Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius ( German pronunciation: [ˈʁuːdɔlf ˈklaʊzi̯ʊs] ; 2 January 1822 – 24 August 1888) was a German physicist and mathematician and is considered one of the central founding fathers of the science of thermodynamics . By his restatement of Sadi Carnot 's principle known as the Carnot cycle , he gave the theory of heat a truer and sounder basis. His most important paper, "On the Moving Force of Heat", published in 1850, first stated the basic ideas of the second law of thermodynamics . In 1865 he introduced the concept of entropy . In 1870 he introduced the virial theorem , which applied to heat .
47-881: Clausius was born in Köslin (now Koszalin , Poland) in the Province of Pomerania in Prussia . His father was a Protestant pastor and school inspector, and Rudolf studied in the school of his father. In 1838, he went to the Gymnasium in Stettin . Clausius graduated from the University of Berlin in 1844 where he had studied mathematics and physics since 1840 with, among others, Gustav Magnus , Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet , and Jakob Steiner . He also studied history with Leopold von Ranke . During 1848, he got his doctorate from
94-519: A Bachelor of Arts degree in 1951. He remained at Columbia for graduate school , obtaining a Master of Arts degree in 1953 and a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in 1954. His PhD was on the subject of muonic atoms , with Robert Serber as his thesis advisor . Cooper spent one year as a postdoctoral researcher at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. New Jersey. He then taught at
141-524: A blue sky during the day, and various shades of red at sunrise and sunset (among other phenomena) due to reflection and refraction of light. Later, Lord Rayleigh would show that it was in fact due to the scattering of light. His most famous paper, Ueber die bewegende Kraft der Wärme ("On the Moving Force of Heat and the Laws of Heat which may be Deduced Therefrom") was published in 1850, and dealt with
188-657: A conflict between the city of Koszalin and the Pomeranian duke Bogislaw X broke out, resulting in the kidnapping and temporary imprisonment of the duke in Koszalin. As a result of German colonization , the town became mostly German-speaking, putting indigenous Slavic speakers at disadvantage. In 1516 local Germans enforced a ban on buying goods from Slavic speakers. It was also forbidden to accept native Slavs to craft guilds, which indicates ethnic discrimination. In 1531 riots took place between supporters and opponents of
235-623: A second time, to Kay Allard. He died at his home in Providence, Rhode Island , on October 23, 2024, at the age of 94. While Cooper was a postdoc in Princeton, he was approached by John Bardeen , a professor at the University of Illinois, and Bardeen's graduate student John Robert Schrieffer . Bardeen and Schrieffer were working on superconductivity , a topic which was new to Cooper but he agreed to collaborate with them. Superconductivity had been experimentally discovered in 1911 , but there
282-717: A vassal state of Poland , which separated from Poland after the fragmentation of Poland into smaller duchies, and became a vassal of Denmark in 1185 and a part of the Holy Roman Empire from 1227. In 1214, Bogislaw II , Duke of Pomerania , made a donation of a village known as Koszalice/Cossalitz by Chełmska Hill in Kołobrzeg Land to the Norbertine monastery in Białoboki near Trzebiatów . New, mostly German , settlers from outside of Pomerania were invited to settle
329-531: A very low electrical resistance . After further development, Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer showed how this could produce superconductivity, publishing their theory in Physical Reviews in two papers during 1957. This theory became known as the BCS theory , after the authors' initials, and is widely accepted as the explanation for conventional superconductivity . Bardeen, Schrieffer and Cooper were awarded
376-483: Is known to be the oldest festival of young cinema in Poland. Among the filmmakers who debuted with their films at the festival are Krzysztof Zanussi , Krzysztof Kieślowski , Agnieszka Holland , Filip Bajon and Barbara Sass . Koszalin is twinned with: Leon Cooper Leon N. Cooper ( né Kupchik ; February 28, 1930 – October 23, 2024) was an American theoretical physicist and neuroscientist . He won
423-692: Is located 12 kilometres (7 miles) south of the Baltic Sea coast, and intersected by the river Dzierżęcinka . Koszalin is also a county-status city and capital of Koszalin County of West Pomeranian Voivodeship . Human settlement in Koszalin dates back to prehistoric times. Various traces of human settlement of the Funnelbeaker , Globular Amphora and Lusatian cultures and from ancient Roman times and Early Middle Ages were discovered during archaeological excavations . The territory became part of
470-551: Is located on the hill. At the entrance to the sanctuary there is a monument dedicated to the Polish November insurgents of 1831, who, imprisoned by Prussian authorities, built a road connecting Koszalin with nearby Sianów . Koszalin's most distinctive landmark is the Gothic St. Mary's Cathedral, dating from the early 14th century. Positioned in front of the cathedral is a monument commemorating John Paul II's visit to
517-607: The Franco-Prussian War . He was wounded in battle, leaving him with a lasting disability. He was awarded the Iron Cross for his services. His wife, Adelheid Rimpau died in 1875, leaving him to raise their six children. In 1886, he married Sophie Sack, and then had another child. Two years later, on 24 August 1888, he died in Bonn , Germany. Clausius's PhD thesis concerning the refraction of light proposed that we see
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#1732772955785564-655: The Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey , and at CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) in Geneva , Switzerland. Along with colleague Charles Elbaum , he founded the tech company Nestor in 1975, which sought commercial applications for artificial neural networks . Nestor partnered with Intel to develop the Ni1000 neural network computer chip in 1994. Cooper first married Martha Kennedy, with whom he had two daughters. In 1969, he married for
611-786: The Nazi Party took power in Germany in 1933, a Gestapo station was established in the city and mass arrests of Nazi opponents were carried out. After the Nazis had closed down Dietrich Bonhoeffer 's seminar in Finkenwalde (Zdroje, Szczecin) in 1937, Bonhoeffer chose the town as one of the sites where he illegally continued to educate vicars of the Confessing Church . During the Second World War Köslin
658-735: The Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on superconductivity . Cooper developed the concept of Cooper pairs and collaborated with John Bardeen and John Robert Schrieffer to develop the BCS theory of conventional superconductivity . In neuroscience, Cooper co-developed the BCM theory of synaptic plasticity . Leon N. Kupchick was born in the Bronx , New York City on February 28, 1930. His middle initial N. does not stand for anything, though some sources erroneously suggested his middle name
705-492: The Nobel Prize in Physics in 1972 for their theory. After joining Brown University, Cooper became interested in neuroscience , particularly the process of learning . In 1982, Cooper and two doctoral students, Elie Bienenstock and Paul Munro, published their theory of synaptic plasticity in The Journal of Neuroscience . They estimated the weakening and strengthening of synapses that could occur without saturation of
752-534: The Protestant Reformation . In 1534 the city became mostly Lutheran under the influence of Johannes Bugenhagen . In 1568, John Frederick, Duke of Pomerania and bishop of Cammin , started constructing a residence, finished by his successor Casimir VI of Pomerania in 1582. After the 1637 death of the last Pomeranian duke, Bogislaw XIV , the city passed to his cousin, Bishop Ernst Bogislaw von Croÿ of Kammin. Occupied by Swedish troops during
799-478: The Province of Pomerania . The Fürstenthum District was dissolved on 1 September 1872 and replaced with the Cöslin District on December 13. Between 1829 and 1845, a road connecting Cöslin (Koszalin) with Stettin (Szczecin) and Danzig (Gdańsk) was built. Part of this road, from Cöslin (Koszalin) to the nearby town of Sianów , was built in 1833 by around one hundred former Polish insurgents . In 1869,
846-653: The Thirty Years' War in 1637, some of the city's inhabitants sought refuge in nearby Poland. The city was granted to Brandenburg-Prussia after the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) and the Treaty of Stettin (1653) , and with all of Farther Pomerania became part of the Brandenburgian Pomerania . Now renamed Cöslin as part of the Kingdom of Prussia , the city was heavily damaged by a fire in 1718, but
893-894: The University of Halle on optical effects in Earth's atmosphere. In 1850 he became professor of physics at the Royal Artillery and Engineering School in Berlin and Privatdozent at the Berlin University. In 1855 he became professor at the ETH Zürich , the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich , where he stayed until 1867. During that year, he moved to Würzburg and two years later, in 1869 to Bonn . In 1870 Clausius organized an ambulance corps in
940-461: The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign and Ohio State University before joining Brown University in 1958. He would remain at Brown for the rest of his career. Cooper founded Brown's Institute for Brain and Neural Systems in 1973, becoming its first director. In 1974 he was appointed Professor of Science at Brown, an endowed chair funded by Thomas J. Watson Sr. Cooper held visiting research positions at various institutions including
987-541: The 19th-century Polish poets Cyprian Norwid and Adam Mickiewicz . Nearby cities: Nearby villages: The climate is oceanic ( Köppen : Cfb ) with some humid continental characteristics ( Dfb ), usually categorized if the 0 °C isotherm is used (for the same classification). Being in Western Pomerania and near the Baltic Sea , it has a much more moderate climate than the other large Polish cities . The summers are warm and practically never hot as in
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#17327729557851034-672: The Saint Joseph church was built by local Poles . The town became part of the German Empire in 1871 during the unification of Germany . The railroad from Stettin through Cöslin and Stolp (Słupsk) to Danzig was constructed from 1858 to 1878. A military cadet school created by Frederick the Great in 1776 was moved from Kulm (Chełmno) to the city in 1890. The Kösliner Zeitung was as a local newspaper published in Köslin. After
1081-516: The Soviets . As early as March 1945 a Polish police unit was established, consisting of former forced labourers and prisoners of war , however, the Soviets, still present in the city, plundered local industrial factories in April. From May 1945, life in the destroyed city was being organized, the first post-war schools, shops and service premises were established. In 1946, the first public library
1128-653: The city was captured by the Red Army . Under the border changes forced by the Soviet Union in the post-war Potsdam Agreement , Koszalin became part of Poland as part of the so-called Recovered Territories . The city's German population that had not yet fled was expelled to the remainder of post-war Germany in accordance to the Potsdam Agreement. The city was resettled by Poles and Kashubians , many of whom had been expelled from Polish territory annexed by
1175-583: The city, including a subcamp of the Stalag II-B POW camp . Polish forced labourers constituted up to 10% of the city's population during the war. Germany also operated a prison in the city, with forced labour subcamps in the region. After crushing the Warsaw Uprising , the Germans brought several transports of Poles from Warsaw to the city, mainly women and children. On 4 March 1945,
1222-635: The city. Other city landmarks include the Park of the Dukes of Pomerania ( Park Książąt Pomorskich ), the Koszalin Museum, the main post office, the 16th-century Wedding Palace and the Culture Centre 105 ( Centrum Kultury 105 ). The city also has monuments dedicated to Polish national heroes: Józef Piłsudski , Władysław Anders , Kazimierz Pułaski , Władysław Sikorski , as well monuments of
1269-501: The concept of ' Mean free path ' of a particle. Clausius deduced the Clausius–Clapeyron relation from thermodynamics. This relation, which is a way of characterizing the phase transition between two states of matter such as solid and liquid , had originally been developed in 1834 by Émile Clapeyron . In 1865, Clausius gave the first mathematical version of the concept of entropy , and also gave it its name. Clausius chose
1316-425: The connections. As synapses saturate, electrical connections become less effective, thereby reducing the saturation. Connections therefore oscillate between saturation and unsaturation without reaching their limits. Their theory explained how the visual cortex works and how people learn to see. It became known as the BCM theory , after the authors' initials. Cooper was the author of Science and Human Experience –
1363-622: The country. The city has organised an annual film festival since 1973 titled Koszalin Festival of Film Debuts "The Youth and Film" ( Polish : Koszaliński Festiwal Debiutów Filmowych "Młodzi i Film" ) with the aim to promote young filmmakers. Since 2007, the festival has been a competition review of Polish debuts ( feature and short films , documentaries and animations ). Besides the competition, there are retrospectives, workshops, and discussions about young cinema entitled "Honesty to Honesty" (Polish: Szczerość za szczerość ). The festival
1410-593: The emerging Polish state under Mieszko I around 967. According to the Medieval Chronicle of Greater Poland ( Kronika Wielkopolska ) Koszalin was one of the Pomeranian cities captured and subjugated by Duke Bolesław III Wrymouth of Poland in 1107 (other towns included Kołobrzeg , Kamień and Wolin ). Afterwards, in the 12th century the area became part of the Griffin -ruled Duchy of Pomerania ,
1457-657: The fastest growing city in Poland. In years 1975-98 it was the capital of the smaller Koszalin Voivodeship . As a result of the Local Government Reorganization Act (1998) Koszalin became part of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship (effective 1 January 1999) regardless of an earlier proposal for a new Middle Pomeranian Voivodeship covering approximately the area of former Koszalin Voivodeship (1950–75). In 1991, Koszalin
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1504-606: The lake and the sea and the castle of Unieście in 1353. Thence, it participated in the Baltic Sea trade as a member of the Hanseatic League (from 1386), which led to several conflicts with the competing seaports of at Kołobrzeg and Darłowo . From 1356 until 1417/1422, the city was part of the Duchy of Pomerania-Wolgast . In 1446 Koszalin fought a victorious battle against the nearby rival city of Kołobrzeg . In 1475
1551-402: The mechanical theory of heat. In this paper, he showed there was a contradiction between Carnot 's principle and the concept of conservation of energy . Clausius restated the two laws of thermodynamics to overcome this contradiction. This paper made him famous among scientists. (The third law was developed by Walther Nernst , during the years 1906–1912). Clausius's most famous statement of
1598-563: The second law of thermodynamics was published in German in 1854, and in English in 1856. Heat can never pass from a colder to a warmer body without some other change, connected therewith, occurring at the same time. During 1857, Clausius contributed to the field of kinetic theory after refining August Krönig 's very simple gas-kinetic model to include translational, rotational and vibrational molecular motions. In this same work he introduced
1645-464: The south and the winters are often more moderate than the northeast and east, although still cold, yet it is not as mild as Western Europe . Daily averages below freezing point can be found in January and February, while in the summer they are between 15 and 16 °C, relatively cool. The average annual precipitation is 704 mm, distributed during the year. Koszalin is one of the sunniest cities in
1692-408: The sovereign in neighboring Kołobrzeg , they moved their residence there, while the administration of the diocese was done from Koszalin. In 1278 a Cistercian monastery was established, which took care of the local parish church and St. Mary chapel on Chełmska Hill. The city obtained direct access to the Baltic Sea when it gained the village of Jamno (1331), parts of Lake Jamno , a spit between
1739-476: The territory. In 1248, the eastern part of Kołobrzeg Land, including the village, was transferred by Duke Barnim I to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kammin . On 23 May 1266, Kammin bishop Hermann von Gleichen granted a charter to the village, granting it Lübeck law , local government, autonomy and multiple privileges to attract German settlers from the west. When in 1276 the bishops became
1786-542: The universe is constant. The entropy of the universe tends to a maximum. Leon Cooper added that in this way he succeeded in coining a word that meant the same thing to everybody: nothing. Koszalin Koszalin ( Polish: [kɔˈʂalin] ; Kashubian : Kòszalëno ; German: Köslin , pronounced [kœsˈliːn] ) is a city in northwestern Poland , in Western Pomerania . It
1833-504: The word because the meaning (from Greek ἐν en "in" and τροπή tropē "transformation") is " content transformative " or " transformation content " (" Verwandlungsinhalt "). I prefer going to the ancient languages for the names of important scientific quantities, so that they may mean the same thing in all living tongues. I propose, accordingly, to call S the entropy of a body, after the Greek word 'transformation'. I have designedly coined
1880-410: The word entropy to be similar to 'energy', for these two quantities are so analogous in their physical significance, that an analogy of denomination seemed to me helpful. He used the now abandoned unit 'Clausius' (symbol: Cl ) for entropy. The landmark 1865 paper in which he introduced the concept of entropy ends with the following summary of the first and second laws of thermodynamics: The energy of
1927-652: Was Neil. His father Irving Kupchik was from Belarus and moved to the United States after the Russian Revolution in 1917. His mother Anna (née Zola) Kupchik was from Poland; she died when Leon was seven. His father later changed the family's surname from Kupchick to Cooper when he remarried. Leon attended the Bronx High School of Science , graduating in 1947 He then studied at Columbia University in nearby Upper Manhattan , receiving
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1974-572: Was no theoretical explanation for the phenomenon. Cooper moved to Illinois as a postdoc to work with Bardeen. After a year of theoretical investigation, Cooper developed the idea of a quasiparticle composed of two bound electrons, now known as a Cooper pair . Cooper published his concept of Cooper pairs in Physical Review in September 1956. The movement of Cooper pairs through a low-temperature metal would be almost unimpeded, producing
2021-465: Was opened, whose director was later Maria Pilecka, the sister of Polish national hero Witold Pilecki . In March 1946, the anti-communist Home Army 5th Wilno Brigade was active in Koszalin. In July 1947, the last units of the Soviet Army left Koszalin, and from that time only Polish troops were stationed in the city. In 1953 a local radio station was founded in Koszalin. Initially, Koszalin
2068-652: Was rebuilt in the following years. In 1764 on the Chełmska Hill, now located within the city limits, a Pole Jan Gelczewski founded a paper mill that supplied numerous city offices. The city was occupied by French troops in 1807 after the War of the Fourth Coalition . Following the Napoleonic wars , it became the capital of Fürstenthum District ( county ) and Regierungsbezirk Cöslin ( government region ) within
2115-440: Was the first post-war regional capital of Polish Western Pomerania, before the administration finally moved to Szczecin in February 1946, after which the region was named the Szczecin Voivodeship . In 1950 this voivodeship was divided into a truncated Szczecin Voivodeship and Koszalin Voivodeship . In years 1950-75 Koszalin was the capital of the enlarged Koszalin Voivodeship sometimes called Middle Pomerania due to becoming
2162-467: Was the site of the first school for the "rocket troops" created on orders of Walter Dornberger , the Wehrmacht 's head of the V-2 design and development program. The Polish resistance conducted espionage of German activity and distributed Polish underground press in the city. The Nazis brought many prisoners of war and forced labourers to the city, mainly Poles, but also Italians and French . The Germans operated several forced labour camps in
2209-413: Was visited by Pope John Paul II . On the fifth anniversary of his visit, his monument was unveiled in the city center. The city borders on Chełmska Hill ( Polish : Góra Chełmska ), a site of pagan worship in prehistory, and upon which is now built the tower "sanctuary of the covenant", which was consecrated by Pope John Paul II in 1991, and is currently a pilgrimage site. Also an observation tower
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