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109-490: CNS 11643 is designed to conform to ISO 2022 . It contains 16 planes, so the maximum possible number of encodable characters is 16×94×94 = 141376. Planes 1 through 7 are defined by the standard; since 2007, planes 10 through 15 have also been defined by the standard. Prior to this, planes 12 to 15 (35344 code points) were specifically designated for user-defined characters. Unlike CCCII , the encoding of variant characters in CNS 11643

218-566: A holding company of manufacturers of record-keeping and measuring systems. It was renamed "International Business Machines" in 1924 and soon became the leading manufacturer of punch-card tabulating systems . During the 1960s and 1970s, the IBM mainframe , exemplified by the System/360 , was the world's dominant computing platform , with the company producing 80 percent of computers in the U.S. and 70 percent of computers worldwide. IBM debuted in

327-575: A neuromorphic CMOS integrated circuit and announced a $ 3 billion investment over the following five years to design a neural chip that mimics the human brain, with 10 billion neurons and 100 trillion synapses, but that uses just 1 kilowatt of power. In 2016, the company launched all-flash arrays designed for small and midsized companies, which includes software for data compression, provisioning, and snapshots across various systems. In January 2019, IBM introduced its first commercial quantum computer: IBM Q System One . In March 2020, it

436-599: A publicly traded company and one of the 30 companies in the Dow Jones Industrial Average . IBM is the largest industrial research organization in the world, with 19 research facilities across a dozen countries, having held the record for most annual U.S. patents generated by a business for 29 consecutive years from 1993 to 2021. IBM was founded in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR),

545-514: A 7-bit or 8-bit environment), but not both. Which style of C1 invocation is used must be specified in the definition of the code version. For example, ISO/IEC 4873 specifies CR bytes for the C1 controls which it uses (SS2 and SS3). If necessary, which invocation is used may be communicated using announcer sequences . In the latter case, single control functions from the C1 control code set are invoked using "type Fe" escape sequences, meaning those where

654-649: A Hollerith department called Hollerith Abteilung, which had IBM machines, including calculating and sorting machines. IBM as a military contractor produced 6% of the M1 Carbine rifles used in World War II, about 346,500 of them, between August 1943 and May. IBM built the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator , an electromechanical computer, during World War II. It offered its first commercial stored-program computer,

763-581: A consequence, IBM quickly began losing its market dominance to emerging competitors in the PC market. In 1985, IBM collaborated with Microsoft to develop a new operating system , which was released as OS/2 . Following a dispute, Microsoft severed the collaboration and IBM continued development of OS/2 on its own but it failed in the marketplace against Microsoft's Windows during the mid-1990s. In 1991 IBM began spinning off its many divisions into autonomous subsidiaries (so-called "Baby Blues") in an attempt to make

872-582: A fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR) based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton , New York; Dayton, Ohio ; Detroit, Michigan ; Washington, D.C. ; and Toronto , Canada. Collectively, the companies manufactured a wide array of machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. , fired from

981-447: A focus on customer service, an insistence on well-groomed, dark-suited salesmen and had an evangelical fervor for instilling company pride and loyalty in every worker". His favorite slogan, " THINK ", became a mantra for each company's employees. During Watson's first four years, revenues reached $ 9 million ($ 158 million today) and the company's operations expanded to Europe, South America, Asia and Australia. Watson never liked

1090-515: A graphical set designation sequence, if the second I byte (for a single-byte set) or the third I byte (for a double-byte set) is 0x20 (space), the set denoted is a " dynamically redefinable character set " (DRCS) defined by prior agreement, which is also considered private use. A graphical set being considered a DRCS implies that it represents a font of exact glyphs, rather than a set of abstract characters. The manner in which DRCS sets and associated fonts are transmitted, allocated and managed

1199-555: A line. Furthermore, the escape sequences declaring the national character sets may be absent if a specific ISO-2022-based encoding permits or requires this, and dictates that particular national character sets are to be used. For example, ISO-8859-1 states that no defining escape sequence is needed. To represent large character sets, ISO/IEC 2022 builds on ISO/IEC 646 's property that a seven-bit character representation will normally be able to represent 94 graphic (printable) characters (in addition to space and 33 control characters); if only

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1308-489: A list of ranges. However, the 213 classical radicals in CNS 11643 plane 1 are additional to the characters available in Big5 (although they can be lossily mapped to the corresponding hanzi characters in Big5 or HKSCS), and further additional characters were added to CNS 11643 plane 1 in 2007. The Big5-2003 variant of Big5 is defined as a partial encoding of CNS 11643. Within the Big5 hanzi repertoire, only one plane 1 character

1417-626: A separate lawsuit. In 2015, IBM bought the digital part of The Weather Company , Truven Health Analytics for $ 2.6 billion in 2016, and in October 2018, IBM announced its intention to acquire Red Hat for $ 34 billion, which was completed on July 9, 2019. In February 2020, IBM's John Kelly III joined Brad Smith of Microsoft to sign a pledge with the Vatican to ensure the ethical use and practice of Artificial Intelligence (AI) . IBM announced in October 2020 that it would divest

1526-480: A sharp drop in profit margins during the second quarter of fiscal year 1992; market analysts attributed the drop to a fierce price war in the personal computer market over the summer of 1992. The corporate restructuring was one of the largest and most expensive in history up to that point. By the summer of 1993, the IBM PC Co. had divided into multiple business units itself, including Ambra Computer Corporation and

1635-449: A single byte, regardless of the number of bytes used for graphical characters. CJK encodings used in 7-bit environments which use ISO 2022 mechanisms to switch between character sets are often given names starting with "ISO-2022-", most notably ISO-2022-JP , although some other CJK encodings such as EUC-JP also make use of ISO 2022 mechanisms. Since the first 256 code points of Unicode were taken from ISO 8859-1 , Unicode inherits

1744-634: A standard document; however, registration does not create a new ISO standard, does not commit the ISO or IEC to adopt it as an international standard, and does not commit the ISO or IEC to add any of its characters to the Universal Coded Character Set . ISO-IR registered escape sequences are also used encapsulated in a Formal Public Identifier to identify character sets used for numeric character references in SGML (ISO 8879). For example,

1853-563: A syntax for escape sequences, multiple-byte sequences beginning with the ESC control code, which can likewise be used for in-band instructions. Specific sets of control codes and escape sequences designed to be used with ISO 2022 include ISO/IEC 6429 , portions of which are implemented by ANSI.SYS and terminal emulators . ISO 2022 itself also defines particular control codes and escape sequences which can be used for switching between different coded character sets (for example, between ASCII and

1962-455: Is conventionally mapped to Unicode differently from the corresponding character from the first two CNS 11643 planes: to U+5F5D ( 彝 ), whereas its CNS plane 1 counterpart is mapped to a related variant at U+5F5E ( 彞 ); U+5F5D is separately included in CNS 11643 plane 3. However, some variant mappings for Big5, such as some defined by IBM , include U+5F5E rather than U+5F5D. Similarly, a single character from Big5 level 2 (including its IBM variant)

2071-742: Is equivalent to the ECMA standard ECMA-35 , the ANSI standard ANSI X3.41 and the Japanese Industrial Standard JIS X 0202 . Originating in 1971, it was most recently revised in 1994. ISO 2022 specifies a general structure which character encodings can conform to, dedicating particular ranges of bytes ( 0x 00–1F and 0x7F–9F) to be used for non-printing control codes for formatting and in-band instructions (such as line breaks or formatting instructions for text terminals ), rather than graphical characters . It also specifies

2180-659: Is in turn conformed to by ISO/IEC 8859 , and Extended Unix Code , which is used for East Asian languages. More specialised applications of ISO 2022 include the MARC-8 encoding system used in MARC 21 library records. The escape sequences for switching to particular character sets or encodings are registered with the ISO-IR registry (except for those set apart for private use, the meanings of which are defined by vendors, or by protocol specifications such as ARIB STD-B24 ) and follow

2289-457: Is mapped to a different Unicode code point than its CNS 11643 plane 2 counterpart: to U+5284 ( 劄 ), while the Unihan database currently maps the CNS 11643 character to U+7B9A ( 箚 ); U+5284 appears in CNS 11643 plane 14. ISO 2022 ISO/IEC 2022 Information technology—Character code structure and extension techniques , is an ISO / IEC standard in the field of character encoding . It

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2398-603: Is not related. EUC-TW is an encoded representation of CNS 11643 and ASCII in Extended Unix Code (EUC) form. Other encodings capable of representing certain CSIC planes include ISO-2022-CN (planes 1 and 2) and ISO-2022-CN-EXT (planes 1 through 7). The first edition of the standard was published in 1986, and included planes 1 and 2, deriving from levels 1 and 2 of Big5 , with some re-ordering due to corrected stroke counts, two duplicate characters being omitted, and

2507-419: Is not stipulated by ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 itself, although it recommends allocating them sequentially starting with F byte 0x40 ( @ ); however, a manner for transmitting DRCS fonts is defined within some telecommunication protocols such as World System Teletext . There are also three special cases for multi-byte codes. The code sequences ESC $ @ , ESC $ A , and ESC $ B were all registered when

2616-560: Is required that any C0 character set include the ESC character at position 0x1B, so that further changes are possible. The control set designation sequences (as opposed to the graphical set ones) may also be used from within ISO/IEC 10646 (UCS/Unicode), in contexts where processing ANSI escape codes is appropriate, provided that each byte in the sequence is padded to the code unit size of the encoding. A table of escape sequence I bytes and

2725-440: Is the largest shareholder of IBM and as of March 31, 2023, held 15.7% of total shares outstanding. In 2011, IBM became the first technology company Warren Buffett 's holding company Berkshire Hathaway invested in. Initially he bought 64 million shares costing $ 10.5 billion. Over the years, Buffett increased his IBM holdings, but by the end of 2017 had reduced them by 94.5% to 2.05 million shares; by May 2018, he

2834-704: The CJK Compatibility Forms block was titled "CNS 11643 Compatibility" in Unicode 1.0.0. When the Unicode CJK Unified Ideographs set was being compiled for Unicode 1.0.1, the national bodies submitted character sets to the CJK Joint Research Group for inclusion. The version of CNS 11643 submitted included the plane 14 extension, in addition to further desired characters appended to plane 14 (after 68–21,

2943-692: The English alphabet ), and does not provide good support for languages which use additional letters, or which use a different writing system altogether. Other writing systems with relatively few characters, such as Greek , Cyrillic , Arabic or Hebrew , as well as forms of the Latin script using diacritics or letters absent from the ISO Basic Latin alphabet, have historically been represented on personal computers with different 8- bit , single byte , extended ASCII encodings, which follow ASCII when

3052-574: The FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines and introduced the highly successful Selectric typewriter. In 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flights of the Mercury astronauts. A year later, it moved its corporate headquarters from New York City to Armonk, New York. The latter half of

3161-851: The IBM Rome Software Lab (Rome, Italy), Hursley House (Winchester, UK), 330 North Wabash (Chicago, Illinois, United States), the Cambridge Scientific Center (Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States), the IBM Toronto Software Lab (Toronto, Canada), the IBM Building, Johannesburg (Johannesburg, South Africa), the IBM Building (Seattle) (Seattle, Washington, United States), the IBM Hakozaki Facility (Tokyo, Japan),

3270-888: The IBM Yamato Facility (Yamato, Japan), the IBM Canada Head Office Building (Ontario, Canada) and the Watson IoT Headquarters (Munich, Germany). Defunct IBM campuses include the IBM Somers Office Complex (Somers, New York), Spango Valley (Greenock, Scotland), and Tour Descartes (Paris, France). The company's contributions to industrial architecture and design include works by Marcel Breuer , Eero Saarinen , Ludwig Mies van der Rohe , I.M. Pei and Ricardo Legorreta . Van der Rohe's building in Chicago

3379-544: The National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson , called on Flint and, in 1914, was offered a position at CTR. Watson joined CTR as general manager and then, 11 months later, was made President when antitrust cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Patterson's pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTR's companies. He implemented sales conventions, "generous sales incentives,

CNS 11643 - Misplaced Pages Continue

3488-448: The UPC barcode . The company has made inroads in advanced computer chips , quantum computing , artificial intelligence , and data infrastructure . IBM employees and alumni have won various recognitions for their scientific research and inventions, including six Nobel Prizes and six Turing Awards . IBM originated with several technological innovations developed and commercialized in

3597-681: The Universal Product Code . IBM and the World Bank first introduced financial swaps to the public in 1981, when they entered into a swap agreement. IBM entered the microcomputer market in the 1980s with the IBM Personal Computer (IBM 5150), which soon became known as the PC , one of IBM's best selling products. Due to a lack of foresight by IBM, the PC was not well protected by intellectual property laws. As

3706-537: The VT100 , and are thus supported by terminal emulators . By default, GL codes specify G0 characters and GR codes (where available) specify G1 characters; this may be otherwise specified by prior agreement. The set invoked over each area may also be modified with control codes referred to as shifts, as shown in the table below. An 8-bit code may have GR codes specifying G1 characters, i.e. with its corresponding 7-bit code using Shift In and Shift Out to switch between

3815-410: The magnetic stripe card that would become ubiquitous for credit/debit/ATM cards, driver's licenses, rapid transit cards and a multitude of other identity and access control applications. IBM pioneered the manufacture of these cards, and for most of the 1970s, the data processing systems and software for such applications ran exclusively on IBM computers. In 1974, IBM engineer George J. Laurer developed

3924-606: The microcomputer market in 1981 with the IBM Personal Computer , — its DOS software provided by Microsoft , — which became the basis for the majority of personal computers to the present day. The company later also found success in the portable space with the ThinkPad . Since the 1990s, IBM has concentrated on computer services , software , supercomputers , and scientific research ; it sold its microcomputer division to Lenovo in 2005. IBM continues to develop mainframes, and its supercomputers have consistently ranked among

4033-616: The most significant bit is 0 (i.e. bytes 0x00–7F, when represented in hexadecimal ), and include additional characters for a most significant bit of 1 (i.e. bytes 0x80–FF). Some of these, such as the ISO 8859 series, conform to ISO 2022, while others such as DOS code page 437 do not, usually due to not reserving the bytes 0x80–9F for control codes. Certain East Asian languages, specifically Chinese , Japanese , and Korean (collectively " CJK "), are written using far more characters than

4142-495: The 0x20/A0 and 0x7F/FF bytes are actually assigned by the set; some examples of graphical character sets which are registered as 96-sets but do not use those bytes include the G1 set of I.S. 434 , the box drawing set from ISO/IEC 10367 , and ISO-IR-164 (a subset of the G1 set of ISO-8859-8 with only the letters, used by CCITT ). Characters are expected to be spacing characters, not combining characters, unless specified otherwise by

4251-577: The 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, participating in the 1965 Gemini flights, 1966 Saturn flights, and 1969 lunar mission. IBM also developed and manufactured the Saturn V's Instrument Unit and Apollo spacecraft guidance computers. On April 7, 1964, IBM launched the first computer system family, the IBM System/360 . It spanned the complete range of commercial and scientific applications from large to small, allowing companies for

4360-454: The C0 control codes (narrowly defined) are excluded, this can be expanded to 96 characters. Using two bytes, it is thus possible to represent up to 8,836 (94×94) characters; and, using three bytes, up to 830,584 (94×94×94) characters. Though the standard defines it, no registered character set uses three bytes (although EUC-TW 's unregistered G2 does, as does the similarly unregistered CCCII ). For

4469-589: The C0 set, besides the ten included by ISO 6429 / ECMA-48 (namely SOH, STX, ETX, EOT, ENQ, ACK, DLE, NAK, SYN and ETB), or inclusion of any of those ten in the C1 set, is also prohibited by the ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 standard. A C0 control set is invoked over the CL range 0x00 through 0x1F, whereas a C1 control function may be invoked over the CR range 0x80 through 0x9F (in an 8-bit environment) or by using escape sequences (in

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4578-467: The CR range always either invokes the secondary (C1) controls or is unused. The delete character DEL (0x7F), the escape character ESC (0x1B) and the space character SP (0x20) are designated "fixed" coded characters and are always available when G0 is invoked over GL, irrespective of what character sets are designated. They may not be included in graphical character sets, although other sizes or types of whitespace character may be. Sequences using

4687-448: The ESC (escape) character take the form ESC [ I ...] F , where the ESC character is followed by zero or more intermediate bytes ( I ) from the range 0x20–0x2F, and one final byte ( F ) from the range 0x30–0x7E. The first I byte, or absence thereof, determines the type of escape sequence; it might, for instance, designate a working set, or denote a single control function. In all types of escape sequences, F bytes in

4796-566: The ESC (escape) control character at 0x1B (a C0 set containing only ESC is registered as ISO-IR-104), whereas a C1 control set may not contain the escape control whatsoever. Hence, they are entirely separate registrations, with a C0 set being only a C0 set and a C1 set being only a C1 set. If codes from the C0 set of ISO 6429 / ECMA-48, i.e. the ASCII control codes , appear in the C0 set, they are required to appear at their ISO 6429 / ECMA-48 locations. Inclusion of transmission control characters in

4905-542: The ESC control character is followed by a byte from columns 04 or 05 (that is to say, ESC 0x40 (@) through ESC 0x5F (_) ). Additional control functions are assigned to "type Fs" escape sequences (in the range ESC 0x60 (`) through ESC 0x7E (~) ); these have permanently assigned meanings rather than depending on the C0 or C1 designations. Registration of control functions to type "Fs" sequences must be approved by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2 . Other single control functions may be registered to type "3Ft" escape sequences (in

5014-490: The IBM PC Co. was dissolved and merged into IBM Personal Systems Group. In 2002 IBM acquired PwC Consulting, the consulting arm of PwC which was merged into its IBM Global Services . On September 14, 2004, LG and IBM announced that their business alliance in the South Korean market would end at the end of that year. Both companies stated that it was unrelated to the charges of bribery earlier that year. Xnote

5123-506: The IBM Power Personal Systems Group, the former an attempt to design and market " clone " computers of IBM's own architecture and the latter responsible for IBM's PowerPC -based workstations . IBM PC Co. introduced the ThinkPad clone computers, which IBM would heavily market and would eventually become one of the best-selling series of notebook computers . In 1993, IBM posted an $ 8 billion loss – at

5232-789: The IBM website. On June 7, Krishna announced that IBM would carry out an "orderly wind-down" of its operations in Russia. In late 2022, IBM started a collaboration with new Japanese manufacturer Rapidus , which led GlobalFoundries to file a lawsuit against IBM the following year. In 2023, IBM acquired Manta Software Inc. to complement its data and A.I. governance capabilities for an undisclosed amount. On November 16, 2023, IBM suspended ads on Twitter after ads were found next to pro-Nazi content. In December 2023, IBM announced it would acquire Software AG 's StreamSets and webMethods platforms for €2.13 billion ($ 2.33 billion). IBM's market capitalization

5341-566: The ISO-IR registry is specified by ISO/IEC 2375 . Each registration receives a unique escape sequence, and a unique registry entry number to identify it. For example, the CCITT character set for Simplified Chinese is known as ISO-IR-165 . Registration of coded character sets with the ISO-IR registry identifies the documents specifying the character set or control function associated with an ISO/IEC 2022 non‑private-use escape sequence. This may be

5450-435: The ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 standard itself. They may be described elsewhere using hexadecimal , as is often used in this article, or using the corresponding ASCII characters, although the escape sequences are actually defined in terms of byte values, and the graphic assigned to that byte value may be altered without affecting the control sequence. Byte values from the 7-bit ASCII graphic range (hexadecimal 0x20–0x7F), being on

5559-564: The Japanese JIS X 0208 ) so as to use multiple in a single document, effectively combining them into a single stateful encoding (a feature less important since the advent of Unicode ). It is designed to be usable in both 8-bit environments and 7-bit environments (those where only seven bits are usable in a byte, such as e-mail without 8BITMIME ). The ASCII character set supports the ISO Basic Latin alphabet (equivalent to

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5668-551: The Managed Infrastructure Services unit of its Global Technology Services division into a new public company. The new company, Kyndryl , will have 90,000 employees, 4,600 clients in 115 countries, with a backlog of $ 60 billion. IBM's spin off was greater than any of its previous divestitures, and welcomed by investors. IBM appointed Martin Schroeter, who had been IBM's CFO from 2014 through

5777-516: The Weather Channel mobile app. Also that year, IBM employees created the film A Boy and His Atom , which was the first molecule movie to tell a story. In 2016, IBM acquired video conferencing service Ustream and formed a new cloud video unit. In April 2016, it posted a 14-year low in quarterly sales. The following month, Groupon sued IBM accusing it of patent infringement, two months after IBM accused Groupon of patent infringement in

5886-503: The addition of 213 classical radicals in plane 1 (out of 214 Kangxi radicals , of which 210 are effectively duplicates of existing Big5 characters and the remaining three of HKSCS characters; see also Kangxi Radicals (Unicode block) ). Extensions to the standard were subsequently published in 1988 (6319 characters, occupying plane 14) and 1990 (7169 characters, occupying plane 15). Unicode 1.0.0, although it did not yet include hanzi , included characters for compatibility with CNS 11643:

5995-469: The antitrust laws in IBM's actions directed against leasing companies and plug-compatible peripheral manufacturers. Shortly after, IBM unbundled its software and services in what many observers believed was a direct result of the lawsuit, creating a competitive market for software. In 1982, the Department of Justice dropped the case as "without merit". Also in 1969, IBM engineer Forrest Parry invented

6104-542: The basis that it leaves the graphical character repertoire undefined. ISO/IEC 4873 / ECMA-43 does, however, permit the use of the GCC function provided that the sequence of characters is kept the same and merely displayed in one space, rather than being over-stamped to form a character with a different meaning. Control character sets are classified as "primary" or "secondary" control code sets, respectively also called "C0" and "C1" control code sets. A C0 control set must contain

6213-707: The characters already existed in planes 4 through 7). It also added 128 further hanzi to plane 3, starting at code point 68–40. As of 2017, there are several thousand CNS 11643 characters with no corresponding Unicode character, mostly in planes 10 through 14; these are mapped to the Unicode Supplementary Private Use Area . Levels 1 and 2 of the Big5 encoding correspond mostly to CNS 11643 planes 1 and 2, respectively, with occasional differences in order, and with two duplicate hanzi existing in Big5 but not in CNS 11643. They can be mapped using

6322-601: The city's seventh tallest building and overlooking Beijing National Stadium ("Bird's Nest") , home to the 2008 Summer Olympics . IBM India Private Limited is the Indian subsidiary of IBM, which is headquartered at Bangalore , Karnataka. It has facilities in Coimbatore , Chennai , Kochi , Ahmedabad , Delhi , Kolkata , Mumbai , Pune , Gurugram , Noida , Bhubaneshwar , Surat , Visakhapatnam , Hyderabad , Bangalore and Jamshedpur . Other notable buildings include

6431-560: The clumsy hyphenated name "Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company" and chose to replace it with the more expansive title "International Business Machines" which had previously been used as the name of CTR's Canadian Division; the name was changed on February 14, 1924. By 1933, most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, IBM. The Nazis made extensive use of Hollerith punch card and alphabetical accounting equipment and IBM's majority-owned German subsidiary, Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen GmbH ( Dehomag ), supplied this equipment from

6540-461: The company designed a video surveillance system for Davao City . In 2014 IBM announced it would sell its x86 server division to Lenovo for $ 2.1 billion. while continuing to offer Power ISA -based servers. Also that year, IBM began announcing several major partnerships with other companies, including Apple Inc. , Twitter, Facebook, Tencent , Cisco , UnderArmour , Box , Microsoft , VMware , CSC , Macy's , Sesame Workshop ,

6649-421: The company more manageable and to streamline IBM by having other investors finance those companies. These included AdStar , dedicated to disk drives and other data storage products; IBM Application Business Systems, dedicated to mid-range computers; IBM Enterprise Systems, dedicated to mainframes; Pennant Systems, dedicated to mid-range and large printers; Lexmark , dedicated to small printers; and more. Lexmark

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6758-503: The concept of C0 and C1 control codes from ISO 2022, although it adds other non-printing characters besides the ISO 2022 control codes. However, Unicode transformation formats such as UTF-8 generally deviate from the ISO 2022 structure in various ways, including: ISO 2022 escape sequences do, however, exist for switching to and from UTF-8 as a " coding system different from that of ISO 2022 ", which are supported by certain terminal emulators such as xterm . ISO/IEC 2022 specifies

6867-513: The contemporary version of the standard allowed multi-byte sets only in G0, so must be accepted in place of the sequences ESC $ ( @ through ESC $ ( B to designate to the G0 character set. There are additional (rarely used) features for switching control character sets, but this is a single-level lookup, in that (as noted above) the C0 set is always invoked over CL, and the C1 set is always invoked over CR or by using escape codes. As noted above, it

6976-434: The designation or other function which they perform is below. Note that the registry of F bytes is independent for the different types. The 94-character graphic set designated by ESC ( A through ESC + A is not related in any way to the 96-character set designated by ESC - A through ESC / A . And neither of those is related to the 94 -character set designated by ESC $ ( A through ESC $ + A , and so on;

7085-475: The early 1930s. This equipment was critical to Nazi efforts to categorize citizens of both Germany and other nations that fell under Nazi control through ongoing censuses. These census data were used to facilitate the round-up of Jews and other targeted groups, and to catalog their movements through the machinery of the Holocaust , including internment in the concentration camps. Nazi concentration camps operated

7194-553: The end of 2017, as CEO of Kyndryl. In 2021, IBM announced the acquisition of the enterprise software company Turbonomic for $ 1.5 billion. In January 2022, IBM announced it would sell Watson Health to private equity firm Francisco Partners . On March 7, 2022, a few days after the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine , IBM CEO Arvind Krishna published a Ukrainian flag and announced that "we have suspended all business in Russia". All Russian articles were also removed from

7303-445: The enterprise-oriented Personal Systems Group of the IBM PC Co. into IBM's own Global Services personal computer consulting and customer service division. The resulting merged business units then became known simply as IBM Personal Systems Group. A year later, IBM stopped selling their computers at retail outlets after their market share in this sector had fallen considerably behind competitors Compaq and Dell . Immediately afterwards,

7412-516: The escape sequences listed below, whereas the others are part of a C0 or C1 control code set (as shown below, SI (LS0) and SO (LS1) are C0 controls and SS2 and SS3 are C1 controls), meaning that their coding and availability may vary depending on which control sets are designated: they must be present in the designated control sets if their functionality is used. The C1 controls themselves, as mentioned above, may be represented using escape sequences or 8-bit bytes, but not both. Alternative encodings of

7521-453: The final bytes must be interpreted in context. (Indeed, without any intermediate bytes, ESC A is a way of specifying the C1 control code 0x81.) IBM International Business Machines Corporation (using the trademark IBM ), nicknamed Big Blue , is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York and present in over 175 countries. It is

7630-492: The first time to upgrade to models with greater computing capability without having to rewrite their applications. It was followed by the IBM System/370 in 1970. Together the 360 and 370 made the IBM mainframe the dominant mainframe computer and the dominant computing platform in the industry throughout this period and into the early 1980s. They and the operating systems that ran on them such as OS/VS1 and MVS , and

7739-683: The following: A specific implementation does not have to implement all of the standard; the conformance level and the supported character sets are defined by the implementation. Although many of the mechanisms defined by the ISO/IEC 2022 standard are infrequently used, several established encodings are based on a subset of the ISO/IEC 2022 system. In particular, 7-bit encoding systems using ISO/IEC 2022 mechanisms include ISO-2022-JP (or JIS encoding ), which has primarily been used in Japanese-language e-mail . 8-bit encoding systems conforming to ISO/IEC 2022 include ISO/IEC 4873 (ECMA-43), which

7848-490: The form ESC ( ! F have been assigned. At the other extreme, no multibyte 96-sets have been registered, so the sequences below are strictly theoretical. As with other escape sequence types, the range 0x30–0x3F is reserved for private-use F bytes, in this case for private-use character set definitions (which might include unregistered sets defined by protocols such as ARIB STD-B24 or MARC-8 , or vendor-specific sets such as DEC Special Graphics ). However, in

7957-492: The graphical set in question. ISO 2022 / ECMA-35 also recognizes the use of the backspace and carriage return control characters as means of combining otherwise spacing characters, as well as the CSI sequence "Graphic Character Combination" (GCC) ( CSI 0x20 (SP) 0x5F (_) ). Use of the backspace and carriage return in this manner is permitted by ISO/IEC 646 but prohibited by ISO/IEC 4873 / ECMA-43 and by ISO/IEC 8859 , on

8066-749: The larger ones. In New York City, IBM has several offices besides CHQ, including the IBM Watson headquarters at Astor Place in Manhattan. Outside of New York, major campuses in the United States include Austin, Texas ; Research Triangle Park (Raleigh-Durham), North Carolina ; Rochester, Minnesota ; and Silicon Valley, California . IBM's real estate holdings are varied and globally diverse. Towers occupied by IBM include 1250 René-Lévesque (Montreal, Canada) and One Atlantic Center (Atlanta, Georgia, US). In Beijing, China, IBM occupies Pangu Plaza ,

8175-442: The last used code point in the standard version of the extension). In the second edition of the standard, published in 1992, a much larger collection of hanzi was defined across seven planes. A subset of the 1988 plane 14 extension, including the 6148 code points 01-01 through 66–38, became plane 3 (with the remaining 171 characters, code points 66-39 through 68–21, being instead distributed amongst plane 4). The plane 15 extension

8284-570: The late 19th century. Julius E. Pitrap patented the computing scale in 1885; Alexander Dey invented the dial recorder (1888); Herman Hollerith patented the Electric Tabulating Machine (1889); and Willard Bundy invented a time clock to record workers' arrival and departure times on a paper tape (1889). On June 16, 1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming

8393-451: The latest being the IBM z series. The most recent model, the IBM z16 , was released in 2022. In 1990, IBM released the Power microprocessors , which were designed into many console gaming systems, including Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , and Nintendo 's Wii U . IBM Secure Blue is encryption hardware that can be built into microprocessors, and in 2014, the company revealed TrueNorth ,

8502-419: The left side of a character code table, are referred to as "GL" codes (with "GL" standing for "graphics left") while bytes from the "high ASCII" range (0xA0–0xFF), if available (i.e. in an 8-bit environment), are referred to as the "GR" codes ("graphics right") . The terms "CL" (0x00–0x1F) and "CR" (0x80–0x9F) are defined for the control ranges, but the CL range always invokes the primary (C0) controls, whereas

8611-425: The longer term. The key trends of IBM are (as at the financial year ending December 31): The company's 15-member board of directors are responsible for overall corporate management and includes the current or former CEOs of Anthem , Dow Chemical , Johnson and Johnson , Royal Dutch Shell , UPS , and Vanguard as well as the president of Cornell University and a retired U.S. Navy admiral . Vanguard Group

8720-537: The maximum of 256 which can be represented in a single byte, and were first represented on computers with language-specific double-byte encodings or variable-width encodings ; some of these (such as the Simplified Chinese encoding GB 2312 ) conform to ISO 2022 , while others (such as the Traditional Chinese encoding Big5 ) do not. Control codes in ISO 2022 are always represented with

8829-585: The mid-1950s. There are two other IBM buildings within walking distance of CHQ: the North Castle office, which previously served as IBM's headquarters; and the Louis V. Gerstner, Jr., Center for Learning (formerly known as IBM Learning Center (ILC)), a resort hotel and training center, which has 182 guest rooms, 31 meeting rooms, and various amenities. IBM operates in 174 countries as of 2016 , with mobility centers in smaller market areas and major campuses in

8938-613: The middleware built on top of those such as the CICS transaction processing monitor, had a near-monopoly-level market share and became the thing IBM was most known for during this period. In 1969, the United States of America alleged that IBM violated the Sherman Antitrust Act by monopolizing or attempting to monopolize the general-purpose electronic digital computer system market, specifically computers designed primarily for business, and subsequently alleged that IBM violated

9047-450: The most powerful in the world in the 21st century. As one of the world's oldest and largest technology companies, IBM has been responsible for several technological innovations , including the automated teller machine (ATM), dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), the floppy disk , the hard disk drive , the magnetic stripe card , the relational database , the SQL programming language , and

9156-400: The parent company of Sesame Street , and Salesforce.com . In 2015, its chip division transitioned to a fabless model with semiconductors design, offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries . In 2015, IBM announced three major acquisitions: Merge Healthcare for $ 1 billion, data storage vendor Cleversafe , and all digital assets from The Weather Company , including Weather.com and

9265-408: The patterns defined within the standard. Character encodings making use of these escape sequences require data to be processed sequentially in a forward direction, since the correct interpretation of the data depends on previously encountered escape sequences. Specific profiles such as ISO-2022-JP may impose extra conditions, such as that the current character set is reset to US-ASCII before the end of

9374-777: The range ESC 0x23 (#) [ I ...] 0x40 (@) through ESC 0x23 (#) [ I ...] 0x7E (~) ), although no "3Ft" sequences are currently assigned (as of 2019). Some of these are specified in ECMA-35 (ISO 2022 / ANSI X3.41), others in ECMA-48 (ISO 6429 / ANSI X3.64). ECMA-48 refers to these as "independent control functions". Escape sequences of type "Fp" ( ESC 0x30 (0) through ESC 0x3F (?) ) or of type "3Fp" ( ESC 0x23 (#) [ I ...] 0x30 (0) through ESC 0x23 (#) [ I ...] 0x3F (?) ) are reserved for single private use control codes, by prior agreement between parties. Several such sequences of both types are used by DEC terminals such as

9483-446: The range 0x20–0x2F, then by a single byte in the range 0x40–0x7E, the entire sequence being called a "control sequence". Each of the four working sets G0 through G3 may be a 94-character set or a 94 -character multi-byte set . Additionally, G1 through G3 may be a 96- or 96 -character set. In a 96- or 96 -character set, the bytes 0x20 through 0x7F when GL-invoked, or 0xA0 through 0xFF when GR-invoked, are allocated to and may be used by

9592-427: The range 0x30–0x3F are reserved for unregistered private uses defined by prior agreement between parties. Control functions from some sets may make use of further bytes following the escape sequence proper. For example, the ISO 6429 control function " Control Sequence Introducer ", which can be represented using an escape sequence, is followed by zero or more bytes in the range 0x30–0x3F, then zero or more bytes in

9701-669: The same pair of C0 control characters (0x0F and 0x0E) as the names "shift in" (SI) and "shift out" (SO). However, the standard refers to them as LS0 and LS1 when they are used in 8-bit environments and as SI and SO when they are used in 7-bit environments. The ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 standard permits, but discourages, invoking G1, G2 or G3 in both GL and GR simultaneously. The ISO International register of coded character sets to be used with escape sequences (ISO-IR) lists graphical character sets, control code sets, single control codes and so forth which have been registered for use with ISO/IEC 2022. The procedure for registering codes and sets with

9810-440: The set is single-byte or multi-byte (although not how many bytes it uses if it is multi-byte), and also whether each byte has 94 or 96 permitted values. ISO/IEC 2022 coding specifies a two-layer mapping between character codes and displayed characters. Escape sequences allow any of a large registry of graphic character sets to be "designated" into one of four working sets, named G0 through G3, and shorter control sequences specify

9919-455: The set. In a 94- or 94 -character set, the bytes 0x20 and 0x7F are not used. When a 96- or 96 -character set is invoked in the GL region, the space and delete characters (codes 0x20 and 0x7F) are not available until a 94- or 94 -character set (such as the G0 set) is invoked in GL. 96-character sets cannot be designated to G0. Registration of a set as a 96-character set does not necessarily mean that

10028-424: The sets (e.g. JIS X 0201 ), although some instead have GR codes specifying G2 characters, with the corresponding 7-bit code using a single-shift code to access the second set (e.g. T.51 ). The codes shown in the table below are the most common encodings of these control codes, conforming to ISO/IEC 6429 . The LS2, LS3, LS1R, LS2R and LS3R shifts are registered as single control functions and are always encoded as

10137-403: The single-shift area. This must be specified in the definition of the code version. For instance, ISO/IEC 4873 specifies GL, whereas packed EUC specifies GR. In 7-bit environments, only GL is used as the single-shift area. If necessary, which single-shift area is used may be communicated using announcer sequences . The names "locking shift zero" (LS0) and "locking shift one" (LS1) refer to

10246-468: The single-shifts as C0 control codes are available in certain control code sets. For example, SS2 and SS3 are usually available at 0x19 and 0x1D respectively in T.51 and T.61 . This coding is currently recommended by ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 for applications requiring 7-bit single-byte representations of SS2 and SS3, and may also be used for SS2 only, although older code sets with SS2 at 0x1C also exist, and were mentioned as such in an earlier edition of

10355-521: The standard. The 0x8E and 0x8F coding of the single shifts as shown below is mandatory for ISO/IEC 4873 levels 2 and 3. Although officially considered shift codes and named accordingly, single-shift codes are not always viewed as shifts, and they may simply be viewed as prefix bytes (i.e. the first bytes in a multi-byte sequence), since they do not require the encoder to keep the currently active set as state , unlike locking shift codes. In 8-bit environments, either GL or GR, but not both, may be used as

10464-542: The string ISO 646-1983//CHARSET International Reference Version (IRV)//ESC 2/5 4/0 can be used to identify the International Reference Version of ISO 646 -1983, and the HTML 4.01 specification uses ISO Registration Number 177//CHARSET ISO/IEC 10646-1:1993 UCS-4 with implementation level 3//ESC 2/5 2/15 4/6 to identify Unicode. The textual representation of the escape sequence, included in

10573-458: The third element of the FPI, will be recognised by SGML implementations for supported character sets. Escape sequences to designate character sets take the form ESC I [ I ...] F . As mentioned above, the intermediate ( I ) bytes are from the range 0x20–0x2F, and the final ( F ) byte is from the range 0x30–0x7E. The first I byte (or, for a multi-byte set, the first two) identifies

10682-543: The time the biggest in American corporate history. Lou Gerstner was hired as CEO from RJR Nabisco to turn the company around. In 1995, IBM purchased Lotus Software , best known for its Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet software. During the decade, IBM was working on a new operating system, named the Workplace OS project. Despite a large amount of money spent on the project, it was cancelled in 1996. In 1998, IBM merged

10791-424: The two-byte character sets, the code point of each character is normally specified in so-called row-cell or kuten form, which comprises two numbers between 1 and 94 inclusive, specifying a row and cell of that character within the zone. For a three-byte set, an additional plane number is included at the beginning. The escape sequences do not only declare which character set is being used, but also whether

10900-423: The type of character set and the working set it is to be designated to, whereas the F byte (and any additional I bytes) identify the character set itself, as assigned in the ISO-IR register (or, for the private-use escape sequences, by prior agreement). Additional I bytes may be added before the F byte to extend the F byte range. This is currently only used with 94-character sets, where codes of

11009-608: The vacuum tube based IBM 701 , in 1952. The IBM 305 RAMAC introduced the hard disk drive in 1956. The company switched to transistorized designs with the 7000 and 1400 series, beginning in 1958. In which, IBM considered the 1400 series the ''model T'' of computing, due to it being the first computer with over ten thousand sales by IBM. In 1956, the company demonstrated the first practical example of artificial intelligence when Arthur L. Samuel of IBM's Poughkeepsie , New York, laboratory programmed an IBM 704 not merely to play checkers but "learn" from its own experience. In 1957,

11118-410: The working set that is "invoked" to interpret bytes in the stream. Encoding byte values ("bit combinations") are often given in column-line notation , where two decimal numbers in the range 00–15 (each corresponding to a single hexadecimal digit) are separated by a slash. Hence, for instance, codes 2/0 (0x20) through 2/15 (0x2F) inclusive may be referred to as "column 02". This is the notation used in

11227-488: Was acquired by Clayton & Dubilier in a leveraged buyout shortly after its formation. In September 1992, IBM completed the spin-off of their various non-mainframe and non-midrange, personal computer manufacturing divisions, combining them into an autonomous wholly owned subsidiary known as the IBM Personal Computer Company (IBM PC Co.). This corporate restructuring came after IBM reported

11336-400: Was completely out of IBM. IBM is headquartered in Armonk, New York , a community 37 miles (60 km) north of Midtown Manhattan. A nickname for the company is the " Colossus of Armonk ". Its principal building, referred to as CHQ, is a 283,000-square-foot (26,300 m ) glass and stone edifice on a 25-acre (10 ha) parcel amid a 432-acre former apple orchard the company purchased in

11445-400: Was exhibited on Jeopardy! where it won against game-show champions Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter. The company also celebrated its 100th anniversary in the same year on June 16. In 2012, IBM announced it had agreed to buy Kenexa and Texas Memory Systems, and a year later it also acquired SoftLayer Technologies, a web hosting service , in a deal worth around $ 2 billion. Also that year,

11554-488: Was not included, although 338 of its characters were included amongst planes 4 through 7. The third edition of the standard, published in 2007, added the Euro sign , ideographic zero, kana and extensions to the existing bopomofo and Roman alphabet support to plane 1. It introduced planes 10 through 14, containing additional hanzi, and incorporated the existing plane 15 extension into the standard itself (with gaps left where

11663-640: Was originally part of the joint venture and was sold by LG in 2012. Continuing a trend started in the 1990s of downsizing its operations and divesting from commodity production , IBM sold all of its personal computer business to Chinese technology company Lenovo and, in 2009, it acquired software company SPSS Inc. Later in 2009, IBM's Blue Gene supercomputing program was awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation by U.S. President Barack Obama . In 2011, IBM gained worldwide attention for its artificial intelligence program Watson , which

11772-507: Was recognized with the 1990 Honor Award from the National Building Museum . IBM has a large and diverse portfolio of products and services. As of 2016 , these offerings fall into the categories of cloud computing , artificial intelligence, commerce , data and analytics , Internet of things (IoT), IT infrastructure , mobile , digital workplace and cybersecurity . Since 1954, IBM sells mainframe computers ,

11881-480: Was valued at over $ 153 billion as of May 2024. Despite its relative decline within the technology sector, IBM remains the seventh largest technology company by revenue, and 67th largest overall company by revenue in the United States . IBM ranked No. 38 on the 2020 Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue. In 2014, IBM was accused of using "financial engineering" to hit its quarterly earnings targets rather than investing for

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