion, which peaked in the Middle Ages at an unprecedented level, marking human forcing as
5200-552: The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) had a working group to determine whether it should be. In May 2019, members of the working group voted in favour of recognizing the Anthropocene as formal chrono-stratigraphic unit, with stratigraphic signals around the mid-twentieth century CE as its base. The exact criteria was still to be determined, after which the recommendation also had to be approved by
5330-625: The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) produced increased monsoon rainfall over North Africa. The lush vegetation of the Sahara brought an increase in pastoralism . The AHP ended around 5,500 BP, after which the Sahara began to dry and become the desert it is today. A stronger East African Monsoon during the Middle Holocene increased precipitation in East Africa and raised lake levels. Around 800 AD, or 1,150 BP,
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5460-738: The Kalahari Desert , Holocene climate was overall very stable and environmental change was of low amplitude. Relatively cool conditions have prevailed since 4,000 BP. In the Middle East, the Holocene brought a warmer and wetter climate, in contrast to the preceding cold, dry Younger Dryas . The Early Holocene saw the advent and spread of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent — sheep , goat , cattle , and later pig were domesticated, as well as cereals, like wheat and barley , and legumes —which would later disperse into much of
5590-577: The La Paz area of Bolivia is a product known as lejía dulce ( sweet lye ), which is made from quinoa ashes mixed with aniseed and cane sugar, forming a soft black putty with a sweet and pleasing flavor. In some places, baking soda is used under the name bico . In the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta , on the Caribbean Coast of Colombia, coca is consumed by the Kogi , Arhuaco , and Wiwa by using
5720-768: The Llanquihue in Chile and the Otiran in New Zealand. The Holocene can be subdivided into five time intervals, or chronozones , based on climatic fluctuations: Geologists working in different regions are studying sea levels, peat bogs, and ice-core samples, using a variety of methods, with a view toward further verifying and refining the Blytt–Sernander sequence . This is a classification of climatic periods initially defined by plant remains in peat mosses . Though
5850-650: The North Atlantic ocean . Furthermore, studies show that the melting of Lake Agassiz led to sea-level rise which flooded the North American coastal landscape. The basal peat plant was then used to determine the resulting local sea-level rise of 0.20-0.56m in the Mississippi Delta . Subsequent research, however, suggested that the discharge was probably superimposed upon a longer episode of cooler climate lasting up to 600 years and observed that
5980-742: The Quaternary period. The Holocene is an interglacial period within the ongoing glacial cycles of the Quaternary, and is equivalent to Marine Isotope Stage 1 . The Holocene correlates with the last maximum axial tilt of the Earth towards the Sun, and corresponds with the rapid proliferation, growth, and impacts of the human species worldwide, including all of its written history , technological revolutions , development of major civilizations , and overall significant transition towards urban living in
6110-581: The Tien Shan , sedimentological evidence from Swan Lake suggests the period between 8,500 and 6,900 BP was relatively warm, with steppe meadow vegetation being predominant. An increase in Cyperaceae from 6,900 to 2,600 BP indicates cooling and humidification of the Tian Shan climate that was interrupted by a warm period between 5,500 and 4,500 BP. After 2,600 BP, an alpine steppe climate prevailed across
6240-586: The pre-Inca period through to the present. Coca leaves play a crucial part in offerings to the apus (mountains), Inti (the sun), or Pachamama (the earth). Coca leaves are also often read in a form of divination analogous to reading tea leaves in other cultures. As one example of the many traditional beliefs about coca, it is believed by the miners of Cerro de Pasco to soften the veins of ore , if masticated (chewed) and thrown upon them (see Cocamama in Inca mythology ). In addition, coca use in shamanic rituals
6370-535: The sixth mass extinction or Anthropocene extinction , is an ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch (with the more recent time sometimes called Anthropocene) as a result of human activity . The included extinctions span numerous families of fungi , plants , and animals , including mammals , birds , reptiles , amphibians , fish and invertebrates . With widespread degradation of highly biodiverse habitats such as coral reefs and rainforests , as well as other areas,
6500-716: The Andes and the Western Amazon arising from the use of the leaves as drugs and mild, daily stimulant. The plant is grown as a cash crop in the Argentine Northwest , Bolivia , Alto Rio Negro Territory in Brazil , Colombia , Venezuela , Ecuador , and Peru , even in areas where its cultivation is unlawful. There are some reports that the plant is being cultivated in the south of Mexico , by using seeds imported from South America, as an alternative to smuggling its recreational product cocaine . It also plays
6630-536: The Aztecs, the Inca participated in sacrifices as well. It is clear that the Incas had a strong belief in the divinity of the coca leaf as there is now evidence that both the living and the dead were subjected to coca use. They even sent their sacrifices off to their death with a sacrificial bag of coca leaves. The coca leaf affected all stages of life for the Inca. Coca was also used in divination as ritual priests would burn
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#17327649514506760-624: The British in India), but with the exception of the Japanese in Formosa , these were relatively unsuccessful. In recent times (2006), the governments of several South American countries, such as Peru, Bolivia and Venezuela, have defended and championed the traditional use of coca, as well as the modern uses of the leaf and its extracts in household products such as teas and toothpaste. The coca plant
6890-607: The Coca), a government enterprise in Peru. Coca leaves are also found in a brand of herbal liqueur called "Agwa de Bolivia" (grown in Bolivia and de-cocainized in Amsterdam), and a natural flavouring ingredient in Red Bull Cola , that was launched in March 2008. Coca has figured more prominently in the politics of Bolivia and Peru in the early 21st century. President Morales asserted that " la coca no es cocaína "—the coca leaf
7020-616: The Earth to warm. Likewise, climatic changes have induced substantial changes in human civilisation over the course of the Holocene. During the transition from the last glacial to the Holocene, the Huelmo–Mascardi Cold Reversal in the Southern Hemisphere began before the Younger Dryas, and the maximum warmth flowed south to north from 11,000 to 7,000 years ago. It appears that this was influenced by
7150-590: The Holocene Epoch. A 1,500-year cycle corresponding to the North Atlantic oceanic circulation may have had widespread global distribution in the Late Holocene. From 8,500 BP to 6,700 BP, North Atlantic climate oscillations were highly irregular and erratic because of perturbations from substantial ice discharge into the ocean from the collapsing Laurentide Ice Sheet. The Greenland ice core records indicate that climate changes became more regional and had
7280-474: The Holocene has shown significant variability despite ice core records from Greenland suggesting a more stable climate following the preceding ice age. Marine chemical fluxes during the Holocene were lower than during the Younger Dryas, but were still considerable enough to imply notable changes in the climate. The temporal and spatial extent of climate change during the Holocene is an area of considerable uncertainty, with radiative forcing recently proposed to be
7410-480: The Holocene, however, the domestication of plants and animals allowed humans to develop villages and towns in centralized locations. Archaeological data shows that between 10,000 and 7,000 BP rapid domestication of plants and animals took place in tropical and subtropical parts of Asia , Africa , and Central America . The development of farming allowed humans to transition away from hunter-gatherer nomadic cultures, which did not establish permanent settlements, to
7540-459: The Inca Empire, the Spaniards had direct access to the Inca. They had insight to their everyday lives, and it is through their lens that we learn about religion in the Inca Empire . While the indigenous author Pedro Cieza de León wrote about the effects coca had on the Inca, multiple Spanish men wrote about the importance of coca in their spirituality. For example Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa , Father Bernabé Cobo , and Juan de Ulloa Mogollón noted how
7670-407: The Inca civilization and its culture. The Incas valued coca so much that they colonized tropical rain forests to the north and east of their capital in Cuzco so that they could increase and control their supply. The Incas colonized more humid regions because coca cannot grow above 2600 meters in elevation (coca is not frost-resistant). One of the most common uses of coca during the reign of the Inca
7800-559: The Incas would leave coca leaves at important locations throughout the empire. They considered coca to be the highest form of plant offering that the Incas made. The Incas would put coca leaves in the mouths of mummies, which were a sacred part of Inca culture. Mummies of Inca emperors were regarded for their wisdom and often consulted for important matters long after the body had deteriorated. Not only did many Inca mummies have coca leaves in their mouths, but they also carried coca leaves in bags. These are believed to be Inca sacrifices, and like
7930-437: The Late Holocene, the ISM became weaker, although this weakening was interrupted by an interval of unusually high ISM strength from 3,400 to 3,200 BP. Southwestern China experienced long-term warming during the Early Holocene up until ~7,000 BP. Northern China experienced an abrupt aridification event approximately 4,000 BP. From around 3,500 to 3,000 BP, northeastern China underwent a prolonged cooling, manifesting itself with
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#17327649514508060-476: The Late Holocene. Animal and plant life have not evolved much during the relatively short Holocene, but there have been major shifts in the richness and abundance of plants and animals. A number of large animals including mammoths and mastodons , saber-toothed cats like Smilodon and Homotherium , and giant sloths went extinct in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. These extinctions can be mostly attributed to people. In America, it coincided with
8190-408: The Middle Holocene was notable for its warmth, with rhythmic temperature fluctuations every 400-500 and 1,000 years. Before 7,500 BP, the Gulf of Thailand was exposed above sea level and was very arid. A marine transgression occurred from 7,500 to 6,200 BP amidst global warming. During the Middle Holocene, western North America was drier than present, with wetter winters and drier summers. After
8320-465: The Middle to Late Holocene, the coastline of the Levant and Persian Gulf receded, prompting a shift in human settlement patterns following this marine regression. Central Asia experienced glacial-like temperatures until about 8,000 BP, when the Laurentide Ice Sheet collapsed. In Xinjiang , long-term Holocene warming increased meltwater supply during summers, creating large lakes and oases at low altitudes and inducing enhanced moisture recycling. In
8450-416: The Northern and Central Andes, making its way down to Southern Central America, including areas like Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. The coca leaf itself includes the active cocaine alkaloid which may be released through chewing or consumed in a powder-like form. This powder is usually extracted and made from burnt plant ashes, limestone or granite, and seashells. Andean people living in Central America have used
8580-471: The arrival of the Clovis people; this culture was known for " Clovis points " which were fashioned on spears for hunting animals. Shrubs, herbs, and mosses had also changed in relative abundance from the Pleistocene to Holocene, identified by permafrost core samples. Throughout the world, ecosystems in cooler climates that were previously regional have been isolated in higher altitude ecological "islands". The 8.2-ka event , an abrupt cold spell recorded as
8710-423: The climate, Greenlandian (11,700 years ago to 8,200 years ago), Northgrippian (8,200 years ago to 4,200 years ago) and Meghalayan (4,200 years ago to the present), as proposed by International Commission on Stratigraphy . The oldest age, the Greenlandian, was characterized by a warming following the preceding ice age. The Northgrippian Age is known for vast cooling due to a disruption in ocean circulations that
8840-410: The closest wild relatives of the coca crops are Erythroxylum gracilipes Peyr. and Erythroxylum cataractarum Spruce ex. Peyr, and dense sampling of these species along with the coca crops from throughout their geographic ranges supports independent origins of domestication of Erythroxylum novogranatense and Erythroxylum coca from ancestor Erythroxylum gracilipes . It is possible that Amazonian coca
8970-449: The coast of Ecuador until European arrival as shown in their ceramic sculpture and abundant caleros or lime pots. Lime containers found in the north coast of Peru date around 2000 BC as evidenced by the findings at Huaca Prieta and the Jetetepeque river valley. Extensive archaeological evidence for the chewing of coca leaves dates back at least to the 6th century AD Moche period, and the subsequent Inca period, based on mummies found with
9100-471: The coca alkaloid is absorbed. Coca users ingest between 60 and 80 milligrams of cocaine each time they chew the leaves according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). The coca leaf, when consumed in its natural form, does not induce a physiological or psychological dependence, nor does abstinence after long-term use produce symptoms typical to substance addiction. Due to its alkaloid content and non-addictive properties, coca has been suggested as
9230-485: The coca leaf, they noticed that it could produce a "high" and can be very addictive compared to tobacco if consumed in large quantities. Many Andean and Inca civilizations used to chew the coca leaf instead of consuming it as it provided a better "high" experience. Because of its strong addiction and high, the Incas only allowed this substance within honorary celebrations and rituals. Workers dealing with rigorous tasks such as long-distance travels, and more were allowed to take
9360-456: The coca leaf. Although the Spaniards noticed the state-controlled storage facilities that the Inca had built to distribute to its workers, they were still ignorant to plant spirit, divinity of coca, and the Incan admittance of the former. "This is my blood, this is my body" remembrance now was overshadowed by gates of behavior meeting efforts of worker control and service within work to spread concepts within outreach to support divinity and rights of
9490-410: The coming into force of this Convention" (Article 49, 2.e). Holocene The Holocene ( / ˈ h ɒ l . ə s iː n , - oʊ -, ˈ h oʊ . l ə -, - l oʊ -/ ) is the current geological epoch , beginning approximately 11,700 years ago. It follows the Last Glacial Period , which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat . The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene together form
9620-664: The countries of Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia are host to more than 98 percent of the global land area planted with coca. In the early 19th century, coca was cultivated in what is today the Dominican Republic (see Mayorasgo de Koka ). In 2014, coca plantations were discovered in Mexico , and in 2020 in Honduras , which could have major implications for the illegal cultivation of the plant. The seeds are sown from December to January in small plots ( almacigas ) sheltered from
9750-644: The cultivated cocas were domesticated from Erythroxylum gracilipes in pre-Columbian times, with significant archaeological sites reaching from Colombia to northern Chile, including the Las Vegas Culture in Ecuador, the Huaca Prieta site in Peru, and the Nanchoc valley in Peru – where leaf fragments and lime "cal" additives have been dated to over 8,000 years before present. An initial theory of
9880-454: The disruption of Bronze Age civilisations in the region. Eastern and southern China, the monsoonal regions of China, were wetter than present in the Early and Middle Holocene. Lake Huguangyan's TOC, δ C wax , δ C org , δ N values suggest the period of peak moisture lasted from 9,200 to 1,800 BP and was attributable to a strong East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM). Late Holocene cooling events in
10010-494: The divine to exist in the divine's works. Not only that, enslaved Inca people were not capable of enduring the arduous labour the Spaniards made them do without using coca. Even though Spaniards were trying to push Catholicism onto the Inca, which did not allow them to eat before the Eucharist (the Spaniards thought coca to be food), they allowed them to continue to use coca to endure the labor associated with slavery. After seeing
10140-580: The early 20th century, the Dutch colony of Java became a leading exporter of coca leaf. By 1912 shipments to Amsterdam, where the leaves were processed into cocaine, reached 1000 tons, overtaking the Peruvian export market. Apart from the years of the First World War, Java remained a greater exporter of coca than Peru until the end of the 1920s. Other colonial powers also tried to grow coca (including
10270-473: The early part of the Holocene and another 30 m in the later part of the Holocene. In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees north latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as 180 m (590 ft) due to post-glacial rebound over the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today. The sea-level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from
10400-476: The effects and powers of the coca plant, many Spaniards saw another opportunity and started growing and selling coca themselves. Traditional medical uses of coca are foremost as a stimulant to overcome fatigue, hunger, and thirst. It is considered particularly effective against altitude sickness . It also is used as an anesthetic and analgesic to alleviate the pain of headache, rheumatism , wounds and sores, etc. Before stronger anaesthetics were available, it also
10530-427: The end of the last strong phase. Ice core measurements imply that the sea surface temperature (SST) gradient east of New Zealand, across the subtropical front (STF), was around 2 degrees Celsius during the HCO. This temperature gradient is significantly less than modern times, which is around 6 degrees Celsius. A study utilizing five SST proxies from 37°S to 60°S latitude confirmed that the strong temperature gradient
10660-617: The end of the thermal maximum of the HCO around 4,500 BP, the East Greenland Current underwent strengthening. A massive megadrought occurred from 2,800 to 1,850 BP in the Great Basin . Eastern North America underwent abrupt warming and humidification around 10,500 BP and then declined from 9,300 to 9,100 BP. The region has undergone a long term wettening since 5,500 BP occasionally interrupted by intervals of high aridity. A major cool event lasting from 5,500 to 4,700 BP
10790-570: The enterprise as one of the few successful commercial opportunities available to recognized tribes like the Nasa , who have grown it for years and regard it as sacred. In December 2005, the Paeces – a Tierradentro ( Cauca ) indigenous community – started to produce a carbonated soft drink called " Coca Sek ". The production method belongs to the resguardos of Calderas (Inzá) and takes about 150 kg (331 lb) of coca per 3,000 produced bottles. The drink
10920-596: The extent of the area affected was unclear. The beginning of the Holocene corresponds with the beginning of the Mesolithic age in most of Europe . In regions such as the Middle East and Anatolia , the term Epipaleolithic is preferred in place of Mesolithic, as they refer to approximately the same time period. Cultures in this period include Hamburgian , Federmesser , and the Natufian culture , during which
11050-429: The government of Colombia with U.S. financial and military backing known as Plan Colombia . The herbicide resistance of this strain has at least two possible explanations: that a “ peer-to-peer ” network of coca farmers used selective breeding to enhance this trait through tireless effort, or the plant was genetically modified in a laboratory . In 1996, a patented Roundup Ready or glyphosate-resistant soybean
11180-495: The highlands of Argentina, Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru, where the cultivation and consumption of coca is a part of the national culture, similar to chicha . It also serves as a powerful symbol of indigenous cultural and religious identity, amongst a diversity of indigenous nations throughout South America. Chewing plants for medicinal mostly stimulating effects has a long history throughout the world: Khat in East Africa &
11310-423: The last glacial period and then classify climates of more recent prehistory . Paleontologists have not defined any faunal stages for the Holocene. If subdivision is necessary, periods of human technological development, such as the Mesolithic , Neolithic , and Bronze Age , are usually used. However, the time periods referenced by these terms vary with the emergence of those technologies in different parts of
11440-476: The later novels in the series. Coca leaf is the raw material for the manufacture of the drug cocaine, a powerful stimulant and anaesthetic extracted chemically from large quantities of coca leaves. Today, since it has mostly been replaced as a medical anaesthetic by synthetic analogues such as procaine , cocaine is best known as an illegal recreational drug . The cultivation, sale, and possession of unprocessed coca leaf (but not of any processed form of cocaine)
11570-411: The method was once thought to be of little interest, based on C dating of peats that was inconsistent with the claimed chronozones, investigators have found a general correspondence across Eurasia and North America . The scheme was defined for Northern Europe , but the climate changes were claimed to occur more widely. The periods of the scheme include a few of the final pre-Holocene oscillations of
11700-531: The mid-19th century. The LIA was the coldest interval of time of the past two millennia. Following the Industrial Revolution, warm decadal intervals became more common relative to before as a consequence of anthropogenic greenhouse gases, resulting in progressive global warming. In the late 20th century, anthropogenic forcing superseded variations in solar activity as the dominant driver of climate change, though solar activity has continued to play
11830-717: The mid-Holocene (8.2 - 4.2 k cal BP). Climate change on seasonality and available moisture also allowed for favorable agricultural conditions which promoted human development for Maya and Tiwanaku regions. In the Korean Peninsula , climatic changes fostered a population boom during the Middle Chulmun period from 5,500 to 5,000 BP, but contributed to a subsequent bust during the Late and Final Chulmun periods, from 5,000 to 4,000 BP and from 4,000 to 3,500 BP respectively. The Holocene extinction , otherwise referred to as
11960-502: The midrib, and more conspicuous on the under face of the leaf. The flowers are small, and disposed in clusters on short stalks; the corolla is composed of five yellowish-white petals , the anthers are heart-shaped, and the pistil consists of three carpels united to form a three-chambered ovary. The flowers mature into red berries . The leaves are sometimes eaten by the larvae of the moth Eloria noyesi . There are two species of coca crops, each with two varieties: All four of
12090-586: The most powerful factor affecting surface processes. The sedimentary record from Aitoliko Lagoon indicates that wet winters locally predominated from 210 to 160 BP, followed by dry winter dominance from 160 to 20 BP. North Africa, dominated by the Sahara Desert in the present, was instead a savanna dotted with large lakes during the Early and Middle Holocene, regionally known as the African Humid Period (AHP). The northward migration of
12220-526: The oldest inhabited places still existing on Earth were first settled, such as Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) in the Middle East . There is also evolving archeological evidence of proto-religion at locations such as Göbekli Tepe , as long ago as the 9th millennium BC . The preceding period of the Late Pleistocene had already brought advancements such as the bow and arrow , creating more efficient forms of hunting and replacing spear throwers . In
12350-402: The origin and evolution of the cocas by Plowman and Bohm suggested that Erythroxylum coca var. coca is ancestral, while Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense is derived from it to be drought tolerant, and Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense was further derived from Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense in a linear series. In addition, E. coca var. ipadu
12480-539: The origin of cycles identified in the North Atlantic region. Climate cyclicity through the Holocene ( Bond events ) has been observed in or near marine settings and is strongly controlled by glacial input to the North Atlantic. Periodicities of ≈2500, ≈1500, and ≈1000 years are generally observed in the North Atlantic. At the same time spectral analyses of the continental record, which is remote from oceanic influence, reveal persistent periodicities of 1,000 and 500 years that may correspond to solar activity variations during
12610-503: The period exceeds any likely tectonic uplift of non-glacial origin. Post-glacial rebound in the Scandinavia region resulted in a shrinking Baltic Sea . The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe. An equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay , as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to its present boundaries. The climate throughout
12740-500: The plant was genetically modified in a laboratory. In 1996, a patented glyphosate-resistant soybean was marketed by Monsanto Company , suggesting that it would be possible to genetically modify coca in an analogous manner. Spraying Boliviana negra with glyphosate would serve to strengthen its growth by eliminating the non-resistant weeds surrounding it. Joshua Davis, in the Wired article cited below, found no evidence of CP4 EPSPS,
12870-492: The present. The human impact on modern-era Earth and its ecosystems may be considered of global significance for the future evolution of living species, including approximately synchronous lithospheric evidence, or more recently hydrospheric and atmospheric evidence of the human impact. In July 2018, the International Union of Geological Sciences split the Holocene Epoch into three distinct ages based on
13000-455: The quality of the leaves. The pharmacologically active ingredient of coca is the cocaine alkaloid, which has a concentration of about 0.3 to 1.5%, averaging 0.8%, in fresh leaves. Besides cocaine, the coca leaf contains a number of other alkaloids, including methylecgonine cinnamate , benzoylecgonine , truxilline , hydroxytropacocaine , tropacocaine , ecgonine , cuscohygrine , dihydrocuscohygrine , and hygrine . When chewed, coca acts as
13130-430: The quid without touching his flesh with the corrosive substance. The alkali component, usually kept in a gourd ( ishcupuro or poporo ), can be made by burning limestone to form unslaked quicklime , burning quinoa stalks, or the bark from certain trees, and may be called llipta , tocra or mambe depending on its composition. Many of these materials are salty in flavor, but there are variations. The most common base in
13260-507: The region were dominantly influenced by solar forcing, with many individual cold snaps linked to solar minima such as the Oort, Wolf , Spörer , and Maunder Minima . A notable cooling event in southeastern China occurred 3,200 BP. Strengthening of the winter monsoon occurred around 5,500, 4,000, and 2,500 BP. Monsoonal regions of China became more arid in the Late Holocene. In the Sea of Japan,
13390-612: The region. Sand dune evolution in the Bayanbulak Basin shows that the region was very dry from the Holocene's beginning until around 6,500 BP, when a wet interval began. In the Tibetan Plateau, the moisture optimum spanned from around 7,500 to 5,500 BP. The Tarim Basin records the onset of significant aridification around 3,000-2,000 BP. After 11,800 BP, and especially between 10,800 and 9,200 BP, Ladakh experienced tremendous moisture increase most likely related to
13520-656: The residual glacial ice remaining in the Northern Hemisphere until the later date. The first major phase of Holocene climate was the Preboreal . At the start of the Preboreal occurred the Preboreal Oscillation (PBO). The Holocene Climatic Optimum (HCO) was a period of warming throughout the globe but was not globally synchronous and uniform. Following the HCO, the global climate entered
13650-400: The sea. For example, marine fossils from the Holocene epoch have been found in locations such as Vermont and Michigan . Other than higher-latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain , and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during
13780-749: The strengthening of the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM). From 9,200 to 6,900 BP, relative aridity persisted in Ladakh. A second major humid phase occurred in Ladakh from 6,900 to 4,800 BP, after which the region was again arid. From 900 to 1,200 AD, during the MWP, the ISM was again strong as evidenced by low δ O values from the Ganga Plain. The sediments of Lonar Lake in Maharashtra record dry conditions around 11,400 BP that transitioned into
13910-425: The substance as it eased their hardships along the way. There is little history before Andean people and the Incas to indicate if coca was restricted before these times and what instances it was initially used in. Sometimes coca leaves from the plant were used as offerings in rituals. Due to the nature of politics and religion in the Inca Empire, wealthy inhabitants handed out coca leaves during ritual ceremonies. Coca
14040-475: The successful expansion of the Inca empire through conquest. By chewing coca, laborers and soldiers were able to work harder and for longer periods. Some historians believe that coca and chicha (fermented corn beer) made it possible for the Incas to move large stones in order to create architectural masterpieces, especially ones of monolithic construction such as Sacsayhuamán . Due to the Spanish conquest of
14170-443: The sun, and the young plants when at 40 to 60 cm (16 to 24 in) in height are placed in final planting holes ( aspi ), or if the ground is level, in furrows ( uachos ) in carefully weeded soil. The plants thrive best in hot, damp and humid locations, such as the clearings of forests; but the leaves most preferred are obtained in drier areas, on the hillsides. The leaves are gathered from plants varying in age from one and
14300-818: The term 'Flandrian' may be used as a synonym for Holocene, although it is becoming outdated. The International Commission on Stratigraphy, however, considers the Holocene to be an epoch following the Pleistocene and specifically following the last glacial period . Local names for the last glacial period include the Wisconsinan in North America , the Weichselian in Europe, the Devensian in Britain,
14430-400: The upper surface, and a grey-green on the lower surface, and have a strong tea -like aroma. When chewed, they produce a pleasurable numbness in the mouth, and have a pleasant, pungent taste. They are traditionally chewed with lime or some other reagent such as bicarbonate of soda to increase the release of the active ingredients from the leaf. Older species have a camphoraceous smell and
14560-409: The vast majority of these extinctions are thought to be undocumented, as the species are undiscovered at the time of their extinction, or no one has yet discovered their extinction. The current rate of extinction of species is estimated at 100 to 1,000 times higher than natural background extinction rates . Boliviana negra Boliviana negra , also known as supercoca or la millionaria ,
14690-488: The well-being of the Andean Indians but urging missionaries to end its religious use. The Spanish are believed to have effectively encouraged use of coca by an increasing majority of the population to increase their labor output and tolerance for starvation, but it is not clear that this was planned deliberately. Andean people first started chewing coca leaf (Ertyhroxylum) and its popularity has been spread throughout
14820-610: The working group's parent bodies (ultimately the International Union of Geological Sciences ). In March 2024, after 15 years of deliberation, the Anthropocene Epoch proposal of the working group was voted down by a wide margin by the SQS, owing largely to its shallow sedimentary record and extremely recent proposed start date. The ICS and the International Union of Geological Sciences later formally confirmed, by
14950-531: The world. Some scholars have argued that a third epoch of the Quaternary, the Anthropocene , has now begun. This term has been used to denote the present time-interval in which many geologically significant conditions and processes have been profoundly altered by human activities. The 'Anthropocene' (a term coined by Paul J. Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer in 2000) was never a formally defined geological unit. The Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS) of
15080-577: The world. This ' Neolithic Revolution ', likely influenced by Holocene climatic changes, included an increase in sedentism and population, eventually resulting in the world's first large-scale state societies in Mesopotamia and Egypt . During the Middle Holocene, the Intertropical Convergence Zone , which governs the incursion of monsoon precipitation through the Arabian Peninsula, shifted southwards, resulting in increased aridity. In
15210-415: Was also the inspiration for Bolivia's Coca Museum . While many historians are in agreement that coca was a contributing factor to the daily life of the Inca , there are many different theories as to how this civilization came to adopt it as one of its staple crops and as a valued commodity. The Incas were able to accomplish significant things while stimulated by the effects of coca. The Incas did not have
15340-417: Was around 2.1 metres above present and occurred about 5,800 to 5,000 BP. Sea levels at Rocas Atoll were likewise higher than present for much of the Late Holocene. The Northwest Australian Summer Monsoon was in a strong phase from 8,500 to 6,400 BP, from 5,000 to 4,000 BP (possibly until 3,000 BP), and from 1,300 to 900 BP, with weak phases in between and the current weak phase beginning around 900 BP after
15470-477: Was caused by the melting of glaciers. The most recent age of the Holocene is the present Meghalayan, which began with extreme drought that lasted around 200 years. The word Holocene was formed from two Ancient Greek words. Hólos ( ὅλος ) is the Greek word for "whole". "Cene" comes from the Greek word kainós ( καινός ), meaning "new". The concept is that this epoch is "entirely new". The suffix '-cene'
15600-524: Was coeval with a major humidification before being terminated by a major drought and warming at the end of that interval. During the Early Holocene, relative sea level rose in the Bahia region, causing a landward expansion of mangroves. During the Late Holocene, the mangroves declined as sea level dropped and freshwater supply increased. In the Santa Catarina region, the maximum sea level highstand
15730-603: Was confined to the area immediately south of the STF, and is correlated with reduced westerly winds near New Zealand. Since 7,100 BP, New Zealand experienced 53 cyclones similar in magnitude to Cyclone Bola . Evidence from the Galápagos Islands shows that the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) was significantly weaker during the Middle Holocene, but that the strength of ENSO became moderate to high over
15860-470: Was established by the United Nations in the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs . The coca leaf is listed on Schedule I of the 1961 Single Convention together with cocaine and heroin. The Convention determined that "The Parties shall so far as possible enforce the uprooting of all coca bushes which grow wild. They shall destroy the coca bushes if illegally cultivated" (Article 26), and that, "Coca leaf chewing must be abolished within twenty-five years from
15990-467: Was experienced during the MWP. A warming of +1 degree Celsius occurs 5–40 times more frequently in modern years than during the MWP. The major forcing during the MWP was due to greater solar activity, which led to heterogeneity compared to the greenhouse gas forcing of modern years that leads to more homogeneous warming. This was followed by the Little Ice Age (LIA) from the 13th or 14th century to
16120-470: Was first introduced to Europe in the 16th century, but did not become popular until the mid-19th century, with the publication of an influential paper by Dr. Paolo Mantegazza praising its stimulating effects on cognition. This led to the invention of coca wine and the first production of pure cocaine. Coca wine (of which Vin Mariani was the best-known brand) and other coca-containing preparations were widely sold as patent medicines and tonics, with claims of
16250-427: Was in the context of mit'a labor, a labor tax required of all able-bodied men in the Inca empire, and also in military service. Pedro Cieza de León wrote that the indigenous people of the Andes always seemed to have coca in their mouths. Mit'a laborers, soldiers, and others chewed coca to alleviate hunger and thirst while they were working and fighting. The results of this are evident in monumental construction and
16380-475: Was marketed by Monsanto Company , suggesting that it would be possible to genetically modify coca in an analogous manner. Spraying Boliviana Negra with glyphosate would serve to strengthen its growth by eliminating the non-resistant weeds surrounding it. Joshua Davis, in Wired , found no evidence of CP4 EPSPS, a protein produced by the Roundup Ready soybean , suggesting Bolivana Negra was not created in
16510-564: Was never sold widely in Colombia and efforts to do so ended in May 2007 when it was abruptly banned by the Colombian government. Coca Colla is an energy drink which is produced in Bolivia with the use of coca extract as its base. It was launched on the Bolivian markets in La Paz , Santa Cruz , and Cochabamba in mid-April 2010. Probably the earliest reference to coca in English literature
16640-407: Was produced by yet a third independent domestication event from Erythroxylum gracilipes . Thus, different early-Holocene peoples in different areas of South America independently transformed Erythroxylum gracilipes plants into quotidian stimulant and medicinal crops now collectively called coca. Also known as supercoca or la millionaria , Boliviana negra is a relatively new form of coca that
16770-550: Was separately derived from E. coca var. coca when plants were taken into the Amazon basin. Genetic evidence (Johnson et al. in 2005, Emche et al. in 2011, and Islam 2011) does not support this linear evolution. None of the four coca varieties are found in the wild, despite prior speculation by Plowman that wild populations of E. coca var. coca occur in the Huánuco and San Martín provinces of Peru. Recent phylogenetic evidence shows
16900-528: Was used for broken bones, childbirth, and during trepanning operations on the skull. The high calcium content in coca explains why people used it for bone fractures. Because coca constricts blood vessels, it also serves to oppose bleeding, and coca seeds were used for nosebleeds . Indigenous use of coca has also been reported as a treatment for malaria , ulcers , asthma , to improve digestion , to guard against bowel laxity, as an aphrodisiac , and credited with improving longevity . Modern studies have supported
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