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124-465: The Yokot'an inhabit 21 towns in a large area known as "la Chontalpa " that extends across five municipalities of Tabasco : Centla , El Centro , Jonuta , Macuspana , and Nacajuca . In Nacajuca, they form a majority of the population. The terrain is highly varied — no single landform dominates — and it has many bodies of water. The land is traversed by seasonally-flooding rivers, and there are numerous lakes, lagoons, and wetlands. The climate

248-499: A South dialect centered in Macuspana . Most speakers are bilingual, speaking Spanish as well. Natural resources include petroleum deposits, fertile soils, and lakes and shoreline for fishing. The main economic activities of the region are agriculture, livestock and oil drilling. The economic development of the 20th century brought infrastructure such as modern roadways. This led to an abundance of construction jobs, often filled by

372-484: A brief copulatory jump. Females give birth to one to three spotted young, known as fawns, in mid-to-late spring, generally in May or June. Fawns lose their spots during the first summer and weigh from 20 to 35 kg (44 to 77 lb) by the first winter. Male fawns tend to be slightly larger and heavier than females. For the first four weeks, fawns are hidden in vegetation by their mothers, who nurse them four to five times

496-679: A chemical euthanizing agent or extermination by firearm. A main issue in questioning the humaneness of this method is the stress that the deer endure while trapped and awaiting extermination. Nonlethal methods include contraceptive injections, sterilization, and translocation of deer. While lethal methods have municipal support as being the most effective in the short term, some opponents of this view suggest that extermination has no significant impact on deer populations. Opponents of contraceptive methods point out that fertility control cannot provide meat and proves ineffective over time as populations in open-field systems move about. Concerns are voiced that

620-432: A complex number of white-tailed deer subspecies that range from Guatemala to as far south as Peru. This list of subspecies of deer is more exhaustive than the list of North American subspecies, and the number of subspecies is also questionable. However, the white-tailed deer populations in these areas are difficult to study, due to overhunting in many parts and a lack of protection. Some areas no longer carry deer, so assessing

744-432: A day. This strategy keeps scent levels low to avoid predators. After about a month, the fawns are then able to follow their mothers on foraging trips. They are usually weaned after 8–10 weeks, but cases have been seen where mothers have continued to allow nursing long after the fawns have lost their spots (for several months, or until the end of fall) as seen by rehabilitators and other studies. Males leave their mothers after

868-433: A different and specific function that allows the deer to eat a variety of different foods, digesting it at a later time in a safe area of cover. The stomach hosts a complex set of microbes that change as the deer's diet changes through the seasons. If the microbes necessary for digestion of a particular food (e.g., hay) are absent, it will not be digested. Utilizing foregut fermentation , the fermented ingesta (known as cud )

992-474: A golden eagle was filmed in Illinois unsuccessfully trying to prey on a large mature white-tailed deer. White-tailed deer typically respond to the presence of potential predators by breathing very heavily (also called blowing) and fleeing. When they blow, the sound alerts other deer in the area. As they run, the flash of their white tails warns other deer. This especially serves to warn fawns when their mother

1116-451: A high-pitched squeal, known as a bleat, to call out to their mothers. This bleat deepens as the fawn grows until it becomes the grunt of the mature deer, a guttural sound that attracts the attention of any other deer in the area. A doe makes maternal grunts when searching for her bedded fawns. Bucks also grunt, at a pitch lower than that of the doe; this grunt deepens as the buck matures. In addition to grunting, both does and bucks also snort,

1240-455: A month before velvet sheds. Healthy deer in some areas that are well-fed can have eight-point branching antlers as yearlings (1.5 years old). Although antler size typically increases with age, antler characteristics (e.g., number of points, length, or thickness of the antlers) are not good indicators of buck age, in general, because antler development is influenced by the local environment. The individual deer's nutritional needs for antler growth

1364-497: A result, family cohesion has suffered and traditions, especially those pertaining to the traditional economy, are not as well preserved. There is also a major alcoholism problem caused by difficulty adapting to mainstream Mexican society and the comparative wealth experienced by recent arrivals to the cities. Chontalpa Chontalpa is an area in the Mexican state of Tabasco , which consists of four municipalities in

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1488-556: A role in the overpopulation issues with this species. Coyotes, widespread and with a rapidly expanding population, are often the only major nonhuman predator of the species in the Eastern U.S., besides an occasional domestic dog . In some areas, American black bears are also significant predators. In north-central Pennsylvania, black bears were found to be nearly as common predators of fawns as coyotes. Bobcats, still fairly widespread, usually only exploit deer as prey when smaller prey

1612-548: A safety color on caps and clothing to avoid accidental shootings during hunting seasons. Males regrow their antlers every year. About one in 10,000 females also has antlers, although this is usually associated with freemartinism . Bucks without branching antlers are often termed "spikehorn", "spiked bucks", "spike bucks", or simply "spikes/spikers". The spikes can be quite long or very short. Length and branching of antlers are determined by nutrition, age, and genetics. Rack growth tends to be very important from late spring until about

1736-577: A sound that often signals an imminent threat. Mature bucks also produce a grunt-snort-wheeze pattern, unique to each animal, that asserts its dominance, aggression, and hostility. White-tailed deer also use "tail-flagging," a behavior where the tail is raised when they detect a threat. However, the function of this behavior is disputed, and it appears to be a signal to predators more than an intraspecific communication warning other deer. White-tailed deer possess many glands that allow them to produce scents , some of which are so potent they can be detected by

1860-740: A wide variety of habitats . The largest deer occur in the temperate regions of North America. The northern white-tailed deer ( O. v. borealis ), Dakota white-tailed deer ( O. v. dacotensis ), and northwest white-tailed deer ( O. v. ochrourus ) are some of the largest animals, with large antlers. The smallest deer occur in the Florida Keys and in partially wooded lowlands in the Neotropics . Although most often thought of as forest animals depending on relatively small openings and edges, white-tailed deer can equally adapt themselves to life in more open prairie, savanna woodlands, and sage communities as in

1984-423: A year and females leave after two. Bucks are generally sexually mature at 1.5 years old and begin to breed even in populations stacked with older bucks. White-tailed deer have many forms of communication involving sounds, scent, body language, and marking. In addition to the blowing as mentioned above in the presence of danger, all white-tailed deer can produce audible noises unique to each animal. Fawns release

2108-494: Is a major one. Any time the temperature rises above 4 °C (40 °F), the males do much less traveling looking for females, else they will be subject to overheating or dehydrating. Another factor for the strength of rutting activity is competition. If numerous males are in a particular area, then they compete more with the females. If fewer males or more females are present, then the selection process will not need to be as competitive. Females enter estrus , colloquially called

2232-610: Is a state protected area on the Colegio de Postgraduado-Campus Tabasco campus founded in 1995 with 277 hectares. It is one of the last remains of the medium growth evergreen rainforest of Tabasco dominated by a tree called “canacoite” ( Bravaisia integerrima ). The reserve has 247 species of plants with some in danger of extinction. Other plants include cachimbo ( Platymiscium yucatanum ), tinco ( Vatairea lundelii ) and zapote prieto ( Diospyros digyna ). Wildlife includes mammals (20.2%), birds (61.3%), reptiles (10.9%) and amphibians (7.6%). It

2356-621: Is alarmed to warn the predator that it has been detected. An indication of a deer's age is the length of the snout and the color of the coat, with older deer tending to have longer snouts and grayer coats. A population of white-tailed deer in New York is entirely white except for the nose and hooves – not albino – in color. The former Seneca Army Depot in Romulus , New York , has the largest known concentration of white deer . Strong conservation efforts have allowed white deer to thrive within

2480-406: Is alarmed. Most natural predators of white-tailed deer hunt by ambush, although canids may engage in an extended chase, hoping to exhaust the prey. Felids typically try to suffocate the deer by biting the throat. Cougars and jaguars will initially knock the deer off balance with their powerful forelegs, whereas the smaller bobcats and lynxes will jump astride the deer to deliver a killing bite. In

2604-550: Is also used by moose in some areas. White-tailed deer may occur in areas that are also exploited by elk (wapiti) such as in mixed deciduous river valley bottomlands and formerly in the mixed deciduous forest of eastern United States. In places such as Glacier National Park in Montana and several national parks in the Columbian Mountains ( Mount Revelstoke National Park ) and Canadian Rocky Mountains, as well as in

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2728-565: Is among the largest deer species in North America, and also one of the largest in South America, and is one of the largest behind only to the marsh deer in South America. Deer have dichromatic (two-color) vision with blue and yellow primaries; humans normally have trichromatic vision. Thus, deer poorly distinguish the oranges and reds that stand out so well to humans. This makes it very convenient to use deer-hunter orange as

2852-539: Is an accepted version of this page 38, see text The white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ), also known commonly as the whitetail and the Virginia deer , is a medium-sized species of deer native to North America, Central America, and South America as far south as Peru and Bolivia, where it predominately inhabits high mountain terrains of the Andes . It has also been introduced to New Zealand , all

2976-476: Is celebrated for the flood season. During the 1980s, the Catholic Church sought to decrease the influence of Protestant missionaries, who had established themselves in the region as stalwarts against alcoholism and la costumbre , or traditional Maya religious practices. In response, the Catholic Church formed groups of neighborhood catechists to take a hardline stance. They gave Catholic studies of

3100-476: Is considered healthy and is approximately equal to the historical pre-colonization white-tailed population on the continent. The species has rebounded considerably after being overhunted nearly to extinction in the late 1800s and very early 1900s. By contrast, the species' closest cousins ( blacktail deer and mule deer ) have seen their populations cut by more than half in North America after peaking in 1960 and have never regained their pre-colonization numbers. In

3224-491: Is dependent on the diet of the deer, particularly protein intake. Good antler-growth nutritional needs (calcium) and good genetics combine to produce wall trophies in some of their range. Spiked bucks are different from "button bucks" or "nubbin' bucks", that are male fawns and are generally about six to nine months of age during their first winter. They have skin-covered nobs on their heads. They can have bony protrusions up to 10 mm ( 1 ⁄ 2  in) in length, but that

3348-544: Is derived from the Nahuatl meaning “land of foreigners.” However, the modern region is not defined by the presence of the Chontal Maya but rather by economic considerations. Over seventy percent of the state's Chontal Maya population is divided between the municipalities of Nacajuaca which is in the region and Centro (Villahermosa), which is just outside it. Nacajuca has the largest percentage of indigenous population in

3472-439: Is generally done in under one of these awnings. One modern element of house construction that has been incorporated is the use of nails. The Yoko'tan family is nuclear, monogamous, and cohesive. There is a tendency to marry young, and gender roles are specifically defined. Nonetheless, women are accorded more respect in traditional villages than in villages with high mestizo populations. The original mythology and cosmogony of

3596-581: Is humid and tropical, and the fauna was typical of tropical regions until the environment was altered by human industrialization . The mangrove is the predominant form of vegetation. The territory of the Yokot'an was the cradle of the Olmec civilization, which lived there from about 1400 BCE until about 400 BCE. The Maya civilization reached its height in about the year 300 of the Common Era . At this time,

3720-428: Is larger farther away from the equator. North American male deer (also known as a buck) usually weigh 68 to 136 kg (150 to 300 lb), but mature bucks over 180 kg (400 lb) have been recorded in the northernmost reaches of their native range, namely Minnesota, Ontario, and Manitoba. In 1926, Carl J. Lenander Jr. took a white-tailed buck near Tofte, Minnesota, that weighed 183 kg (403 lb) after it

3844-718: Is located just off the Cárdenas-Coatzacoalco highway. It has a population of 593,668 with about 41% living in urban areas and the rest in rural areas. Much of the state's Chontal Maya population is located in the region, especially in the Nacajuca municipality. The name “chontal” comes from Nahuatl and means “foreigner” but their name for themselves is yoko yinikob (true men) and yoko ixikob (true women). They are not related to groups in Guerrero and Oaxaca which are also called Chontals. The name “Chontalpa”

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3968-511: Is mostly displaced by the black-tailed or mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ) from that point west except for mixed deciduous riparian corridors, river valley bottomlands, and lower foothills of the northern Rocky Mountain region from Wyoming west to eastern Washington and eastern Oregon and north to northeastern British Columbia and southern Yukon , including in the Montana valley and foothill grasslands . The westernmost population of

4092-545: Is no longer profitable. The agriculture of the Yokot'an has been studied extensively and has been shown to be related to ancient Maya agrarian methods. They cultivate high-altitude lands that are enriched with mineral-rich loam by flooding. The principal crop is maize . Agriculture has been in decline since the Spanish conquest of Mexico , when animal husbandry was introduced. Maize, beans, and squash are planted seasonally. While fishing may have been as an important part of

4216-417: Is not considered the critical factor preventing hemlock re-establishment at large scales. Ecologists have also expressed concern over the facilitative effect high deer populations have on invasions of exotic plant species. In a study of eastern hemlock forests, browsing by white-tailed deer caused populations of three exotic plants to rise faster than they do in the areas which are absent of deer. Seedlings of

4340-576: Is not the only way deer can shift the balance in favor of nutrient competitors. Deer consuming earlier-succession plants allows in enough light for nutrient competitors to invade. Since slow-growing oaks need several decades to develop root systems sufficient to compete with faster-growing species, removal of the canopy prior to that point amplifies the effect of deer on succession. High-density deer populations possibly could browse eastern hemlock seedlings out of existence in northern hardwood forests; however, this scenario seems unlikely, given that deer browsing

4464-586: Is officially a subregion of the Grijalva, which is defined as lands in Tabasco reliant on the Grijalva River and related surface water. It consists of the municipalities of Huimanguillo , Cárdenas , Comalcalco and Paraíso , with its capital as the city of Comalcalco. It is the second largest of Tabasco's subregions with an area of 7,482.12km2, representing 31.08% of the state. Chontalpa borders

4588-434: Is regurgitated and chewed again, to mix it with saliva and reduce the particle size. Smaller particle size allows for increased nutrient absorption and the saliva is important because it provides liquid for the microbial population, recirculates nitrogen and minerals, and acts as a buffer for the rumen pH. There are several natural predators of white-tailed deer, with wolves , cougars , American alligators , jaguars (in

4712-417: Is scarce. Discussions have occurred regarding the possible reintroduction of gray wolves and cougars to sections of the eastern United States, largely because of the apparent controlling effect they have through deer predation on local ecosystems, as has been illustrated in the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park and their controlling effect on previously overpopulated elk . However, due to

4836-520: Is the possible spreading of chronic wasting disease to unaffected deer populations and concerns about exposure to human populations. In addition to the danger of deer-vehicle collisions the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) reported that the estimated loss in field crops, nuts, fruits, and vegetables in 2001 was near $ 765 million, (equivalent to $ 1.26 billion in 2023). Males compete for

4960-408: Is the use of extended hunting as population control, as well as a way to provide meat for humans. In Maryland and many other states, a state agency sets regulations on bag limits and hunting in the area depending on the deer population levels assessed. Hunting seasons may fluctuate in duration, or restrictions may be set to affect how many deer or what type of deer can be hunted in certain regions. For

5084-413: Is very rare, and they are not the same as spikes. Antlers begin to grow in late spring, covered with a highly vascularised tissue known as velvet. Bucks either have a typical or atypical antler arrangement. Typical antlers are symmetrical and the points grow straight up off the main beam. Atypical antlers are asymmetrical and the points may project at any angle from the main beam. These descriptions are not

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5208-431: The Andes are larger than other tropical deer of this species and have thick, slightly woolly-looking fur. Length ranges from 95 to 220 cm (37 to 87 in), including a tail of 10 to 37 cm (4 to 15 in), and the shoulder height is 53 to 120 cm (21 to 47 in). Including all races, the average summer weight of adult males is 68 kg (150 lb) and is 45 kg (100 lb) in adult females. It

5332-636: The Edwards Plateau of central Texas. Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, Mississippi, Missouri, New Jersey, Illinois, Wisconsin, Maryland, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, and Indiana also boast high deer densities. The conversion of land adjacent to the Canadian Rockies to agriculture use and partial clear-cutting of coniferous trees , resulting in widespread deciduous vegetation, has been favorable to the white-tailed deer and has pushed its distribution to as far north as Yukon. Populations of deer around

5456-527: The Great Lakes have expanded their range northwards, also due to conversion of land to agricultural use, with local caribou , elk , and moose populations declining. White-tailed deer are crepuscular, meaning they are most active during the dawn and dusk hours. Some taxonomists have attempted to separate white-tailed deer into a host of subspecies , based largely on morphological differences. Genetic studies, however, suggest fewer subspecies within

5580-814: The Greater Antilles in the Caribbean ( Cuba , Jamaica , Hispaniola , and Puerto Rico ), and some countries in Europe , such as the Czech Republic , Finland , France , Germany , Romania and Serbia . In the Americas, it is the most widely distributed wild ungulate . In North America, the species is widely distributed east of the Rocky Mountains as well as in southwestern Arizona and most of Mexico, except Lower California . It

5704-605: The Gulf of Mexico to the north, the state of Chiapas to the south, the state of Veracruz to the west and the municipalities of Centla , Centro (Villahermosa) and Jalpa de Méndez to the east. Like the rest of Tabasco, the Chontalpa region is mostly flat floodplain with a small area of highlands along the border with Chiapas. The floodplain is low, with an average of only ten meters above sea level with areas below sea level. Elevations generally do not exceed forty meters, but

5828-568: The Llanos region of Colombia and Venezuela ( O. v. apurensis and O. v. gymnotis ) have antler dimensions similar to the Arizona white-tailed deer. In some western regions of North America, the white-tailed deer range overlaps with those of the mule deer . White-tail incursions in the Trans-Pecos region of Texas have resulted in some hybrids. In the extreme north of the range, their habitat

5952-548: The Mecoacán Lagoon . It also means that the flat areas of the region are highly susceptible to flooding, including the 2007 Tabasco flood . These were caused by unusually heavy rain in October of that year brought in by multiple cold fronts, bringing in a record of 1,054mm of rain to the region in only three days. However, significant flooding is relatively frequent with major events occurring in 2008 and 2009. In 2009,

6076-760: The Southern United States , are descended from white-tailed deer transplanted from various localities east of the Continental Divide . Some of these deer populations may have been from as far north as the Great Lakes region to as far west as Texas, yet are also quite at home in the Appalachian and Piedmont regions of the south. These deer, over time, have intermixed with the local indigenous deer ( O. v. virginianus and/or O. v. macrourus ) populations. Central and South America have

6200-525: The hunting of small game. In the Terminal Classic period Chontal Maya merchants controlled river and coastal trade routes in the Maya lowlands. Another source of income is palm-wood artisanry. In the past, the manufacture of oyster -shell lime for mortar was an important economic activity, but the availability of mass-produced building materials has reduced demand to the point where its production

6324-429: The rut , in the autumn, normally in late October or early November, triggered mainly by the declining photoperiod . Sexual maturation of females depends on population density , as well as the availability of food. Young females often flee from an area heavily populated with males. Some does may be as young as six months when they reach sexual maturity, but the average age of maturity is 18 months. Copulation consists of

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6448-427: The 2015–2016 white-tailed deer-hunting season, some areas allowed only the hunting of antlerless white-tailed deer. These included young bucks and females, encouraging the culling of does which would otherwise contribute to increasing populations via offspring production. A more targeted yet more expensive removal strategy than public hunting is a method referred to as sharpshooting. Sharpshooting can be an option when

6572-704: The 20th century with modernization such as the daily use of traditional clothing and most do not live in traditional houses, rather have houses similar to the rest of Tabasco with running water and electricity. However, the Chontal Maya language perseveres with increases in the number of native speakers in the past decades. The language is of the Mayan family, most closely related to the Ch'ol of Chiapas. Chontal Maya has several mutually intelligible dialects with three main ones, North and Tapotzingo found in and around Nacajuca and

6696-623: The 20th century, which today offered guided tours. It and others such as the La Chonita Hacienda are part of The Cacao Route. These establishments often offer tours, workshops and other services such as accommodations, food service, recreational activities and more. The route has the only museum dedicated to cacao and chocolate. It also has a number of Chontal communities such Cupilco, the Comalcalco arqueological zone and Paraíso with its beaches. Most oil drilling occurs around

6820-401: The 21st century, the loss of natural predators has been more than offset by the ongoing loss of natural habitat to human development, and changes to logging operations. Several methods have been developed to curb the population of white-tailed deer in suburban areas where they are perceived as overabundant, and these can be separated into lethal and nonlethal strategies. Most common in the U.S.

6944-625: The American southwest, Mexico, and Central and South America) and humans being the most effective natural predators. Aside from humans, these predators frequently pick out easily caught young or infirm deer (which is believed to improve the genetic stock of a population), but can and do take healthy adults of any size. Bobcats , Canada lynx , grizzly and American black bears , wolverines , and packs of coyotes usually prey mainly on fawns. Bears may sometimes attack adult deer, while lynxes, coyotes, and wolverines are most likely to take adult deer when

7068-513: The Blasillo River caused major flooding affecting 4,500 families. Wild vegetation is that associated with wetlands both on land and aquatic. This includes the popal-tular tree ( Thalia geniculata ), kapoks ( Ceiba petandra ), palo mulato ( Bursera simaruba ), zapote ( Pachira aquatic ), maculis ( Tebebuia rosea ) and royal palm ( Royestonea regia ) . Rainforest used to cover much of the area but now are only found in about four percent of

7192-547: The Central American deer, consists of savannas, dry deciduous forests, and riparian corridors that cover much of Venezuela and eastern Colombia. The other type is the higher elevation mountain grassland/mixed forest ecozones in the Andes Mountains, from Venezuela to Peru. The Andean white-tailed deer seem to retain gray coats due to the colder weather at high altitudes, whereas the lowland savanna forms retain

7316-523: The Chontal Maya. Cultivated crops include cacao , coconut , bananas, sugar cane , pineapple, citrus fruits, corn and beans. Mass livestock raising was introduced with the Plan Chontalpa, especially cattle and sheep. One means to exploit the extensive wetlands is through a project to create “camellones chontales” (Chontal ridges). These are based on the ancient Aztec technique of chinampas to create areas of artificial land. The project began in

7440-525: The Chontal village of Tucta in the municipality of Nacajuca in the 1970s. The projects created platforms of land separated by canals. The platforms measure twenty by twenty meters with canals among them to introduce native fish and aquatic plant species for subsistence. Chontalpa has most of the cacao plantations of Tabasco. One of these is the La Luz Hacienda, which was founded at the beginning of

7564-540: The Gospel, discouraged the making of ofrendas (dedications to saints upon the building or purchase of a new house). They even discouraged music and dance. This strong Catholic stance against la costumbre prompted a general withdrawal of the people from service to the Church and the decentralization of feast day celebration. Now the feasts are celebrated privately, among the family. Most Yoko'tan are bilingual. Yoko ochoco

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7688-599: The Grijalva River Commission, following similar projects by predecessors for the Papaloapan and Tepalcatepec River areas in the 1940s. One of the goals of this project was to alleviate the poverty of the region due to lack of economic development, especially in rural areas. The project was undertaken in an area not well known to the engineers with the aim of draining and converting to farmland 50,000 hectares or about fifteen hectares per family. Much of

7812-713: The North Plaza, the Grand Acropolis and the East Acropolis. The architectural style is similar to Palenque but made with bricks instead of stone. The Grand Acropolis is the most important group of monumental buildings, which are also the tallest. There is a site museum with ceramics and other pieces on display. Although Comalcalco is the best known Mayan site in Chontalpa, it is not the only one. There are numerous small sites. One of these in Malpasito near

7936-524: The Olmec civilization, the first major culture of Mesoamerica. The site shows a number of the characteristics of Olmec culture, including depictions of jaguars, colossal heads and images of figures of rotund children. The site dates back to about 1000 BCE and declined around 400 CE, replaced in importance by San Lorenzo. The museum associated with La Venta is in Villahermosa proper called Parque Museo de la Venta. It contain thirty three major pieces from

8060-514: The Southwest, with impressive antlers that might rival deer found in Canada and the northern United States. Populations of Arizona ( O. v. couesi ) and Carmen Mountains ( O. v. carminis ) white-tailed deer inhabit montane mixed oak and pine woodland communities. The Arizona and Carmen Mountains deer are smaller, but may also have impressive antlers, considering their size. The white-tailed deer of

8184-479: The Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. These savanna-adapted deer have relatively large antlers in proportion to their body size and large tails. Also, a noticeable difference exists in size between male and female deer of the savannas. The Texas white-tailed deer ( O. v. texanus ), of the prairies and oak savannas of Texas and parts of Mexico, are the largest savanna-adapted deer in

8308-492: The Yokot'an economy as agriculture in Pre-Columbian times, today, due to environmental degradation , it doesn't have the same importance. The people continue, however, to fish, especially during periods of abundance. There are three main groups of fishermen. The " libre " ("free") fishermen use very simple "hoop and basket" technology and work in small groups led by an elected "boss". Members of official cooperatives enjoy

8432-607: The Yokot'an is only beginning to be studied. Their myths are filled with supernatural water- and mangrove-creatures, and the story of La Llorona is also told. Public religious displays center around feast days due the adoption of the Catholic faith. The most important feasts are of Our Lady of Mount Carmel , the Immaculate Conception (December 8), and the Archangel Michael (September 29). April 29

8556-423: The Yokot'an were also at their cultural apex. They had already begun to decline by the time of the Spanish conquest of Yucatán , and are mentioned in the narratives of Bernal Díaz del Castillo and Hernán Cortés . In 1518, Juan de Grijalva arrived in Yokot'an lands, and was greeted with hostility. The next year, Cortés's expedition reached Tabasco, and he met with Tabscoob and other chiefs , who supplied him

8680-568: The Yukon Territory ( Yoho National Park and Kootenay National Park ), white-tailed deer are shy and more reclusive than the coexisting mule deer, elk, and moose. Central American white-tailed deer prefer tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests , seasonal mixed deciduous forests, savanna, and adjacent wetland habitats over dense tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests . South American subspecies of white-tailed deer live in two types of environments. The first type, similar to

8804-475: The Zoques found in the highland area. The Nahuas were dispersed in various areas. Because of the wetlands created by the flow of the rivers, much of this area was inaccessible for hundreds of years. However, during the colonial period various haciendas were established in the region to produce cacao, livestock and other products. The indigenous population diminished greatly and almost disappeared with estimates of

8928-613: The animal's range, as compared to the 30 to 40 subspecies that some scientists have described in the last century. The Florida Key deer , O. v. clavium , and the Columbian white-tailed deer, O. v. leucurus , are both listed as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act . In the United States, the Virginia white-tail, O. v. virginianus , is among the most widespread subspecies. Several local deer populations, especially in

9052-411: The area inhabited by the deer is unfit for public hunting. This strategy may work in areas close to human populations, since it is done by professional marksmen, and requires a submitted plan of action to the city with details of the time and location of the action, as well as number of deer to be culled. Another controversial method involves trapping the deer in a net or other trap, and then administering

9176-443: The area were earning twenty times that previously. The Chontalpa Plan did benefit the families that lived in the wetlands of the Chontalpa area but at the expense of the environment. The destruction of the rainforest in the area was swift with outside mechanized equipment and administration. Although originally promoted as a project for local ejidos , it quickly became controlled by elements of Mexico's elite. Initial expropriation of

9300-567: The area's rivers, especially the Amatan and Oxlotan, with rainfalls up to 4,000 mm per year. Other important rivers in the flat areas include the Samaría, Mezcalpa, Tonalá and Santana. This means that large quantities of fresh water flows towards the Gulf of Mexico. In addition to rivers, this also produces large areas of lakes, marshes and other wetlands and lagoons around estuaries such as

9424-519: The area's wild vegetation include a number of wildlife reserves. The Parque Estatal de la Sierra or Sierra State Park is located in the municipalities of Tacotalpa and Teapa . It also includes the village of Oxolotan, which is a traditional indigenous community and Tapijulapa , a Pueblo Mágico . The Villa Luz Ecological Reserve extends over forty hectares, with eighty percent covered in dense vegetation and in all there are various streams both fresh water and sulfur laced liquid which rise from springs in

9548-512: The area—for breeding purposes. The scent from the metatarsal glands, found on the outside of each hind leg, between the ankle and hooves, may be used as an alarm scent. The scent from the interdigital glands, which are located between the hooves of each foot, emit a yellow waxy substance with an offensive odor. Deer can be seen stomping their hooves if they sense danger through sight, sound, or smell; this action leaves an excessive amount of odor for warning other deer of possible danger. Throughout

9672-624: The availability of food sources. They also eat hay, grass, white clover, and other foods they can find in a farmyard. Though almost entirely herbivorous, white-tailed deer have been known to opportunistically feed on nesting songbirds, field mice, and birds trapped in mist nets , if the need arises. When additional amounts of minerals such as calcium are needed in their diet, they can resort to osteophagy , chewing on bones of dead animals. A grown deer can eat around 900 kg (2,000 lb) of vegetable matter annually. A population of around 8 deer per square kilometre (20 /sq mi) can start to destroy

9796-590: The benefits of official organization, but are often underpaid. The third group consists of well-equipped business owners who work with contractors. The raising of livestock, unlike fishing, is a growing sector of the economy, often at the expense of agriculture. Many shallow lagoons formerly used for fishing have been drained for use as pastureland. The Yoko'tan hunt game such as the White-tailed deer , but small game has much more importance. Hats are woven from palm and sleeping mats called petates are woven from

9920-425: The breeding season, does release hormones and pheromones that tell bucks a doe is in heat and able to breed. Bucks also rub trees and shrubs with their antlers and heads during the breeding season, possibly transferring scent from the forehead glands to the tree, leaving a scent other deer can detect. Sign-post marking (scrapes and rubs) is a very obvious way white-tailed deer communicate. Although bucks do most of

10044-423: The case of canids and wolverines, the predators bite at the limbs and flanks, hobbling the deer, until they can reach vital organs and kill it through loss of blood. Bears, which usually target fawns, often simply knock down the prey and then start eating it while it is still alive. Alligators snatch deer as they try to drink from or cross bodies of water, grabbing them with their powerful jaws and dragging them into

10168-467: The communities of La Venta, Cárdenas, Paraíso and Cunduacán . The economic boom due to oil has made the cities of Cárdenas and Comalcalco the second and third most important in the state. In the area which is now Chontalpa, various ethnicities such as the Chontal Maya, Zoques and Nahuas inhabited before the arrival of the Spanish. The Chontal Maya were found around the rivers in the flatlands, with

10292-408: The confines of the depot. The white-tailed deer's horizontally slit pupil allows for good night vision and color vision during the day. Whitetails process visual images at a much more rapid rate than humans and are better at detecting motion in low-light conditions. The white-tailed deer is highly variable in size, generally following both Allen's rule and Bergmann's rule that the average size

10416-478: The contraceptives have not been adequately researched for the effect they could have on humans. Fertility control also does nothing to affect the current population and the effects their grazing may be having on the forest plant make-up. Translocation has been considered overly costly for the little benefit it provides. Deer experience high stress and are at high risk of dying in the process, putting into question its humaneness. Another concern regarding translocation

10540-402: The deer's front hooves before rub-urination ). The tarsal glands are found on the upper inside of the hock (middle joint) on each hind leg. The scent is deposited from these glands when deer walk through and rub against vegetation. These scrapes are used by bucks as a sort of "sign-post" by which bucks know which other bucks are in the area, and to let does know a buck is regularly passing through

10664-514: The deforestation of the region has occurred as a result of the Chontalpa Plan, which began in the 1960s to drain areas of wetlands to convert them into farm and pasture land. Wildlife has been seriously harmed by the activities of man but still include iguanas and other lizards, various species of birds and other reptiles such as freshwater turtles although a number of these are in danger of extinction. Attempts to preserve what it left of

10788-485: The earth. The Oxolotan River also passes through with several waterfalls, as well as the Sardinas Cave which has almost 1500 meters of explored area. The Kolem Jaa Ecological Ranch is a reserve of rainforest and springs with sulfur water. It is part of a reforestation effort in the higher elevations of the region. It contains a botanical garden with a large collection of orchids. The La Chontalpa Ecological Reserve

10912-447: The entire state. Wetlands with reeds and mangroves are still common. The mangrove forests of the region are home to over 100 species and are a main source of oxygenation. They also work to prevent erosion and to control pollution. However, deforestation of mature mangroves in the area continues to be a serious problem despite government efforts to replant. The problem is the cutting of the plants for wood by local residents. Most of

11036-465: The fastest of all deer, alongside the Eurasian roe deer . They can also jump 3 m (9 ft) high and up to 9 m (30 ft) forward. When shot at, a white-tailed deer will run at high speeds with its tail down. If frightened, the deer will hop in a zig-zag with its tail straight up. If the deer feels extremely threatened, however, it may choose to attack, charging the person or predator posing

11160-618: The fibers of cañita , the Cyperus giganteus , but the primary craft of the Yoko'tan people is the dugout canoe and its smaller counterpart, the cayuco , which is used for fishing and to reach the many islands used for planting. Traditional houses are rectangular in shape, made of palm, wood and are supported by six to eight posts. The roofs are steep to minimize the effect of the heavy rains, and are built by hired professionals. Houses tend to be surrounded by overhangs for outdoor work. Kitchen work

11284-526: The first in New Spain to give obedience to His Majesty. In 1614, the first church was built in Nacajuca, then considered the center of the Yokot'an world. Nacajuca was the only urban center to survive the colonial period , partly due to the introduction of animal husbandry, which limited the range of cultivation. The traditional economy is based on agriculture , fishing , the raising of livestock , and

11408-458: The forehead glands. White-tailed deer have long been hunted as game , for pure sport and for their commodities , and is probably the most hunted native big game species in the Americas . In Mesoamerica, white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) were hunted from very early times. Rites and rituals in preparation for deer hunting and celebration for an auspicious hunt are still practiced in

11532-484: The forest environment in their foraging area. Their diet consists mostly of woody shoots, stems, and leaves of woody plants as well as grasses, cultivated crops, nuts, berries, and wildflowers. The items they feed on are not generally abundant in mature forests and are mostly found at "edges". Edges are described as a "mosaic of vegetation types that create numerous interwoven 'edges' where their respective boundaries intersect" and provide optimum cover for browsers such as

11656-451: The genetic difference of these animals is difficult. There are 26 subspecies; seventeen of these occur in North America, ordered alphabetically. (Numbers in parentheses are range map locations.) The white-tailed deer's coat is a reddish-brown in the spring and summer, and turns to a grey-brown throughout the fall and winter. The white-tailed deer can be recognized by the characteristic white underside to its tail. It raises its tail when it

11780-581: The growth rates of important canopy trees, perhaps by increased nutrient inputs into the soil. In northeastern hardwood forests, high-density deer populations affect plant succession, particularly following clear-cuts and patch cuts. In succession without deer, annual herbs and woody plants are followed by commercially valuable, shade-tolerant oak and maple. The shade-tolerant trees prevent the invasion of less commercial cherry and American beech, which are stronger nutrient competitors, but not as shade tolerant. Although deer eat shade-tolerant plants and acorns, this

11904-632: The heavy urban development in much of the Eastern U.S., and fear for livestock and human lives, such ideas have ultimately been rejected by local communities and/or by government services and have not been carried through. In areas where they are heavily hunted by humans, deer run almost immediately from people and are quite wary even where not heavily hunted. White-tailed deer can run faster than their predators and have been recorded sprinting at speeds of 60 km (40 mi) per hour and sustaining speeds of 50 km (30 mi) per hour over distances of 5–6 km (3–4 mi); this ranks them amongst

12028-493: The highest is Mono Pelado at 970 meters above sea level. The climate is hot and humid with most rains in the summer and fall (Am (f) gw). It is subjects to numerous storms and even hurricanes coming in from the Gulf of Mexico with an average annual rainfall of about 2000 mm. These storms are unimpeded by the low flat plain, with the elevations near the Chiapas border the first barrier. The rain that falls here feeds much of

12152-417: The human nose. Four major glands are the preorbital, forehead, tarsal, and metatarsal glands. Secretions from the preorbital glands (in front of the eye) were thought to be rubbed on tree branches, but research suggests this is not so. Scent from the forehead or sudoriferous glands (found on the head, between the antlers and eyes) is used to deposit scent on branches that overhang scrapes (areas scraped by

12276-531: The land went for the production of corn, cacao and bananas. The work of the Grijalva River Commission had a substantial impact on the Chontalpa Region especially in its center. It led to the formation of the Unión de Ejidos Colectivos which included various pre existing ejido organization along with state and federal authorities to give farmers credit and other economic assistance. By the 1960s, families in

12400-485: The local population and PEMEX, including legal actions, protests and event the blocking of oil facilities. Another major factor in the economic development and environmental degradation of the region was the implementation of the Chontalpa Plan. This was a plan introduced by the federal government to develop the hydroelectric potential of the area's rivers, and convert wetlands into those suitable for agricultural production. In 1951, President Miguel Alemán Valdés created

12524-422: The loss as high as ninety percent due to disease and abuse at the hands of the Spanish. While the area, nor the rest of the state, developed economically as other areas of New Spain, it was still considered important as a transit point and for its production of cacao. Despite Independence , little changed in the area economically until the latter 20th century, mostly due to the discovery of petroleum. Today, most in

12648-491: The marking, does visit these locations often. To make a rub, a buck uses his antlers to strip the bark off small-diameter trees, helping to mark his territory and polish his antlers. To mark areas they regularly pass through, bucks make scrapes. Often occurring in patterns known as scrape lines, scrapes are areas where a buck has used his front hooves to expose bare earth. They often rub-urinate into these scrapes, which are often found under twigs that have been marked with scent from

12772-480: The northwestern part of the state. Although the name refers to the state's Chontal Maya population, modern Chontalpa is a subregion of the Grijalva Region, and formed with economic concerns in mind. A large percentage of the state's Chontal Maya population does live here, with the municipality of Nacajuca having the largest concentration of indigenous, with the next largest concentration found just east of

12896-533: The only limitations for typical and atypical antler arrangement. The Boone and Crockett or Pope and Young scoring systems also define relative degrees of typicality and atypicality by procedures to measure what proportion of the antlers is asymmetrical. Therefore, bucks with only slight asymmetry are scored as "typical". A buck's inside spread can be from 8–60 cm (3–25 in). Bucks shed their antlers when all females have been bred, from late December to February. White-tailed deer are generalists and can adapt to

13020-403: The opportunity of breeding females. Sparring among males determines a dominance hierarchy . Bucks attempt to copulate with as many females as possible, losing physical condition, since they rarely eat or rest during the rut. The general geographical trend is for the rut to be shorter in duration at increased latitude. Many factors determine how intense the "rutting season" will be; air temperature

13144-1188: The reddish brown coats. South American white-tailed deer, like those in Central America, also generally avoid dense moist broadleaf forests. Since the second half of the 19th century, white-tailed deer have been introduced to Europe. A population in the Brdy area remains stable today. In 1935, white-tailed deer were introduced to Finland . The introduction was successful, and the deer have recently begun spreading through northern Scandinavia and southern Karelia , competing with, and sometimes displacing, native species. The 2020 population of some 109,000 deer originated from four animals provided by Finnish Americans from Minnesota. White-tailed deer eat large amounts of food, commonly eating legumes and foraging on other plants, including shoots , leaves, cacti (in deserts), prairie forbs, and grasses . They also eat acorns, fruit, and corn. Their multi-chambered stomachs allow them to eat some foods humans cannot, such as mushrooms (even those that are toxic to humans) and poison ivy . Their diets vary by season according to

13268-508: The region are not employed in agriculture. Oil drilling began in the 1950s, with the production initially for domestic use. Large scale drilling began in the 1970s for foreign income, controlled by the state oil company PEMEX . It became the major income producer in the 1970s. It also signaled the beginning of ecological damage in the region, although drilling was not the only factor. Environmental damage since this time has affected fishing, agriculture and livestock, leading to tensions between

13392-467: The region in the Villahermosa area. The subregion's economy is based on agriculture, especially livestock production as well as oil drilling, which have been at odds with each other because of severe degradation of the environment since the mid 20th century. Chontalpa is also home to Tabasco's two main archeological sites, La Venta and Comalcalco , along with numerous smaller sites. The Chontalpa

13516-481: The same time, increases in browse-tolerant grasses and sedges and unpalatable ferns have often accompanied intensive deer herbivory. Changes to the structure of forest understories have, in turn, altered the composition and abundance of forest bird communities in some areas. In regions of intermediate density, deer activity has also been shown to increase herbaceous plant diversity, particularly in disturbed areas, by reducing competitively dominant plants; and to increase

13640-504: The site and includes displays about Olmec customs, government, astronomy and writing. This park was created in the 1950s by writer Carlos Pellicer to protect the most important pieces of the archeological site. There are also exhibits on the flora and fauna of the area. The Comalcalco archeological site is in the center of the region. Comalcalco is distinct from other Mayan sites as its monumental structure are made of adobe , rather than stone. There are three main groups of buildings called

13764-647: The species, known as the Columbian white-tailed deer , was once widespread in the mixed forests along the Willamette and Cowlitz River valleys of western Oregon and southwestern Washington, but current numbers are considerably reduced, and it is classified as near-threatened. This population is separated from other white-tailed deer populations. Texas is home to the most white-tailed deer of any U.S. state or Canadian province, with an estimated population of 5.3 million. High populations of white-tailed deer exist in

13888-538: The state, with about 37% of the population of Nacajuca speaking Chontal. Estimates of the indigenous population is inexact because the official census only counts speakers of indigenous language and since it is not known how the Chontal Maya define themselves and who is a member of the ethnicity. Relatively little is known about the Chontal Maya culture and daily life in comparison to other indigenous groups in Mexico. The Chontales lost several aspects of their culture in

14012-410: The threat, using its antlers or, if none are present, its head to fight off its target. In certain parts of eastern North America, high deer densities have caused large reductions in plant biomass, including the density and heights of certain forest wildflowers, tree seedlings, and shrubs. Although they can be seen as a nuisance species, white-tailed deer also play an important role in biodiversity. At

14136-412: The three invading species rose exponentially with deer density, while the most common native species fell exponentially with deer density, because deer were preferentially eating the native species. The effects of deer on the invasive and native plants were magnified in cases of canopy disturbance. The white-tailed deer population in North America has declined by several million since 2000, but as of 2017

14260-434: The town of Huimanguillo which is identified as both Mayan and Zoque. The main buildings surround a plaza and include a Mesoamerican ball courts and a temazcal . It also includes about sixty stones finely sculpted with figures of animals, humans and geometric designs. 18°2′47.92″N 93°35′33.11″W  /  18.0466444°N 93.5925306°W  / 18.0466444; -93.5925306 White-tailed deer This

14384-478: The translator who later became known as Doña Marina or La Malinche . According to Díaz, "Before we left, Cortés won the chiefs by his many kind words, telling them how our master, the Emperor, had many grand lords who gave him obedience and that they should also obey him ; that whatever they might need we would give them. All the chiefs thanked him very much and declared themselves vassals of our great emperor,

14508-546: The ungulates are weakened by harsh winter weather. Many scavengers rely on deer as carrion, including New World vultures , raptors , red and gray foxes , and corvids . Few wild predators can afford to be picky and any will readily consume deer as carrion. Records exist of American crows and common ravens attempting to prey on white-tailed deer fawns by pecking around their face and eyes, though no accounts of success are given. Occasionally, both golden and bald eagles may capture deer fawns with their talons. In one case,

14632-507: The water to drown. Most primary natural predators of white-tailed deer have been essentially extirpated in eastern North America, with a very small number of reintroduced critically endangered red wolves , around North Carolina and a small remnant population of Florida panthers , a subspecies of the cougar. Gray wolves , the leading cause of deer mortality where they overlap, co-occur with whitetails in northern Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, and most of Canada. This almost certainly plays

14756-425: The water's salinity. Some species have been driven to extinction and others have abandoned the affected habitats, reducing the average catch. The mangrove has receded and has thus been able to provide fewer forest resources. These actions have spurred local peoples movements against Pemex and their contractors. The environmental degradation has driven many Yokot'an, especially men, to urban centers for employment. As

14880-475: The wetlands was indiscriminate and those who opposed it were forcibly ejected. The political economic system became oriented towards meeting the interests of outside metropolitan areas. Chontalpa is home to the two most important archeological sites in the state, La Venta and Comalcalco , which represent the Olmec and Maya civilizations respectively. La Venta was the most important civic-religious center of

15004-420: The white-tailed deer. White-tailed deer can easily thrive in suburban areas, as a combination of increased safety from some predators (including human hunting), high quality and abundance of foods in home gardens, city parks, open farmland, and other factors all create landscapes with an abundance of edge habitat. The white-tailed deer is a ruminant , which means it has a four-chambered stomach. Each chamber has

15128-403: The year, deer rub-urinate , a process during which a deer squats while urinating so the urine will run down the insides of the deer's legs, over the tarsal glands, and onto the hair covering these glands. Bucks rub-urinate more frequently during the breeding season. Secretions from the preputial glands and tarsal glands mix with the urine and bacteria to produce a strong-smelling odor. During

15252-458: Was field-dressed (internal organs and blood removed) and was estimated at 232 kg (511 lb) when alive. The female (doe) in North America usually weighs from 40 to 90 kg (88 to 198 lb). White-tailed deer from the tropics and the Florida Keys are markedly smaller-bodied than temperate populations, averaging 35 to 50 kg (77 to 110 lb), with an occasional adult female as small as 25 kg (55 lb). White-tailed deer from

15376-427: Was in danger of dying out, but flourished in the 1980s after official preservation efforts. Environmental decline began with the draining of shallow lakes for pastureland when the raising of livestock was introduced. Land formerly used for cultivation was also used for grazing. More recently, Pemex has extensively polluted the waters of northern Tabasco and caused other ecologically-threatening changes such as altering

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