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69-442: The Chemical Weapons Convention ( CWC ), officially the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction , is an arms control treaty administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), an intergovernmental organization based in The Hague , The Netherlands. The treaty entered into force on 29 April 1997. It prohibits

138-558: A further $ 40 billion. Fourteen states parties declared chemical weapons production facilities (CWPFs): Currently all 97 declared production facilities have been deactivated and certified as either destroyed (74) or converted (23) to civilian use. Arms control Arms control is a term for international restrictions upon the development, production, stockpiling, proliferation and usage of small arms , conventional weapons , and weapons of mass destruction . Historically, arms control may apply to melee weapons (such as swords) before

207-510: A key tool against war, by the participants, they are often seen simply as ways to limit the high costs of the development and building of weapons, and even reduce the costs associated with war itself. Arms control can even be a way of maintaining the viability of military action by limiting those weapons that would make war so costly and destructive as to make it no longer a viable tool for national policy. Enforcement of arms control agreements has proven difficult over time. Most agreements rely on

276-447: A major obstacle to effective enforcement, as violators often attempt to covertly circumvent the terms of the agreements. Verification is the process of determining whether or not a nation is complying with the terms of an agreement, and involves a combination of release of such information by participants as well as some way to allow participants to examine each other to verify that information. This often involves as much negotiation as

345-506: A party was through accession. As of March 2021, 193 states, representing over 98 percent of the world's population, are party to the CWC. Of the four United Nations member states that are not parties to the treaty, Israel has signed but not ratified the treaty, while Egypt , North Korea , and South Sudan have neither signed nor acceded to the convention. Taiwan, though not a member state, has stated on 27 August 2002 that it fully complies with

414-535: A peace-without-weapons-stance. Nevertheless, arms control is a defensive strategy in principle, since transparency , equality, and stability do not fit into an offensive strategy. According to a 2020 study in the American Political Science Review , arms control is rare because successful arms control agreements involve a difficult trade-off between transparency and security. For arms control agreements to be effective, there needs to be

483-405: A procedure for requesting deadline extensions. No country reached total elimination by the original treaty date although several have finished under allowed extensions. At the end of 2019, 70,545 of 72,304 (97.51%) metric tonnes of chemical agent have been verifiably destroyed. More than 57% (4.97 million) of chemical munitions and containers have been destroyed. Seven state parties have completed

552-605: A recent movement to regulate the sale and trading of conventional weapons. As of December 2014, the United Nations is preparing for entry into force of the Arms Trade Treaty , which has been ratified by 89 nations. However, it is currently missing ratification by key arms producers such as Russia and China, and while the United States has signed the treaty it has not yet ratified it. The Treaty regulates

621-682: A total 10 kg annual limit, for research, medical or pharmaceutical purposes, but any facility producing more than 100 grams must be declared. The treaty also deals with carbon compounds called in the treaty "discrete organic chemicals", the majority of which exhibit moderate-high direct toxicity or can be readily converted into compounds with toxicity sufficient for practical use as a chemical weapon. These are any carbon compounds apart from long chain polymers, oxides, sulfides and metal carbonates, such as organophosphates . The OPCW must be informed of, and can inspect, any plant producing (or expecting to produce) more than 200 tonnes per year, or 30 tonnes if

690-403: A way to thoroughly verify that a state is following the agreement, such as through intrusive inspections. However, states are often reluctant to submit to such inspections when they have reasons to fear that the inspectors will use the inspections to gather information about the capabilities of the state, which could be used in a future conflict. One of the first recorded attempts in arms control

759-591: Is convened yearly. The Executive Council is the executive organ of the organisation and consists of 41 States Parties. The "Technical Secretariat" applies most of the activities mandated by the Council and is the body where most of the employees of the organisation work. Ahmet Üzümcü is Director-General of the OPCW. All 190 parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention are automatically members of

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828-515: Is highly toxic, but being a pure element and widely used for peaceful purposes, is not officially listed as a chemical weapon. Certain state powers (e.g. the Assad regime of Syria) continue to regularly manufacture and implement such chemicals in combat munitions. Although these chemicals are not specifically listed as controlled by the CWC, the use of any toxic chemical as a weapon (when used to produce fatalities solely or mainly through its toxic action)

897-558: Is in-and-of itself forbidden by the treaty. Other chemicals, such as white phosphorus , are highly toxic but are legal under the CWC when they are used by military forces for reasons other than their toxicity. The CWC augments the Geneva Protocol of 1925, which bans the use of chemical and biological weapons in international armed conflicts, but not their development or possession. The CWC also includes extensive verification measures such as on-site inspections, in stark contrast to

966-490: Is seen in a bad light politically and can carry diplomatic repercussions. Additionally, if one remains in an agreement, competitors who are also participatory may be held to the limitations of the terms, while withdrawal releases your opponents to make the same developments you are making, limiting the advantage of that development. Scholars and practitioners such as John D. Steinbruner , Thomas Schelling , Morton Halperin , Jonathan Dean or Stuart Croft worked extensively on

1035-518: The Norwegian Nobel Committee . The convention distinguishes three classes of controlled substance, chemicals that can either be used as weapons themselves or used in the manufacture of weapons. The classification is based on the quantities of the substance produced commercially for legitimate purposes. Each class is split into Part A, which are chemicals that can be used directly as weapons, and Part B, which are chemicals useful in

1104-585: The destruction of Syria's chemical weapons . As of February 2021, 98.39% of the world's declared chemical weapons stockpiles had been destroyed. The convention has provisions for systematic evaluation of chemical production facilities, as well as for investigations of allegations of use and production of chemical weapons based on the intelligence of other state parties. Some chemicals which have been used extensively in warfare but have numerous large-scale industrial uses (such as phosgene ) are highly regulated; however, certain notable exceptions exist. Chlorine gas

1173-574: The 1975 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), which lacks a verification regime. After several changes of name and composition, the ENDC evolved into the Conference on Disarmament (CD) in 1984. On 3 September 1992 the CD submitted to the U.N. General Assembly its annual report, which contained the text of the Chemical Weapons Convention. The General Assembly approved the convention on 30 November 1992, and

1242-552: The August 2013 Ghouta chemical attack , Syria, which had long been suspected of possessing chemical weapons, acknowledged them in September 2013 and agreed to put them under international supervision. On 14 September Syria deposited its instrument of accession to the CWC with the United Nations as the depositary and agreed to its provisional application pending entry into force effective 14 October. An accelerated destruction schedule

1311-453: The CWC and accept its obligations. Israel has signed but not ratified the agreement, while three other UN member states ( Egypt , North Korea and South Sudan ) have neither signed nor acceded to the treaty. Most recently, the State of Palestine deposited its instrument of accession to the CWC on 17 May 2018. In September 2013, Syria acceded to the convention as part of an agreement for

1380-548: The CWC provisions. The Conference of the States Parties is mandated to change the CWC and pass regulations on the implementation of CWC requirements. The Technical Secretariat of the organization conducts inspections to ensure compliance of member states. These inspections target destruction facilities (where constant monitoring takes place during destruction), chemical weapons production facilities which have been dismantled or converted for civil use, as well as inspections of

1449-577: The CWC, especially Schedule 2 and 3 chemicals (such as Alkylphosphorus chemicals).  For example, Amgard 1045 is a flame retardant, but falls within Schedule 2B as part of Alkylphosphorus chemical class. This approach is also used in controlled drug legislation in many countries and are often termed "class wide controls" or "generic statements". Due to the added complexity these statements bring in identifying regulated chemicals, many companies choose to carry out these assessments computationally, examining

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1518-683: The CWC, the OPCW reported that the United States military had destroyed almost 5,000 old chemical weapons in open-air detonations since 2004. These weapons, produced before the 1991 Gulf War , contained sarin and mustard agents but were so badly corroded that they could not have been used as originally intended. When Iraq joined the CWC in 2009, it declared "two bunkers with filled and unfilled chemical weapons munitions, some precursors, as well as five former chemical weapons production facilities" according to OPCW Director General Rogelio Pfirter. The bunker entrances were sealed with 1.5 meters of reinforced concrete in 1994 under UNSCOM supervision. As of 2012,

1587-641: The OPCW are the states which are not party to the Chemical Weapons Convention: Angola, Egypt, Israel, Myanmar, North Korea and South Sudan. The Nobel Peace Prize is awarded by the Norwegian Nobel Committee . For the 2013 award, the members were: The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) is an intergovernmental organisation , located in The Hague , Netherlands. The organisation promotes and verifies

1656-522: The OPCW's finding on the Douma chemical weapons attack when Wikileaks published emails by an OPCW staff member saying a report on this incident "misrepresents the facts" and contains "unintended bias". The OPCW staff member questioned the report's finding that OPCW's inspectors had "sufficient evidence at this time to determine that chlorine, or another reactive chlorine-containing chemical, was likely released from cylinders". The staff member alleged this finding

1725-750: The OPCW, as well as earlier instruments such as the Geneva Convention of 1925 , but also indicated the use of chemical weapons during World War II and afterwards "by both states and terrorists". The use of chemical weapons in Syria was also mentioned as a recent event underscoring the importance of elimination of chemical weapons. The OPCW contributed to the UN mission investigating the use of chemical weapons in Ghouta and its activities since 1 October entailed supervision of destruction activities, which followed

1794-405: The OPCW. Non-members are Israel and Myanmar, which are signatory states that have not ratified the Chemical Weapons Convention, and Angola, Egypt, North Korea and South Sudan, which have neither signed nor acceded to the Chemical Weapons Convention. OPCW Director-General Ahmet Üzümcü told reporters that he hoped his organisation's work would help "to achieve peace in that country [Syria] and end

1863-487: The Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan the United States never ratified the treaty, but the agreement was honoured by both sides. The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty was signed between the United States and Soviet Union in 1987 and ratified in 1988, leading to an agreement to destroy all missiles with ranges from 500 to 5,500 kilometers. This came in the context of a revitalised peace movement during

1932-536: The U.N. Secretary-General then opened the convention for signature in Paris on 13 January 1993. The CWC remained open for signature until its entry into force on 29 April 1997, 180 days after the deposit at the UN by Hungary of the 65th instrument of ratification. The convention is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), which acts as the legal platform for specification of

2001-639: The UN General Assembly, the International Atomic Energy Agency was set up in 1957 to promote peaceful uses of nuclear technology and apply safeguards against the diversion of nuclear material from peaceful uses to nuclear weapons . Under the auspices of the United Nations, the Partial Test Ban Treaty , which aimed to end nuclear weapons testing in the atmosphere, underwater and in outer-space,

2070-546: The United States and the United Kingdom was the first arms control treaty of what can be considered the modern industrial era, leading to the demilitarization of the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain region of North America. This was followed by the 1871 Treaty of Washington which led to total demilitarization. The industrial revolution led to the increasing mechanization of warfare, as well as rapid advances in

2139-566: The accession of Syria to the Chemical Weapons Convention (and its provisional application), OPCW Executive Council Decision EC-M-33/DEC.1. and was mandated via the United Nations Security Council Resolution 2118 . The Nobel Committee was critical towards Russia and the United States for not meeting their extended deadlines for the full destruction of its chemical weapons in 2012, and mentioned that some states "are still not members". Non-member states of

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2208-518: The adherence to the Chemical Weapons Convention which prohibits the use of chemical weapons and requires their destruction. The organization was established on 29 April 1997, upon the entry into force of the Chemical Weapons Convention. The verification consists both of evaluation of declarations by member states and on-site inspections. The principal body of the organization is the "conference of states parties", which normally

2277-441: The chemical contains phosphorus, sulfur or fluorine, unless the plant solely produces explosives or hydrocarbons. Chemical weapons are divided into three categories: Before the CWC came into force in 1997, 165 states signed the convention, allowing them to ratify the agreement after obtaining domestic approval. Following the treaty's entry into force, it was closed for signature and the only method for non-signatory states to become

2346-405: The chemical industry. The Secretariat may furthermore conduct "investigations of alleged use" of chemical weapons and give assistance after use of chemical weapons. The 2013 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the organization because it had, with the Chemical Weapons Convention, "defined the use of chemical weapons as a taboo under international law " according to Thorbjørn Jagland , Chairman of

2415-438: The chemicals named in the schedules are simply examples from a wider class, defined with Markush like language. For example, all chemicals in the class " O-Alkyl (<=C10, incl. cycloalkyl) alkyl (Me, Et, n-Pr or i-Pr)- phosphonofluoridates chemicals " are controlled, despite only a few named examples being given, such as Soman . This can make it more challenging for companies to identify if chemicals they handle are subject to

2484-562: The chemicals structure using in silico tools which compare them to the legislation statements, either with in house systems maintained a company or by the use commercial compliance software solutions. A treaty party may declare a "single small-scale facility" that produces up to 1 tonne of Schedule 1 chemicals for research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective purposes each year, and also another facility may produce 10 kg per year for protective testing purposes. An unlimited number of other facilities may produce Schedule 1 chemicals, subject to

2553-644: The continued desire of the participants to abide by the terms to remain effective. Usually, when a nation no longer desires to abide by the terms, they usually will seek to either covertly circumvent the terms or to end their participation in the treaty. This was seen with the Washington Naval Treaty (and the subsequent London Naval Treaty ), where most participants sought to work around the limitations, some more legitimately than others. The United States developed better technology to get better performance from their ships while still working within

2622-648: The convention provisionally. All declared Category 1 materials were destroyed by August 2014. However, the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack in April 2017 indicated that undeclared stockpiles probably remained in the country. A chemical attack on Douma occurred on 7 April 2018 that killed at least 49 civilians with scores injured, and which has been blamed on the Assad government. Controversy arose in November 2019 over

2691-693: The creation of NWFZ, among other objectives. These are the following: The intergovernmental organizations for arms control are the following: There are also numerous non-governmental organizations that promote a global reduction in nuclear arms and offer research and analysis about U.S. nuclear weapons policy. Pre-eminent among these organizations is the Arms Control Association , founded in 1971 to promote public understanding of and support for arms control. Others include: 2013 Nobel Peace Prize The Norwegian Nobel Committee announced on 4 March 2013, it had received 259 nominations for

2760-742: The destruction of World War II era chemical weapons abandoned by Japan in China by means of mobile destruction units and reported destruction of 35,203 chemical weapons (75% of the Nanjing stockpile). The U.N. Security Council ordered the dismantling of Iraq's chemical weapon stockpile in 1991. By 1998, UNSCOM inspectors had accounted for the destruction of 88,000 filled and unfilled chemical munitions, over 690 metric tons of weaponized and bulk chemical agents, approximately 4,000 tonnes of precursor chemicals, and 980 pieces of key production equipment. The UNSCOM inspectors left in 1998. In 2009, before Iraq joined

2829-619: The destruction of their declared stockpiles: Albania, India, Iraq, Libya, Syria, the United States, and an unspecified state party (believed to be South Korea). Russia also completed the destruction of its declared stockpile. According to the US Arms Control Association , the poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal in 2018 and the poisoning of Alexei Navalny in 2020 indicated that Russia maintained an illicit chemical weapons program. Japan and China in October 2010 began

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2898-563: The development of firearms; the increased potential of devastation (which was later seen in the battlefields of World War I) led to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia calling together the leaders of 26 nations for the First Hague Conference in 1899. The Conference led to the signing of the Hague Convention of 1899 that led to rules of declaring and conducting warfare as well as the use of modern weaponry, and also led to

2967-560: The exception of India, Israel, Pakistan and South Sudan decided to sign or ratify the document. The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) between the United States and Soviet Union in the late 1960s/early 1970s led to further weapons control agreements. The SALT I talks led to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and an Interim Strategic Arms Limitation Agreement (see SALT I ), both in 1972. The SALT II talks started in 1972 leading to agreement in 1979. Due to

3036-592: The independent, professional conclusion" of the probe. Financial support for the Albanian and Libyan stockpile destruction programmes was provided by the United States. Russia received support from a number of countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy and Canada; with some $ 2 billion given by 2004. Costs for Albania's program were approximately US$ 48 million. The United States has spent $ 20 billion and expected to spend

3105-545: The international trade in almost all categories of conventional weapons – from small arms to battle tanks, combat aircraft and warships. Ammunition, as well as parts and components, are also covered. More recently, the United Nations announced the adoption of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in 2020, following the 50th ratification or accession by member states. Some of the more important international arms control agreements follow: Other treaties also envision

3174-528: The invention of firearm . Arms control is typically exercised through the use of diplomacy which seeks to impose such limitations upon consenting participants through international treaties and agreements, although it may also comprise efforts by a nation or group of nations to enforce limitations upon a non-consenting country. Arms control treaties and agreements are often seen as a way to avoid costly arms races which could prove counter-productive to national aims and future peace. Some are used as ways to stop

3243-632: The limits themselves, and in some cases questions of verification have led to the breakdown of treaty negotiations (for example, verification was cited as a major concern by opponents of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty , ultimately not ratified by the United States). States may remain in a treaty while seeking to break the limits of that treaty as opposed to withdrawing from it. This is for two major reasons. To openly defy an agreement, even if one withdraws from it, often

3312-453: The manufacture of chemical weapons. Separate from the precursors, the convention defines toxic chemicals as "[a]ny chemical which through its chemical action on life processes can cause death, temporary incapacitation or permanent harm to humans or animals. This includes all such chemicals, regardless of their origin or of their method of production, and regardless of whether they are produced in facilities, in munitions or elsewhere." Many of

3381-476: The need. Enforcement has been haphazard, with measures more a matter of politics than adherence to the terms. This meant sanctions and other measures tended to be advocated against violators primarily by their natural political enemies, while violations have been ignored or given only token measures by their political allies. More recent arms control treaties have included more stringent terms on enforcement of violations as well as verification. This last has been

3450-527: The period until the beginning of the 19th century few formal arms control agreements were recorded, except theoretical proposals and those imposed on defeated armies. One treaty which was concluded was the Strasbourg Agreement of 1675 . This is the first international agreement limiting the use of chemical weapons , in this case, poison bullets. The treaty was signed between France and The Holy Roman Empire The 1817 Rush–Bagot Treaty between

3519-601: The plan to destroy the chemical weapons was still being developed, in the face of significant difficulties. In 2014, ISIS took control of the site. On 13 March 2018, the Director-General of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), Ambassador Ahmet Üzümcü, congratulated the Government of Iraq on the completion of the destruction of the country's chemical weapons remnants. Following

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3588-477: The previous decade which included huge demonstrations around the world for nuclear disarmament. The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention was signed banning the manufacture and use of chemical weapons . The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties were signed, as START I and START II , by the US and Soviet Union, further restricting weapons. This was further moved on by the Treaty on Strategic Offensive Reductions , which

3657-501: The prize. This was the highest number of nominations ever: 18 more than the previous record year 2011. Of those 259 nominations, 50 were for organizations. The winner of the Award was announced on 11 October 2013. The press release indicated that the OPCW was awarded the prize for "its extensive efforts to eliminate chemical weapons". The announcement further reiterated the development of the Chemical Weapons Convention , which establishes

3726-559: The renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy". After World War II , the United Nations was set up as a body to promote and to maintain international peace and security. The United States proposed the Baruch Plan in 1946 as a way to impose stringent international control over the nuclear fuel cycle and thereby avert a global nuclear arms race, but the Soviet Union rejected the proposal and negotiations failed. Following President Eisenhower's 1953 Atoms for Peace speech to

3795-653: The setting up of the Permanent Court of Arbitration . A Second Hague Conference was called in 1907 leading to additions and amendments to the original 1899 agreement. A Third Hague Conference was called for 1915, but this was abandoned due to the First World War . After the World War I, the League of Nations was set up which attempted to limit and reduce arms. However the enforcement of this policy

3864-471: The spread of certain military technologies (such as nuclear weaponry or missile technology) in return for assurances to potential developers that they will not be victims of those technologies. Additionally, some arms control agreements are entered to limit the damage done by warfare, especially to civilians and the environment, which is seen as bad for all participants regardless of who wins a war. While arms control treaties are seen by many peace proponents as

3933-412: The strengthening of the disarmament regimes in respect to other weapons of mass destruction, chemical and biological weapons. It also promotes disarmament efforts in the area of conventional weapons, especially landmines and small arms, which are often the weapons of choice in contemporary conflicts. In addition to treaties focused primarily on stopping the proliferation of nuclear weapons, there has been

4002-475: The theoretical backing of arms control. Arms control is meant to break the security dilemma . It aims at mutual security between partners and overall stability (be it in a crisis situation, a grand strategy , or stability to put an end to an arms race ). Other than stability, arms control comes with cost reduction and damage limitation. It is different from disarmament since the maintenance of stability might allow for mutually controlled armament and does not take

4071-552: The treaty. Member states are represented at the OPCW by their Permanent Representative. This function is generally combined with the function of Ambassador. For the preparation of OPCW inspections and preparation of declarations, member states have to constitute a National Authority. A total of 72,304 metric tonnes of chemical agent, and 97 production facilities have been declared to OPCW. The treaty set up several steps with deadlines toward complete destruction of chemical weapons, with

4140-429: The use of crossbows against other Christians, although it did not prevent its use against non-Christians. The development of firearms led to an increase in the devastation of war. The brutality of wars during this period led to efforts to formalize the rules of war, with humane treatment for prisoners of war or wounded, as well as rules to protect non-combatants and the pillaging of their property. However, during

4209-512: The use of chemical weapons, and also prohibits large-scale development, production, stockpiling, or transfer of chemical weapons or their precursors , except for very limited purposes (research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective). The main obligation of member states under the convention is to effect this prohibition, as well as the destruction of all current chemical weapons. All destruction activities must take place under OPCW verification. As of August 2022, 193 states have become parties to

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4278-556: The weight limits, the United Kingdom exploited a loop-hole in the terms, the Italians misrepresented the weight of their vessels, and when up against the limits, Japan left the treaty. The nations which violated the terms of the treaty did not suffer great consequences for their actions. Within little more than a decade, the treaty was abandoned. The Geneva Protocol has lasted longer and been more successful at being respected, but still nations have violated it at will when they have felt

4347-588: Was "highly misleading and not supported by the facts" and said he would attach his own differing observations if this version of the report was released. On 25 November 2019, OPCW Director General Fernando Arias, in a speech to the OPCW's annual conference in The Hague, defended the Organization's report on the Douma incident, stating "While some of these diverse views continue to circulate in some public discussion forums, I would like to reiterate that I stand by

4416-592: Was a set of rules laid down in ancient Greece by the Amphictyonic Leagues . Rulings specified how war could be waged, and breaches of this could be punished by fines or by war. In the 8th and 9th centuries AD, swords and chain mail armor manufactured in the Frankish empire were highly sought after for their quality, and Charlemagne (r. 768–814), made their sale or export to foreigners illegal, punishable by forfeiture of property or even death. This

4485-718: Was an attempt to limit the possession and use of this equipment by the Franks' enemies, including the Moors , the Vikings and the Slavs . The church used its position as a trans-national organization to limit the means of warfare. The 989 Peace of God (extended in 1033) ruling protected noncombatants, agrarian and economic facilities, and the property of the church from war. The 1027 Truce of God also tried to prevent violence between Christians. The Second Lateran Council in 1139 prohibited

4554-516: Was devised by Russia and the United States on 14 September, and was endorsed by United Nations Security Council Resolution 2118 and the OPCW Executive Council Decision EC-M-33/DEC.1. Their deadline for destruction was the first half of 2014. Syria gave the OPCW an inventory of its chemical weapons arsenal and began its destruction in October 2013, 2 weeks before its formal entry into force, while applying

4623-654: Was established in 1963. The 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was signed to prevent further spread of nuclear weapons technology to countries outside the five that already possessed them: the United States, the Soviet Union , the United Kingdom, France and China. With the three main goals of establishing nonproliferation with inspections, nuclear arms reduction, and the right to use nuclear energy peacefully, this treaty initially met some reluctance from countries developing their own nuclear programs such as Brazil, Argentina and South Africa. Still, all countries with

4692-591: Was in turn superseded by the New START Treaty . The Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty was signed in 1996 banning all nuclear explosions in all environments, for military or civilian purposes, but it has not entered into force due to the non-ratification of eight specific states. In 1998 the United Nations founded the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA). Its goal is to promote nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation and

4761-625: Was not effective. Various naval conferences, such as the Washington Naval Conference , were held during the period between the First and Second World Wars to limit the number and size of major warships of the five great naval powers. The 1925 Geneva Conference led to the banning of chemical weapons being deployed against enemy nationals in international armed conflict as part of the Geneva Protocol . The 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact , whilst ineffective, attempted for "providing for

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