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85-599: By some estimates, the Quarantia was established in 1179 as part of the constitutional reforms that transformed the monarchy into a communal form . In reality, it was likely established in the early 13th century, and in with responsibilities much different to those it assumed in later times. It was established as an assembly of forty electors who were entitled at that time to nominate the Doge of Venice. These forty were elected in their turn by nine electors who were nominated by

170-550: A paramount power existed, such as the princely states under the British Raj . In Botswana , South Africa , Ghana and Uganda , the ancient kingdoms and chiefdoms that were met by the colonialists when they first arrived on the continent are now constitutionally protected as regional or sectional entities. Furthermore, in Nigeria , though the hundreds of sub-regional polities that exist there are not provided for in

255-423: A personal union , separate independent states share the same person as monarch, but each realm retains separate laws and government. The fifteen separate Commonwealth realms are sometimes described as being in a personal union with King Charles III as monarch; however, they can also be described as being in a shared monarchy. A regent may rule when the monarch is a minor , absent, or debilitated. A pretender

340-413: A certain number of party seats for particular groups. It can also be instituted through national electoral quotas either by reserving seats for office or candidate quotas for political parties. Traditionally, quotas have been thought of as a way of providing adequate representation for previously disadvantaged groups such as women or oppressed ethnic groups. However, another way of conceptualizing quotas

425-581: A co-principality. Located in the Pyrenees between Spain and France , it has two co-princes: the bishop of Urgell in Spain (a prince-bishop ) and the president of France (derived ex officio from the French kings, who themselves inherited the title from the counts of Foix). It is the only case in which an independent country's (co-)monarch is democratically elected by the citizens of another country. In

510-444: A constituency that formerly had quotas, even when the quotas are removed, and women leaders provide public goods favoured by women constituents. Evidence also shows that while caste -based quotas may not change stereotypes of how people view the oppressed caste group, they do change the social norms of interaction between caste groups Dyadic representation refers to the degree to which and ways by which elected legislators represent

595-538: A constitution. Many are so-called crowned republics , surviving particularly in small states. In some nations, however, such as Morocco , Qatar , Liechtenstein , and Thailand , the hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of authority in the state, even if it is by a constitutional mandate. According to a 2020 study, monarchy arose as a system of governance because of an efficiency in governing large populations and expansive territories during periods when coordinating such populations

680-509: A delegate or just a trustee when representing their constituents. It is a hybrid of the two models discussed above and involves representatives acting as delegates and trustees, depending on the issue. The mandate model views representatives as less independent actors. This came about after the emergence of modern political parties; now constituents rarely vote for a representative based on their personal qualities but more broadly, they vote for their party to be elected into government. A mandate

765-429: A group of people such as the working class or women to its full potential you must be part of that social group yourself. Therefore, only people who have shared experiences and interests can fully identify with particular issues. An alternative way of considering types of representation is as follows: Substantive representation occurs when representatives' opinions and actions reflect the wishes, needs, and interests of

850-439: A historical dynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession. Primogeniture , in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically "agnatic primogeniture" or "patrilineal primogeniture"

935-610: A larger federal , composite or unitary monarchy, realm and state. Monarchs can have various titles . Common European titles of monarchs (in that hierarchical order of nobility) are emperor or empress (from Latin : imperator or imperatrix ), king or queen , grand duke or grand duchess, prince or princess , duke or duchess. Some early modern European titles (especially in German states) included elector (German: Kurfürst , Prince-Elector, literally "electing prince"), margrave (German: Markgraf , equivalent to

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1020-833: A leader of the entire Muslim community), padishah (emperor), sultan or sultana , shâhanshâh (emperor), shah , malik (king) or malikah (queen), emir (commander, prince) or emira (princess), sheikh or sheikha , imam (used in Oman ). East Asian titles of monarchs include huángdì (emperor) or nǚhuáng (empress regnant), tiānzǐ (son of heaven), tennō (emperor) or josei tennō (empress regnant), wang (king) or yeowang (queen regnant), hwangje (emperor) or yeoje (empress regnant). South Asian and South East Asian titles included mahārāja (high king) or maharani (high queen), raja (king) and rana (king) or rani (queen) and ratu (South East Asian queen). Historically, Mongolic and Turkic monarchs have used

1105-531: A monarchy is deposed, often former monarchs and their descendants are given alternative titles (the King of Portugal was given the hereditary title Duke of Braganza ). A non-sovereign monarchy is one where the monarch is subject to a temporal authority higher than their own. Some are dependent on other powers (see vassals , suzerainty , puppet state , hegemony ). In the British colonial era, indirect rule under

1190-427: A morally based, balanced monarchy was stressed as the ideal form of government, and little attention was paid to modern-day ideals of egalitarian democracy: e.g. Saint Thomas Aquinas unapologetically declared: "Tyranny is wont to occur not less but more frequently on the basis of polyarchy [rule by many, i.e. oligarchy or democracy] than on the basis of monarchy." ( On Kingship ). However, Thomas Aquinas also stated that

1275-408: A ruling monarch, while " queen consort " refers to the wife of a reigning king. Rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy: there have been some family dictatorships (and also political families ) in many democracies . The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of leadership (as evidenced in the classic phrase " The King is dead. Long live

1360-403: A single at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word monarchy usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule, as elective monarchies are quite rare. The similar form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric. Chiefdoms provided the concept of state formation, which started with civilizations such as Mesopotamia , Ancient Egypt and

1445-429: A situation known as diarchy . Historically this was the case in the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta . There are examples of joint sovereignty of spouses, parent and child or other relatives (such as William III and Mary II in the kingdoms of England and Scotland , Tsars Peter I and Ivan V of Russia , and Charles I and Joanna of Castile ). Andorra currently is the world's only constitutional diarchy,

1530-418: A theory that accounts well for when belief sharing representation, delegate representation, trustee representation, responsible party representation, and party elite led representation will arise. The concept of collective representation can be found in various normative theory and scientific works, but Weissberg (1978, 535) offered the first systematic characterization of it in the scientific literature and for

1615-529: A time there would be two kings in coregency —a senior king and a junior king. Examples were Henry the Young King of England and the early Direct Capetians in France. Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line. Political representation Political representation is the activity of making citizens "present" in public policy -making processes when political actors act in

1700-401: Is a claimant to an abolished throne or a throne already occupied by somebody else. Abdication is the act of formally giving up one's monarchical power and status. Monarchs may mark the ceremonial beginning of their reigns with a coronation or enthronement . Monarchy, especially absolute monarchy, is sometimes linked to religious aspects; many monarchs once claimed the right to rule by

1785-407: Is a range of sub-national monarchical entities . Most of the modern monarchies are constitutional monarchies, retaining under a constitution unique legal and ceremonial roles for monarchs exercising limited or no political power, similar to heads of state in a parliamentary republic . Some countries have preserved the title of (say) "kingdom" while dispensing with an official serving monarch (note

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1870-519: Is a representative can be either democratic or non-democratic. In a case where the selection agent, relevant audience and the represented are the same and the rules of judgment are democratic (e.g. elections), the familiar democratic case of political representation arises and where they are not, undemocratic cases arise. This is the preferred (and far more common) method for democratic countries, where elected representatives will be chosen by similarly-sized groups of voters . The shortened term "rep-by-pop"

1955-420: Is an order or instruction from a superior body therefore this model suggests representatives follow the party line and must carry out policies outlined during election campaigns. The resemblance model is less concerned about the way representatives are selected and more concerned whether they resemble the group they claim to represent. It is similar to descriptive representation , they argue that to represent

2040-464: Is in the best interests of citizens. And representatives may be viewed as individuals who have been authorized to act on the behalf of others, or may alternatively be viewed as those who will be held to account by those they are representing. Political representation can happen along different units such as social groups and area, and there are different types of representation such as substantive representation and descriptive representation. Under

2125-586: Is not a universally accepted concept; minimalist theorists like Adam Przeworski (1999) reject the idea that representatives can be driven to act in the best interests of the public. In contrast to substantive representation, minimalists believe that democracy is merely a system in which competitive elections select rulers and that democracies should be defended regardless of the outcomes they produce for their citizenry. Nonetheless, democratic theorists often consider substantive representation to be salient due to its emphasis on action in office, particularly in relation to

2210-430: Is someone who is elected to represent and convey the views of others. The delegate model of representation suggests that representatives have little or no capacity to exercise their own judgement or preferences. They are merely elected to be the mouthpiece of their constituency and act only the way their constituents would want them to, regardless of their own opinion. Joseph Tussman stated, "The essence of representation

2295-411: Is the delegation or granting of authority. To authorize a representative is to grant another the right to act for oneself. Within the limits of the grant of authority one is, in fact, committing himself in advance to the decision or will of another". A trustee is someone who acts on behalf of others, using their knowledge, experience and intelligence upon a certain field. The trustee model contrasts with

2380-416: Is the traditional view of democratic political representation. Anticipatory, surrogate and gyroscopic representation, on the other hand, are more modern views that have emerged from the work of empirical political scientists . Anticipatory representatives take actions that they believe voters (the represented) will reward in the next election. Surrogate representation occurs when representatives "act for"

2465-548: Is to institute a maximum or ceiling quota for advantaged groups. This may improve the meritocracy of the system and improve the process of candidate selection Empirically, quotas show mixed results. In Lesotho, quota-mandated female representation has had no effect or even reduced several dimensions of women's engagement with local politics. In Argentina, quotas have mandated negative stereotypes about women politicians. Meanwhile, in India, women are more likely to win an election in

2550-643: Is used in Canada whereas " one person, one vote " is more common in the U.S. This form of representation tends to occur as a political necessity for unifying many independent actors, such as in a federation (e.g. NATO , the UN ). It's highly unusual (and controversial) where it exists within countries because of its violation of the 'one person, one vote' principle. Examples of representation by area within countries tend to be historical remnants of when those countries were federations before their unification. For example,

2635-462: Is wielded by free citizens and their assemblies. The 4th-century BCE Hindu text Arthasastra laid out the ethics of monarchism. In antiquity, some monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome ( Roman Republic , 509 BCE), and Athens ( Athenian democracy , 500 BCE). By the 17th century, monarchy was challenged by evolving parliamentarism e.g. through regional assemblies (such as

Council of Forty - Misplaced Pages Continue

2720-669: The Serrata del Maggior Consiglio (Lockout of the Great Council), changed the state's form into an aristocratic republic, the Quarantia was responsible for the approval and the scrutiny of new appointments to the Grand Council and the Senate but also, according to Maranini, preparation of draft laws concerning criminal justice and fiscal management . In time, the Quarantia lost its legislative and representative functions to

2805-461: The accountability view, a representative is an individual who will be held to account. Representatives are held accountable if citizens can judge whether the representative is acting in their best interest and sanction the representative accordingly. The descriptive and symbolic views of political representation describe the ways in which political representatives "stand for" the people they represent. Descriptive representatives "stand for" to

2890-910: The American Constitution was not quite able to eliminate its rep-by-area features due to smaller states already holding disproportionate power in the proceedings from the Articles of Confederation . In Canada, provinces such as Prince Edward Island also have unequal representation in Parliament (in the Commons as well as the Senate) relative to Ontario, British Columbia, and Alberta, largely for similar historical reasons. Models of representation refer to ways in which elected officials behave in representative democracies . There are three main types: delegate, trustee, and politico. A delegate

2975-793: The Auditori nuovissimi , who in this case held the role of public prosecutor. Monarchy Philosophers Works A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch , reigns as head of state for life or until abdication . The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic ( constitutional monarchy ), to fully autocratic ( absolute monarchy ), and may have representational , executive , legislative , and judicial functions. The succession of monarchs has mostly been hereditary , often building dynasties . However, monarchies can also be elective and self-proclaimed . Aristocrats , though not inherent to monarchies, often function as

3060-693: The Central African Republic declared himself Emperor of the Central African Empire in 1976. Yuan Shikai , the first formal President of the Republic of China , crowned himself Emperor of the short-lived " Empire of China " a few years after the Republic of China was founded. Most monarchies only have a single person acting as monarch at any given time, although two monarchs have ruled simultaneously in some countries,

3145-653: The Dogado and the Stato da Mar . Access to their judgment was subject to prior scrutiny by the Auditori vecchi alle Sentenze , who in this case held the role of public prosecutor. The New Civil Quarantia had jurisdiction over issues relating to civil law limited to appeals from the Domini di Terraferma . Access to their judgment was subject to prior scrutiny by the Auditori nuovi alle Sentenze and, in matters involving minors, by

3230-511: The Egyptian , Chinese , Indian , Mesopotamian , Sudanic , reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion , and others, the monarch held sacral functions directly connected to sacrifice and was sometimes identified with having divine ancestry , possibly establishing a notion of the divine right of kings . Polybius identified monarchy as one of three "benign" basic forms of government (monarchy, aristocracy , and democracy ), opposed to

3315-867: The Icelandic Commonwealth , the Swiss Landsgemeinde and later Tagsatzung , and the High Medieval communal movement linked to the rise of medieval town privileges ) and by modern anti-monarchism e.g. of the temporary overthrow of the English monarchy by the Parliament of England in 1649, the American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789. One of many opponents of that trend

3400-468: The Indus Valley civilization . In some parts of the world, chiefdoms became monarchies. Some of the oldest recorded and evidenced monarchies were Narmer , Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt c.  3100 BCE , and Enmebaragesi , a Sumerian King of Kish c.  2600 BCE . From earliest records, monarchs could be directly hereditary, while others were elected from among eligible members. With

3485-572: The "royal religion of Melchizedek " is emphasised against the priestly claims of the rival papal ideology. In Saudi Arabia , the king is a head of state who is both the absolute monarch of the country and the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques of Islam (خادم الحرمين الشريفين). The roles of monarchs can overlap with other monarchies through personal union or dynastic union , with maybe becoming institutional real union and possibly

Council of Forty - Misplaced Pages Continue

3570-633: The Council of Senate and around 1380, after the creation of the College of the Sages, its executive functions were largely taken away as well. The Forty preserved as a result from that time the functions of governing the mint (defining the fineness of the coins, the nature and quality of the stamping), the preparation of financial and revenue plans to be submitted to the Great Council and, above all,

3655-605: The Crown to create a state identity, which is to be carried and occupied by the monarch, but represents the monarchy even in absence and succession of the monarch. Nevertheless, monarchies can also be bound to territories (e.g., the King of Norway ) and peoples (e.g., the King of the Belgians ). In a hereditary monarchy , the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession , usually within one royal family tracing its origin through

3740-636: The Faithful"), Hünkar-i Khanedan-i Âl-i Osman , "Sovereign of the Sublime House of Osman"), Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda ("Majesty"), Jeonha ("Majesty"), Tennō Heika (literally "His Majesty the heavenly sovereign"), Bìxià ("Bottom of the Steps"). Sometimes titles are used to express claims to territories that are not held in fact (for example, English claims to the French throne ), or titles not recognised ( antipopes ). Also, after

3825-738: The Forty sat beside the Doge and Minor Council in the Serenissima Signoria , the supreme representative body of the Republic. The confirmation of the Serenissima Signoria was necessary to give effect to the death penalty . The functions of prosecutor before this court were assumed by the Avogadori de Comùn . The Old Civil Quarantia had jurisdiction over issues relating to civil law limited to appeals from Venice , from

3910-589: The French title marquis , literally "count of the borderland"), and burgrave (German: Burggraf , literally "count of the castle"). Lesser titles include count and princely count . Slavic titles include knyaz and tsar (ц︢рь) or tsaritsa (царица), a word derived from the Roman imperial title Caesar . In the Muslim world , titles of monarchs include caliph (successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and

3995-529: The King! "). Some monarchies are not hereditary. In an elective monarchy , monarchs are elected or appointed by some body (an electoral college ) for life or a defined period. Four elective monarchies exist today: Cambodia , Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates are 20th-century creations, while one (the papacy ) is ancient. A self-proclaimed monarchy is established when a person claims

4080-521: The U.S. Congress, defining such representation as "Whether Congress as an institution represents the American people, not whether each member of Congress represented his or her particular district." Hurley (1982) elaborated and qualified Weissberg's explication of how such representation should be assessed and how it relates to dyadic representation. Stimson, MacKuen, and Erikson (1995), offer the most advanced theoretical exposition of such representation for

4165-465: The U.S. Congress. And the latter work was extended in Erikson, MacKuen, and Stimson (2002). In most parliamentary political systems with strong (or ideologically unified) political parties and where the election system is dominated by parties instead of individual candidates, the primary basis for representation is also a collective, party based one. The foundational work on assessing such representation

4250-534: The advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism . As such republics have become the opposing and alternative form of government to monarchy, despite some having seen infringements through lifelong or even hereditary heads of state, such as in North Korea . With the rise of republicanism, a diverse division between republicanism developed in the 19th-century politics (such as anti-monarchist radicalism ) and conservative or even reactionary monarchism . In

4335-434: The best interest of citizens according to Hanna Pitkin's Concept of Representation (1967). This definition of political representation is consistent with a wide variety of views on what representing implies and what the duties of representatives are. For example, representing may imply acting on the expressed wishes of citizens, but it may alternatively imply acting according to what the representatives themselves judge

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4420-596: The current constitution, they are nevertheless legally recognised aspects of the structure of governance that operates in the nation. For example, the Yoruba city-state of Akure in south-western Nigeria is something of an elective monarchy: its reigning Oba Deji has to be chosen by an electoral college of nobles from amongst a finite collection of royal princes of the realm upon the death or removal of an incumbent. In addition to these five countries, non-sovereign monarchies of varied sizes and complexities exist all over

4505-649: The delegate model as this time constituents "entrust" their elected representatives to represent them however they see fit, with autonomy to vote and behave in the best way for their constituents. Edmund Burke , who formulated the model, stated in a speech, "You choose a member indeed; but when you have chosen him he is not member of Bristol, but he is a member of parliament...your representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgement; and he betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your own opinion". The politico model came about when theorists recognized that representatives rarely consistently act as just

4590-549: The example of Francoist Spain from 1947 to 1975) or while relying on a long-term regency (as in the case of Hungary in the Horthy era from 1920 to 1944). The word "monarch" (Late Latin: monarchia ) comes from the Ancient Greek word μονάρχης ( monárkhēs ), derived from μόνος ( mónos , "one, single") and ἄρχω ( árkhō , "to rule"): compare ἄρχων ( árkhōn , "ruler, chief"). It referred to

4675-492: The extent that they resemble, in their descriptive characteristics (e.g. race , gender , class etc.), the people they represent. On the other hand, symbolic representatives "stand for" the people they represent as long as those people believe in or accept them as their representative. Hanna Fenichel Pitkin argues that these views of political representation give an inadequate account of political representation because they lack an account both of how representatives "act for"

4760-448: The following 20th century many countries abolished the monarchy and became republics, especially in the wake of World War I and World War II . Today forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch , including fifteen Commonwealth realms that have Charles III as the head of state. Most modern monarchs are constitutional monarchs , who retain a unique legal and ceremonial role but exercise limited or no political power under

4845-475: The ideal monarchical system would also have at lower levels of government both an aristocracy and elements of democracy in order to create a balance of power. The monarch would also be subject to both natural and divine law, and to the Church in matters of religion. In Dante Alighieri 's De Monarchia , a spiritualised, imperial Catholic monarchy is strongly promoted according to a Ghibelline world-view in which

4930-463: The interest of people outside their constituencies. Finally, in gyroscopic representation, representatives use their own judgements to determine how and for what they should act for on behalf of the people they represent. Under Andrew Rehfeld 's general theory of representation, a person is considered a representative as long as the particular group they represent judges them as such. In any case of political representation, there are representatives,

5015-721: The interests of women and ethnic minorities. Scholars have defined representation as "the making present in some sense of something which is nevertheless not present literally or in fact". Descriptive representation is the idea that a group elects an individual to represent them who in their own characteristics mirror some of the more frequent experiences and outward manifestations of the group. This descriptive representation can have again different types such as "perfect over representation", "over representation", "proper representation", "under/nominal representation" & "No representation". In this form of representation, representatives are in their own persons and lives in some sense typical of

5100-413: The larger class of persons whom they represent. For example, certain ethnic groups or gender-based groups may want to elect a leader that shares these descriptive characteristics as they may be politically relevant. Disadvantaged groups may gain benefit from descriptive representation primarily in two ways: Descriptive representation can be instituted by political parties independently where they set aside

5185-518: The leadership through transitioning to a democratic constitutional monarchy . The prospect of retaining the ruler appeals to opposition groups who value both democracy and stability, but it also has implications for their ability to organize and sustain mass protest." Monarchies are associated with hereditary reign , in which monarchs reign for life and the responsibilities and power of the position pass to their child or another member of their family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in

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5270-492: The members of the Congress. Miller and Stokes (1963) presented the seminal research of this kind in an exploratory effort to account for when alternative models of policy representation arise. Their work has been emulated, replicated, and enlarged by a host of subsequent studies. The most advanced theoretical formulation in this body of work, however, is by Hurley and Hill (2003) and by Hill, Jordan, and Hurley (2015) who present

5355-580: The modern-day, have been born and brought up within a royal family , the centre of the royal household and court . Growing up in a royal family (called a dynasty when it continues for several generations ), future monarchs are often trained for their expected future responsibilities as monarch. Different systems of hereditary succession have been used, such as proximity of blood , primogeniture , and agnatic seniority ( Salic law ). While most monarchs in history have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned. The term " queen regnant " refers to

5440-425: The monarch, which is a common reason for monarchs carrying several titles. Monarchies were the most common form of government until the 20th century, when republics replaced many monarchies , notably at the end of World War I . As of 2024 , forty-three sovereign nations in the world have a monarch, including fifteen Commonwealth realms that share King Charles III as their head of state. Other than that, there

5525-552: The monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty. There are examples of republican leaders who have proclaimed themselves monarchs: Napoleon I of France declared himself Emperor of the French and ruled the First French Empire after having held the title of First Consul of the French Republic for five years from his seizing power in the coup of 18 Brumaire . President Jean-Bédel Bokassa of

5610-424: The nature of government action between elections. Thus, substantive representation is predicated on the fact that democracy is evident between elections rather than isolated to formal procedures like voting. Recently, Pitkin's concept of substantive representation has been criticized by several political scientists on the grounds that it "assumes a static notion that interests are entities waiting to be brought into

5695-437: The people they represent and the normative criteria for assessing the actions of representatives. Promissory representation is a form of representation in which representatives are chosen and assessed based on the promises they make to the people they represent during election campaigns. For Mansbridge, promissory representation, preoccupied with how representatives are chosen (authorized) and held to account through elections,

5780-519: The people they represent. Democratic theorists often study substantive representation in terms of ideological congruence, meaning that representation is high when representatives hold the same policy positions as their constituents. Recent research shows that the ideological opinion-policy relationship is upheld for both foreign and domestic affairs, although foreign affairs and defense policy were long considered immune to public pressure. According to Hanna F. Pitkin's The Concept of Representation (1967),

5865-615: The pool of persons from which the monarch is chosen, and to fill the constituting institutions (e.g. diet and court ), giving many monarchies oligarchic elements. The political legitimacy of the inherited, elected or proclaimed monarchy has most often been based on claims of representation of people and land through some form of relation (e.g. kinship ) and divine right or other achieved status . Monarchs can carry various titles such as emperor , empress , king , and queen . Monarchies can form federations , personal unions and realms with vassals through personal association with

5950-600: The popular assembly, la concio . After completing their primary role as the Doge's nominators, they remained in power alongside the Doge as the Judiciary , participating with the Consiglio dei Pregadi ( Senate ) in the state government and the legislative functions, which were often delegated to them by the Great Council , in which the forty were members by law. After the constitutional reform of 1297, which, with

6035-477: The preferences or interests of the specific geographic constituencies from which they are elected. Candidates who run for legislative office in an individual constituency or as a member of a list of party candidates are especially motivated to provide dyadic representation. As Carey and Shugart (1995, 417) observe, they have "incentives to cultivate a personal vote" beyond whatever support their party label will produce. Personal vote seeking might arise from representing

6120-428: The public policy interests of the constituency (by way of either the delegate, responsible party, or trustee models noted above), providing it "pork barrel" goods, offering service to individual constituents as by helping them acquire government services, and symbolic actions. The most abundant scientific scholarship on dyadic representation has been for the U.S. Congress and for policy representation of constituencies by

6205-464: The representational process." Among these scholars is Michael Saward (2010), who argues that substantive representation should be constructed as a process of "claims-making" in which representatives "speak for" their constituents. However, Ellie Severs (2012) disparages this logic, as she claims it obscures the interactions between representatives and the represented that are essential to the substantive representation process. Substantive representation

6290-580: The represented and the normative criteria for judging representative's actions. Hence, Pitkin proposes a substantive view of representation. In this view of political representation, representation is defined as substantive "acting for", by representatives, the interests of the people they represent. In contrast, Jane Mansbridge has identified four views of democratic political representation: promissory, anticipatory, surrogate and gyroscopic. Mansbridge argues that each of these views provides an account of both how democratic political representatives "act for"

6375-401: The represented, a selection agent, a relevant audience and rules by which the relevant judge whether a person is a representative. Representatives are those who are selected by a selection agent from a larger set of qualified individuals who are then judged to representatives by a relevant audience using particular rules of judgement. The rules by which a relevant audience judges whether a person

6460-404: The rest of the continent of Africa . Monarchies pre-date polities like nation states and even territorial states . A nation or constitution is not necessary in a monarchy since a person, the monarch, binds the separate territories and political legitimacy (e.g. in personal union) together. Monarchies, though, have applied state symbols like insignia or abstracts like the concept of

6545-432: The standard for assessing the quality of substantive representation is the representative's responsiveness to the evolving needs of their citizenry. As a result, low substantive representation in representative democracies usually arises from representatives' inability to judge and act on the interests of the public rather than inactivity in office. Pitkin also argues that substantive representation should be apparent through

6630-415: The supreme judicial function. Forty judges were elected by the Great Council and held office for one year; they could be re-elected, and in case of a vacancy could co-opt new judges. The Supreme Court was tripled over time to better meet the judicial needs, creating new Quarantie: The Criminal Quarantia had jurisdiction over misdemeanors and felonies and in general over criminal law . The three leaders of

6715-479: The three "malignant" basic forms of government ( tyranny , oligarchy , and ochlocracy ). The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as " king " or "ruler" (translating archon , basileus , rex , tyrannos , etc.) or as " queen " ( basilinna , basilissa , basileia or basilis ; regina ). Polybius originally understood monarchy as a component of republics, but since antiquity monarchy has contrasted with forms of republic, where executive power

6800-495: The title khan and khagan (emperor) or khatun and khanum ; Ancient Egyptian monarchs have used the title pharaoh for men and women. In Ethiopian Empire , monarchs used title nəgusä nägäst (king of kings) or nəgəstä nägäst (queen of kings). Many monarchs are addressed with particular styles or manners of address, like " Majesty ", " Royal Highness ", " By the Grace of God ", Amīr al-Mu'minīn ("Leader of

6885-535: The will of a deity ( Divine Right of Kings , Mandate of Heaven ), or a special connection to a deity ( sacred king ), or even purported to be divine kings, or incarnations of deities themselves ( imperial cult ). Many European monarchs have been styled Fidei defensor (Defender of the Faith); some hold official positions relating to the state religion or established church. In the Western political tradition,

6970-453: Was Elizabeth Dawbarn , whose anonymous Dialogue between Clara Neville and Louisa Mills, on Loyalty (1794) features "silly Louisa, who admires liberty, Tom Paine and the US, [who is] lectured by Clara on God's approval of monarchy" and on the influence women can exert on men. Since then advocacy of the abolition of a monarchy or respectively of republics has been called republicanism , while

7055-441: Was difficult. The authors argue that monarchy declined as an efficient regime type with innovations in communications and transportation technology, as the efficiency of monarchy relative to other regime types declined. According to a 2023 study, monarchy has persisted as a regime type because it can accommodate demands for democratization better than other forms of autocratic rule: "Monarchies can democratize without destabilizing

7140-491: Was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or head of family , with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their male issue, to the total exclusion of females and descendants through females from succession. This complete exclusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the Salic law . Another variation on agnatic primogeniture

7225-460: Was the so-called semi-Salic law, or "agnatic-cognatic primogeniture", which allowed women to succeed only at the extinction of all the male descendants in the male line of the particular legislator. Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for

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