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56-716: The Clay Belt is a vast tract of fertile soil in Canada , stretching across Cochrane District in Ontario and Abitibi County in Quebec , covering 180,000 square kilometres (69,000 sq mi) in total with 120,000 square kilometres (46,000 sq mi) of that in Ontario. It is generally subdivided into the Great Clay Belt to the north running eastward from Kapuskasing , past Lake Abitibi and on to Amos , and

112-539: A buffalo gnat , turkey gnat , or white socks ) is any member of the family Simuliidae of the Culicomorpha infraorder . It is related to the Ceratopogonidae , Chironomidae , and Thaumaleidae . Over 2,200 species of black flies have been formally named, of which 15 are extinct. They are divided into two subfamilies: Parasimuliinae contains only one genus and four species; Simuliinae contains all

168-517: A commercial analysis—e.g. 21-0-0-24 which would contain 21% nitrogen and 24% sulfate. Inorganic fertilizers are generally less expensive and have higher concentrations of nutrients than organic fertilizers. Also, since nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium generally must be in the inorganic forms to be taken up by plants, inorganic fertilizers are generally immediately bioavailable to plants without modification. However, studies suggest that chemical fertilizers have adverse health impacts on humans including

224-452: A limiting factor on plant growth. Peer-reviewed and published scientific studies have shown that increasing CO 2 is highly effective at promoting plant growth up to levels over 300 ppm. Further increases in CO 2 can, to a very small degree, continue to increase net photosynthetic output. Soil depletion occurs when the components which contribute to fertility are removed and not replaced, and

280-487: A number of decisions that depleted the soils, including: allowing herd animals to wander freely, not replenishing soils with manure, and a sequence of events that led to erosion. William Cronon wrote that "...the long-term effect was to put those soils in jeopardy. The removal of the forest, the increase in destructive floods, the soil compaction and close-cropping wrought by grazing animals, ploughing—all served to increase erosion." Cronon continues, explaining, “Where mowing

336-558: A reaction to a compound from the flies' salivary glands . Less common severe allergic reactions may require hospitalization. Repellents provide some protection against biting flies. Products containing the active ingredient ethyl butylacetylaminopropionate (IR3535), DEET ( N , N -diethyl- meta -toluamide), or picaridin are most effective. Some beauty products have been found effective, and their use as insect repellents have been approved by EPA (e.g., Skin So Soft ). However, given

392-479: A somewhat more positive report on the soil and its suitability for farming, saying its future is "bright". Wishing to avoid the "Trent watershed" problem, an earlier failed settlement attempt, he suggested setting up an experimental farm to test what "treatment is necessary on the various soils". Such a farm was set up in Kapuskasing on the west side of the river to explore and develop crops and systems for farming

448-458: Is irrigated with low pH / acidic water , the useful salts (Ca, Mg, K, P, S, etc.) are removed by draining water from the acidic soil and in addition unwanted aluminium and manganese salts to the plants are dissolved from the soil impeding plant growth. When soil is irrigated with high salinity water or sufficient water is not draining out from the irrigated soil, the soil would convert into saline soil or lose its fertility. Saline water enhance

504-454: Is because soil erosion and other forms of soil degradation generally result in a decline in quality with respect to one or more of the aspects indicated above. Soil fertility and quality of land have been impacted by the effects of colonialism and slavery both in the U.S. and globally. The introduction of harmful land practices such as intensive and non-prescribed burnings and deforestation by colonists created long-lasting negative results to

560-542: Is becoming increasingly harder to find and its reserves are starting to be depleted due to the excessive use as a fertilizer. The widespread use of phosphorus in fertilizers has led to pollution and eutrophication . Recently the term peak phosphorus has been coined, due to the limited occurrence of rock phosphate in the world. A wide variety of materials have been described as soil conditioners due to their ability to improve soil quality , including biochar , offering multiple soil health benefits. Food waste compost

616-513: Is eroded or depleted of its original organic material. The Dust Bowl in the Great Plains of North America is a great example of this with about one-half of the original topsoil of the great plains having disappeared since the beginning of agricultural production there in the 1880s. Outside of the context of colonialism topsoil depletion can historically be attributed to many past civilizations' collapses. As historian David Silkenat explains,

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672-643: Is sometimes reflected in the common name for the species. They feed in the daytime, preferably when wind speeds are low. Black flies may be either univoltine or multivoltine , depending on the species. The number of generations a particular pest species has each year tends to correlate with the intensity of human efforts to control those pests. Work conducted at Portsmouth University in 1986–1987 indicates Simulium spp. create highly acidic conditions within their midguts. This acidic environment provides conditions ideally suited to bacteria that metabolise cellulose. Insects cannot metabolise cellulose independently, but

728-421: Is the element in soil that is most often lacking. Nitrogen and potassium are also needed in substantial amounts. For this reason these three elements are always identified on a commercial fertilizer analysis. For example, a 10-10-15 fertilizer has 10 percent nitrogen, 10 percent available phosphorus (P 2 O 5 ) and 15 percent water-soluble potassium (K 2 O). Sulfur is the fourth element that may be identified in

784-570: The Great War . Settlers received homesteads, grants and guaranteed loans and were paid for clearing their own land. However, by 1920 only nine of more than a hundred original settlers remained. The farming consisted of some grains , mostly oats , and vegetables . The Ontario government also passed legislation in 1927 to enable the migration of farmers from barren lands in older parts of the Province, such as Haliburton County , to areas such as

840-403: The maxillae and mandibles , cutting the skin and rupturing its fine capillaries. Feeding is facilitated by a powerful anticoagulant in the flies' saliva , which also partially numbs the site of the bite, reducing the host's awareness of being bitten and thereby extending the flies' feeding time. Biting flies feed during daylight hours only and tend to zero in on areas of thinner skin, such as

896-523: The turgor pressure or osmotic pressure requirement which impedes the off take of water and nutrients by the plant roots. Top soil loss takes place in alkali soils due to erosion by rain water surface flows or drainage as they form colloids (fine mud) in contact with water. Plants absorb water-soluble inorganic salts only from the soil for their growth. Soil as such does not lose fertility just by growing crops but it lose its fertility due to accumulation of unwanted and depletion of wanted inorganic salts from

952-426: The 18th century, the "Golubatz fly" ( Simulium colombaschense ) was a notorious pest in central Europe. Even non-biting clouds of black flies, whether composed of males or of species that do not feed on humans or do not require a blood meal before egg laying, can form a nuisance by swarming into orifices. Bites are shallow and accomplished by first stretching the skin using teeth on the labrum and then abrading it with

1008-521: The Amazon was strongly influenced by the formation of Dark Earth. As a result, Amazonian societies benefitted from the dark earth in terms of agricultural success and enhanced food production. Soil analyses have been completed on the modern and ancient Kuikuro Indigenous Territory in the Upper Xingu River basin in southeastern Amazonia through archaeological and ethnographic research to determine

1064-728: The Amazonian regions of South America, particularly the size of the communities and the depth of interactions with the environment, are continually debated. Central to the debate is the influence of Dark Earth. Dark Earth is a type of soil found in the Amazon that has a darker color, higher organic carbon content, and higher fertility than soil in other regions of South America which makes it highly coveted even today. Dark Earth deposits have been found, through ethnographic and archaeological studies, to have been created through ancient Indigenous practices by intentional soil management. Ethnoarchaeologist Morgan Schmidt outlines how this carbon-rich soil

1120-774: The Americas ( S. callidum and S. metallicum in Central America, S. ochraceum in Central and South America). Eggs are laid in running water, and the larvae attach themselves to rocks. Breeding success is highly sensitive to water pollution. The larvae use tiny hooks at the ends of their abdomens to hold on to the substrate, using silk holdfasts and threads to move or hold their place. They have foldable fans surrounding their mouths, also termed "mouth brushes". The fans expand when feeding, catching passing debris (small organic particles, algae, and bacteria). The larva scrapes

1176-572: The Great Clay Belt virtually ended. One farmer, describing why he returned to urban life, stated that, in the Great Clay Belt, "there are seven months of snow, two months rain, and all the rest is black flies and mosquitoes ." Some of the farmers returned to Toronto and Montreal . Some moved west to the prairie provinces of Manitoba , Saskatchewan and Alberta once the National Transcontinental Railway

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1232-492: The Lesser Clay Belt through the exchange of land. In spite of numerous rocky outcrops some farming was successfully established within the Great Clay Belt, however, it proved to be impractical because of the short growing season. The clay soil is tremendously fertile, but long snowy winters coupled with unpredictable rainfall during the short growing season meant most farming yielded little. By 1935, immigration to

1288-526: The Middle East for example, many countries find it difficult to grow produce because of droughts, lack of soil, and lack of irrigation. The Middle East has three countries that indicate a decline in crop production, the highest rates of productivity decline are found in hilly and dryland areas. Many countries in Africa also undergo a depletion of fertile soil. In regions of dry climate like Sudan and

1344-723: The V-shaped Lesser Clay Belt to its south, running from Englehart down to the Wabi River to the northern tip of Lake Timiskaming , and long the eastern side of Timiskaming and back up to Rouyn-Noranda . The Clay Belt is the result of the draining of the Glacial Lake Ojibway around 8,200 BP, whose lakebed sediment forms the modern landform. The Clay Belt is surrounded by the Canadian Shield , forming an island of "southern flatlands" in

1400-594: The area by tapping its natural resources. Soon after, Bernhard Eduard Fernow traveled the area at the behest of the federal Commission of Conservation, ostensibly to survey the area of the Canadian National Railway transcontinental main line (formerly the Grand Trunk) and the potential for fire. He makes extensive mention of the condition of the timber, and has a somewhat tempered view of their potential commercial value. He then moves on to

1456-668: The area. The Canadian government encouraged immigrants to settle there as farmers during and after World War I . Governments of the day were mistakenly impressed with the agricultural potential of the Great Clay Belt. Under the Soldier Settlement Act, 1917 (shortly replaced by the Soldier Settlement Act, 1919 ) the Soldier Settlement Board established the Kapuskasing Soldier Colony to settle veterans that had returned from

1512-622: The conditions which support soil's fertility are not maintained. This leads to poor crop yields. In agriculture, depletion can be due to excessively intense cultivation and inadequate soil management . Depletion may occur through a variety of other effects, including overtillage (which damages soil structure), underuse of nutrient inputs which leads to mining of the soil nutrient bank, and salinization of soil. Soil fertility can be severely challenged when land-use changes rapidly. For example, in Colonial New England , colonists made

1568-499: The countries that make up the Sahara Desert , droughts and soil degradation is common. Cash crops such as teas, maize, and beans require a variety of nutrients in order to grow healthy. Soil fertility has declined in the farming regions of Africa and the use of artificial and natural fertilizers has been used to regain the nutrients of ground soil. The details of Indigenous societies prior to European colonization in 1492 within

1624-495: The development of chronic disease from the toxins. As for the environment, over-reliance on inorganic fertilizers disrupts the natural nutrient balance in the soil, resulting in lower soil quality, loss of organic matter, and higher chances for erosion in the soil. Additionally, the water-soluble nitrogen in inorganic fertilizers does not provide for the long-term needs of the plant and creates water pollution. Slow-release fertilizers may reduce leaching loss of nutrients and may make

1680-463: The environment naturally intersect in complex and powerful ways, leaving lasting effects from the period of emancipation through modern-day reckonings with racial justice…the land too fell victim to the slave owner’s lash”. One of the most widespread occurrences of soil depletion as of 2008 is in tropical zones where nutrient content of soils is low. The depletion of soil has affected the state of plant life and crops in agriculture in many countries. In

1736-414: The environment. Soil fertility and depletion have different origins and consequences in various parts of the world. The intentional creation of dark earth in the Amazon promotes the important relationship between indigenous communities and their land. In African and Middle Eastern regions, humans and the environment are also altered due to soil depletion. Bioavailable phosphorus (available to soil life)

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1792-687: The fan's catch into its mouth every few seconds. Black flies depend on lotic habitats to bring food to them. They will pupate under water and then emerge in a bubble of air as flying adults. They are often preyed upon by trout during emergence. The larva of some South African species are known to be phoretic on mayfly nymphs. Adult males feed on nectar, while females exhibit anautogeny and feed on blood before laying eggs. Some species in Africa can range as far as 40 mi (64 km) from aquatic breeding sites in search of their blood meals, while other species have more limited ranges. Different species prefer different host sources for their blood meals, which

1848-429: The fortunes of the pulp and paper industries and the mining industries. 49°00′N 81°00′W  /  49.000°N 81.000°W  / 49.000; -81.000 Fertile soil The following properties contribute to soil fertility in most situations: In lands used for agriculture and other human activities, maintenance of soil fertility typically requires the use of soil conservation practices. This

1904-562: The goals of Southern plantation and slave owners, instead of measuring productivity based on outputs per acre, were to maximize the amount of labor that could be extracted from the enslaved workforce. The landscape was seen as disposable, and the African slaves were seen as expendable. Once these Southern farmers forced slaves to leach soils and engage in mass deforestation, they would discard the land and move towards more fertile prospects. The forced slave practices created extensive destruction on

1960-503: The human relation to the soil. The “results demonstrate the intentional creation of dark earth, highlighting how Indigenous knowledge can provide strategies for sustainable rainforest management”. In Egypt, earthworms of the Nile River Valley contributed to the significant fertility of the soils. As a result, Cleopatra declared the earthworm and sacred animal to recognize the animal’s positive impact. No one, including farmers,

2016-438: The intensity, seasonality, and frequency of the burns, the conservation of biodiversity and the overall health of the soil can be negatively impacted by fire. In addition to soil erosion through using too much or too little fire, colonial agriculture also resulted in topsoil depletion. Topsoil depletion occurs when the nutrient-rich organic topsoil , which takes hundreds to thousands of years to build up under natural conditions,

2072-448: The land. The environmental impact included draining swamps, clearing forests for monocropping and fuel steamships, and introducing invasive species, all leading to fragile ecosystems. In the aftermath, these ecosystems left hillsides eroded, rivers clogged with sterile soil, and extinction of native species. Silkenat summarizes this phenomenon of the relationship between enslavement and soil, “Although typically treated separately, slavery and

2128-465: The limited effectiveness of repellents, protecting oneself against biting flies requires taking additional measures, such as avoiding areas inhabited by the flies, avoiding peak biting times, and wearing heavy-duty, light-colored clothing, including long-sleeve shirts, long pants and hats. When black flies are numerous and unavoidable, netting that covers the head, like the “bee bonnets” used by beekeepers, can provide protection. Black flies are central to

2184-450: The midst of the hilly and rocky surroundings. Similar " glaciolacustrine deposits " dot the northern areas of Ontario, Quebec , and Labrador . The area was first mapped by Dr. Robert Bell and his assistant Arthur Barlow in 1887, as part of a wider series of surveys in northern Ontario. In 1899, Barlow wrote a report on the geology and natural resources of the area, which suggested that the rich belt of clay that lay north of Lake Temiskaming

2240-399: The nape of the neck or ears and ankles. Itching and localized swelling and inflammation sometimes result from a bite. Swelling can be quite pronounced depending on the species and the individual's immune response, and irritation may persist for weeks. Intense feeding can cause "black fly fever", with headache, nausea, fever, swollen lymph nodes, and aching joints; these symptoms are probably

2296-417: The nutrients in microbial biomass , a process often called immobilization . The balance between immobilization and mineralization processes depends on the balance and availability of major nutrients and organic carbon to soil microorganisms. Natural processes such as lightning strikes may fix atmospheric nitrogen by converting it to (NO 2 ). Denitrification may occur under anaerobic conditions (flooding) in

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2352-651: The nutrients that they provide available over a longer period of time. Soil fertility is a complex process that involves the constant cycling of nutrients between organic and inorganic forms. As plant material and animal wastes are decomposed by micro-organisms, they release inorganic nutrients to the soil solution, a process referred to as mineralization . Those nutrients may then undergo further transformations which may be aided or enabled by soil micro-organisms. Like plants, many micro-organisms require or preferentially use inorganic forms of nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium and will compete with plants for these nutrients, tying up

2408-450: The presence of denitrifying bacteria. Nutrient cations, including potassium and many micronutrients, are held in relatively strong bonds with the negatively charged portions of the soil in a process known as cation exchange . Phosphorus is a primary factor of soil fertility as it is an element of plant nutrients in the soil. It is essential for cell division and plant development, especially in seedlings and young plants. However, phosphorus

2464-555: The presence of these bacteria allows cellulose to be metabolised into basic sugars. This provides nutrition to the black fly larvae, as well as the bacteria. This symbiotic relationship indicates a specific adaptation, as fresh-flowing streams could not provide sufficient nutrition to the growing larva in any other way. Only four genera in the family Simuliidae, Simulium , Prosimulium , Austrosimulium , and Cnephia , contain species that feed on people, though other species prefer to feed on other mammals or on birds . Simulium ,

2520-502: The rest. Over 1,800 of the species belong to the genus Simulium . Most black flies gain nourishment by feeding on the blood of mammals, including humans, although the males feed mainly on nectar . They are usually small, black or gray, with short legs and antennae . They are a common nuisance for humans, and many U.S. states have programs to suppress the black fly population. They spread several diseases, including river blindness in Africa ( Simulium damnosum and S. neavei ) and

2576-425: The soil by improper irrigation and acid rain water (quantity and quality of water). The fertility of many soils which are not suitable for plant growth can be enhanced many times gradually by providing adequate irrigation water of suitable quality and good drainage from the soil. Black fly Genera [REDACTED] Data related to Black fly at Wikispecies A black fly or blackfly (sometimes called

2632-509: The soil for the benefit of the human and non-human world. He continues that industrial agriculture disrupts the delicate balance of nature and irrevocably robs the soil of its fertility. Irrigation is a process by which crops are watered by man-made means, such as bringing in water from pipes, canals, or sprinklers. Irrigation is used when the natural rainfall patterns of a region are not sustainable enough to maintain crops. Ancient civilizations heavily relied on irrigation and today about 18% of

2688-418: The soil. This must be gotten into good condition first of all and then the reaction of the soil, the plant, animal, and man observed. Many diseases will then automatically disappear...Soil fertility is the basis of the public health system of the future...”. Howard connects the health crises of crops to the impacts of livestock and human health, ultimately spreading the message that humans must respect and restore

2744-417: The type genus, is the most widespread and is a vector for several diseases, including river blindness . Mature adults can disperse tens or hundreds of miles from their breeding grounds in fresh flowing water, under their own power and assisted by prevailing winds, complicating control efforts. Swarming behavior can make outdoor activities unpleasant or intolerable, and can affect livestock production. During

2800-466: The world's cropland is irrigated. The quality of irrigation water is very important to maintain soil fertility and tilth , and for using more soil depth by the plants. When soil is irrigated with high alkaline water, unwanted sodium salts build up in the soil which would make soil draining capacity very poor. So plant roots can not penetrate deep into the soil for optimum growth in Alkali soils . When soil

2856-503: Was completed. Many of the farmers shifted to mining once minerals were found in the area. Others entered the logging industry. Some towns still remaining today include Cochrane , New Liskeard , Timmins , Kapuskasing , and Hearst . Neither the Great nor the Lesser Clay Belt seems able to attract any sort of sustainable industry to employ people for long periods of time. Both regions go through periodic boom and bust cycles, depending upon

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2912-417: Was found to have better soil improvement than manure based compost. Photosynthesis is the process whereby plants use light energy to drive chemical reactions which convert CO 2 into sugars. As such, all plants require access to both light and carbon dioxide to produce energy, grow and reproduce. While typically limited by nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, low levels of carbon dioxide can also act as

2968-436: Was ideal for agricultural settlement. The area has a rich clay soil, in contrast to the low fertility of the muskeg and exposed bedrock shield surrounding it. Moreover, the combination of its general fertility, flat topography, high water table and relative accessibility to an extensive network of roads for logging and mining make it suitable for some types of farming. The following year, the government announced plans to develop

3024-468: Was intentionally created by communities in the Amazon. While Dark Earth, and other anthropic soils, can be found all throughout the world, Amazonian Dark Earth is particularly significant because “it contrasts too sharply with the especially poor fertility of typical highly weathered tropical upland soils in the Amazon”. There is much evidence to suggest that the development of ancient agricultural societies in

3080-1148: Was unnecessary and grazing among living trees was possible, settlers saved labor by simply burning the forest undergrowth...and turning loose their cattle...In at least one ill-favored area, the inhabitants of neighboring towns burned so frequently and graze so intensively that…the timber was greatly injured, and the land became hard to subdue...In the long run, cattle tended to encourage the growth of woody, thorn-bearing plants which they could not eat and which, once established, were very difficult to remove”. These practices were methods of simplifying labor for colonial settlers in new lands when they were not familiar with traditional Indigenous agricultural methods. Those Indigenous communities were not consulted but rather forced out of their homelands so European settlers could commodify their resources. The practice of intensive land burning and turning loose cattle ruined soil fertility and prohibited sustainable crop growth. While colonists utilized fire to clear land, certain prescribed burning practices are common and valuable to increase biodiversity and in turn, benefit soil fertility. Without consideration of

3136-536: Was “allowed to harm or remove an earthworm for fear of offending the deity of fertility”. In Ghana and Liberia, it is a long-withstanding practice to combine different types of waste to create fertile soil that is referred to as African Dark Earths. This soil, contains high concentrations of calcium, phosphorus, and carbon. Albert Howard is credited as the first Westerner to publish Native techniques of sustainable agriculture. As noted by Howard in 1944, “In all future studies of disease we must, therefore, always begin with

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