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87-546: Croquet supports communication, collaboration , resource sharing, and synchronous computation among multiple users. Applications created with the Croquet software development kit can be used to support collaborative data visualization, virtual learning and problem solving environments, 3D wikis , online gaming environments ( massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs)), and privately maintained or interconnected multiuser virtual environments. Further development of

174-585: A computer programmer after passing an aptitude test. After his discharge, he enrolled at the University of Colorado Boulder and earned a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) in mathematics and molecular biology in 1966. In the autumn of 1966, he began graduate school at the University of Utah College of Engineering . He earned a Master of Science in electrical engineering in 1968, then a Doctor of Philosophy in computer science in 1969. His doctoral dissertation, FLEX: A Flexible Extendable Language , described

261-429: A decentralized and egalitarian group. Teams that work collaboratively often access greater resources, recognition and rewards when facing competition for finite resources. Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and communication. Such methods aim to increase the success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem-solving . Collaboration is present in opposing goals exhibiting

348-695: A plutonium implosion bomb on July 16 (the Trinity test ) near Alamogordo, New Mexico ; an enriched uranium bomb code-named " Little Boy " on August 6 over Hiroshima , Japan; and a second plutonium bomb, code-named " Fat Man " on August 9 over Nagasaki, Japan. The members of an intentional community typically hold a common social , political or spiritual vision. They share responsibilities and resources. Intentional communities include cohousing , residential land trusts , ecovillages , communes , kibbutzim , ashrams , and housing cooperatives . Typically, new members of an intentional community are selected by

435-623: A 3D user interface to Internet Gopher to explore how spatial metaphors could be used to organize information and create social spaces. In 1996, Julian Lombardi approached Smith to explore the development of highly extensible collaborative interfaces to the World Wide Web . Later, in 1999, Smith built a system called OpenSpace, which was an early-bound variant of Croquet. Also in 1999, Lombardi began working with Smith on prototype implementations of highly extensible collaborative online environments based on OpenSpace. One of these implementations

522-404: A close and symbiotic relationship among a nation's armed forces , its private industry , and associated political interests. In such a system, the military is dependent on industry to supply material and other support, while the defence industry depends on government for revenue. Skunk Works is a term used in engineering and technical fields to describe a group within an organization given

609-634: A communal mode of living. The kibbutzim lasted for several generations as utopian communities, although most became capitalist enterprises and regular towns. The Manhattan Project was a collaborative project during World War II among the Allies that developed the first atomic bomb . It was a collaborative effort by the United States , the United Kingdom and Canada . The value of this project as an influence on organized collaboration

696-607: A constant feature of electroacoustic music , due to the technology's complexity. Embedding technological tools into the process stimulated the emergence of new agents with new expertise: the musical assistant, the technician, the computer music designer, the music mediator (a profession that has been described and defined in different ways over the years) – aiding with writing, creating new instruments, recording and/or performance. The musical assistant explains developments in musical research and translates artistic ideas into programming languages. Finally, he or she transforms those ideas into

783-797: A few selected firms has been shown to positively impact firm performance and innovation outcomes. Technology has provided the internet, wireless connectivity and collaboration tools such as blogs and wikis, and has as such created the possibility of " mass collaboration ". People are able to rapidly communicate and share ideas, crossing longstanding geographical and cultural boundaries. Social networks permeate business culture where collaborative uses include file sharing and knowledge transfer . According to author Evan Rosen command-and-control organizational structures inhibit collaboration and replacing such structures allows collaboration to flourish. Studies have found that collaboration can increase achievement and productivity. However, Bill Huber, former chair of

870-474: A form deriving from his doctoral dissertation that was published in 1978. The first working Croquet code was developed in January 2002. Simultaneously and independently, Lombardi and McCahill began collaborating on defining and implementing highly scalable and enterprise-integrated architectures for multi-user collaboration and were invited by Kay to join the core architectural group in 2003. From 2003 to 2006,

957-463: A high degree of autonomy unhampered by bureaucracy, tasked with advanced or secret projects. One such group was created at Lockheed in 1943. The team developed highly innovative aircraft in short time frames, notably beating its first deadline by 37 days. As a discipline, project management developed from different fields including construction, engineering and defense. In the United States,

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1044-420: A lot of effort and expertise in understanding how replicated applications work. TeaTime is a scalable real-time multi-user architecture that is the basis for Croquet's object-object communication and synchronization. It is designed to support multi-user applications that can be scaled to massive numbers of concurrently interacting users in a shared virtual space. The most directly visible part of this architecture

1131-421: A means of achieving financial savings and operational efficiency in the acquisition of common goods and services in the public sector, and producing mutually beneficial results in the private sector. Collaboration allows for better communication within organizations and along supply chains . It is a way of coordinating different ideas from numerous people to generate a wide variety of knowledge. Collaboration with

1218-430: A mistake is made. Fifth and sixth graders in the community work with the teacher installing a classroom window; the installation becomes a class project in which the students participate in the process alongside the teacher. They all work together without needing leadership, and their movements are all in sync and flowing. It is not a process of instruction, but rather a hands-on experience in which students work together as

1305-404: A modern currency. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance commerce from circa 150,000 years ago. Trade exists because different communities have a comparative advantage in the production of tradable goods. The Roman Empire used collaboration through ruling with visible control, which lasted from 31BC until (in the east ) 1453CE, across around fifty countries. The growth of trade

1392-478: A one-time or long-term basis. It can be as simple as dual-authorship or as complex as commons-based peer production . Tools include Usenet , e-mail lists , blogs and Wikis while ' brick and mortar ' examples include monographs (books) and periodicals such as newspapers, journals and magazines. One approach is for an author to publish early drafts/chapters of a work on the Internet and solicit suggestions from

1479-434: A perception that the buyer was in a win-win situation, it soon became apparent that it was either close to a lose-win or at best a partial win-win situation favouring the supplier. A four-year study of interorganizational collaboration in a mental health setting found that successful collaboration can be rapidly derailed through external policy steering, particularly where it undermines relations built on trust. Collaboration

1566-549: A professorship at Carnegie Mellon University . Instead, in 1970, he joined the Xerox PARC research staff in Palo Alto, California . Through the decade, he developed prototypes of networked workstations using the programming language Smalltalk . Along with some colleagues at PARC, Kay is one of the fathers of the idea of object-oriented programming (OOP), which he named. Some original object-oriented concepts, including

1653-446: A relatively isolated rural location with little budget, Black Mountain fostered an informal and collaborative spirit. Innovations, relationships and unexpected connections formed at Black Mountain had a lasting influence on the postwar American art scene, high culture and eventually pop culture . Buckminster Fuller met student Kenneth Snelson at Black Mountain, and the result was the first geodesic dome (improvised out of slats in

1740-403: A score or a computer program and often performs the musical piece during the concerts. Examples of collaboration include Pierre Boulez and Andrew Gerzso, Alvise Vidolin and Luigi Nono , Jonathan Harvey and Gilbert Nouno. Although relatively rare compared with collaboration in popular music, there have been some notable examples of music written collaboratively by classical composers. Perhaps

1827-625: A senior fellow, departing when HP disbanded the Advanced Software Research Team on July 20, 2005. He has been an adjunct professor of computer science at the University of California, Los Angeles , a visiting professor at Kyoto University , and an adjunct professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Kay served on the advisory board of TTI/Vanguard . In December 1995, while still at Apple, Kay collaborated with many others to start

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1914-583: A stable empire that benefitted both ruled and allied countries. Gold and silver were currencies created by the Romans which supported a market economy, leading to trading within the Roman Empire and taxes. In Hutterite communities housing units are built and assigned to individual families, but belong to the colony with little personal property. Meals are taken by the entire colony in a common long room. The Oneida Community practiced Communalism (in

2001-589: A synchronous group with the teacher, switching roles and sharing tasks. In these communities, collaboration is emphasized, and learners are trusted to take initiative. While one works, the other watches intently and all are allowed to attempt tasks with the more experienced stepping in to complete more complex parts, while others pay close attention. Game theory is a branch of applied mathematics, computer science, and economics that looks at situations where multiple players make decisions in an attempt to maximize their returns. The first documented discussion of game theory

2088-428: A true late bound , message sending language. Croquet's relationship to Squeak gives Croquet the property of a purely object-oriented system allowing for significant flexibility in the design and the nature of the protocols and architectures that have been developed for the system. Because of this, Croquet has the ability to keep running while code is modified and tested, while changes are made, an essential part of

2175-528: A venue, lighting, etc. Hypothetically, one person could control all of this, but most often every work of ballet is the by-product of collaboration. From the earliest formal works of ballet, to the great 19th century masterpieces of Pyotr Tchaikovsky and Marius Petipa , to the 20th century masterworks of George Balanchine and Igor Stravinsky , to today's ballet companies, feature strong collaborative connections between choreographers, composers and costume designers are essential. Within dance as an art form, there

2262-693: Is class-based , but to users (during programming) it acts as if it were prototype-based . Tweak objects are created and run in Tweak project windows. In November 2005, at the World Summit on the Information Society , the MIT research laboratories unveiled a new laptop computer for educational use around the world. It has many names, including the $ 100 Laptop, the One Laptop per Child program,

2349-537: Is also the architect of the modern overlapping windowing graphical user interface (GUI). Because the Dynabook was conceived as an educational platform, he is considered one of the first researchers into mobile learning ; many features of the Dynabook concept have been adopted in the design of the One Laptop Per Child educational platform, with which Kay is actively involved. From 1981 to 1984, Kay

2436-538: Is also the collaboration between choreographer and dancer. The choreographer creates a movement in her/his head and then physically demonstrates the movement to the dancer, which the dancer sees and attempts to either mimic or interpret. Musical collaboration occurs when musicians in different places or groups work on the piece. Typically, multiple parties are involved (singers, songwriters, lyricists, composers, and producers) and come together to create one work. For example, one specific collaboration from recent times (2015)

2523-836: Is also threatened by opportunism from the business partners and the possibility of coordination failures that can derail the efforts of even well-intentioned parties. Margarita Leib, a professor at Tilburg University in the Netherlands, wrote about how individuals working together sometimes promote dishonest behavior that prioritizes profit, like what Volkswagen did to fake vehicle emission levels . This often begins with one person lying, which incentivizes or pressures everyone else to escalate in response. In recent years, co-teaching has become more common, found in US classrooms across all grade levels and content areas. Once regarded as connecting special education and general education teachers, it

2610-555: Is attributed to Vannevar Bush . In early 1940, Bush lobbied for the creation of the National Defense Research Committee . Frustrated by previous bureaucratic failures in implementing technology in World War I, Bush sought to organize the scientific power of the United States for greater success. The project succeeded in developing and detonating three nuclear weapons in 1945: a test detonation of

2697-689: Is in a letter written by James Waldegrave, 1st Earl Waldegrave in 1713. Antoine Augustin Cournot 's Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth in 1838 provided the first general theory. In 1928 it became a recognized field when John von Neumann published a series of papers. Von Neumann's work in game theory culminated in the 1944 book The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern . The term military-industrial complex refers to

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2784-502: Is now more generally defined as "…two professionals delivering substantive instruction to a diverse group of students in a single physical space." As American classrooms have become increasingly diverse, so have the challenges for educators. Due to the diverse needs of students with designated special needs, English language learners (ELL), and students of varied academic levels, teachers have developed new approaches that provide additional student support. In practice, students remain in

2871-492: Is the TObject class which is used to define and construct subclassed Tea objects. All of the interesting objects inside of Croquet are constructed from subclasses of TObject. A Tea object acts with the property that messages sent to it are redirected to replicated copies of itself on other users' participating machines in a peer-to-peer network . This messaging protocol supports a coordinated distributed two-phase commit that

2958-538: Is used to control the progression of computations at participating user sites. In this way messages may be dynamically redirected to large numbers of users while maintaining the appropriate deadline-based scheduling. Thus, TeaTime is designed to allow for a great deal of adaptability and resilience and works on a heterogeneous set of resources. It is a framework of abstraction that works over a range of implementations and that can be evolved and tuned over time, both within an application and across applications. Key elements of

3045-530: The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), he ended his musical career. In 1968, he met Seymour Papert and learned of the programming language Logo , a dialect of Lisp optimized for educational purposes. This led him to learn of the work of Jean Piaget , Jerome Bruner , Lev Vygotsky , and of constructionist learning , further influencing his professional orientation. On December 9 of that same year he

3132-607: The ITER nuclear fusion experiment, and the European Union's Human Brain Project . Alan Kay Alan Curtis Kay (born May 17, 1940) is an American computer scientist best known for his pioneering work on object-oriented programming and windowing graphical user interface (GUI) design. At Xerox PARC he led the design and development of the first modern windowed computer desktop interface. There he also led

3219-990: The Internet . Screenwriter organizations bring together professional and amateur writers and filmmakers. Collaboration in business can be found both within and across organizations, and examples range from formalised partnerships , use of coworking spaces where freelancers can work with others in a collaborative environment and crowd funding , to the complexity of a multinational corporation . Inter-organizational collaboration brings participating parties to invest resources, mutually achieve goals, share information, resources, rewards and responsibilities, as well as make joint decisions and solve problems. Collaboration between public, private and voluntary sectors can be effective in tackling complex policy problems, but may be handled more effectively by boundary-spanning teams and networks than by formal organizational structures. In turn, business and management scholars have paid much attention to

3306-557: The Lockheed Corporation ) Polaris missile submarine program; and (2) the " Critical Path Method " (CPM) developed in a joint venture by both DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises. In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed to serve the interest of

3393-743: The New York metropolitan area . He attended Brooklyn Technical High School . Having accumulated enough credits to graduate, he then attended Bethany College in Bethany, West Virginia , where he majored in biology and minored in mathematics. Kay then taught guitar in Denver , Colorado for a year. He was drafted in the United States Army , then qualified for officer training in the United States Air Force , where he became

3480-510: The University of Victoria assert that until the early 1990s the individual was the 'unit of instruction' and the focus of research. The two observed that researchers and practitioners switched to the idea that "knowing" is better thought of as a cultural practice. Roth and Lee also claim that this led to changes in learning and teaching design in which students were encouraged to share their ways of doing mathematics, history, science, with each other. In other words, that children take part in

3567-583: The open source Squeak version of Smalltalk . As part of this effort, in November 1996, his team began research on what became the Etoys system. More recently he started, with David A. Smith , David P. Reed , Andreas Raab , Rick McGeer, Julian Lombardi , and Mark McCahill , the Croquet Project , an open-source networked 2D and 3D environment for collaborative work. In 2001, it became clear that

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3654-558: The open-source . Since then, the Croquet technology infrastructure has been successfully used by private industry to build and to deploy commercial-grade closed source collaborative applications. Open source production-grade software implementations for delivering secure, interactive, persistent, virtual workspaces for education and training have at the same time been developed and deployed at the University of Minnesota , University of Wisconsin–Madison, University of British Columbia , and Duke University . As of 2009, continued development of

3741-545: The Andes value work and create work parties in which members of each household in the community participate. Children from indigenous-heritage communities want to help around the house voluntarily. In the Mazahua Indigenous community of Mexico, school children show initiative and autonomy by contributing in their classroom, completing activities as a whole, assisting and correcting their teacher during lectures when

3828-541: The Children's Machine, and the XO-1 . The program was founded and is sustained by Kay's friend Nicholas Negroponte , and is based on Kay's Dynabook ideal. Kay is a prominent co-developer of the computer, focusing on its educational software using Squeak and Etoys. Kay has lectured extensively on the idea that the computer revolution is very new, and all of the good ideas have not been universally implemented. His lectures at

3915-534: The Croquet SDK are automatically collaborative since application objects in Croquet share a common protocol allowing them to cooperate with each other by employing the principle of replicated computation (synchronization) together with a peer-based messaging protocol. The technology is designed to facilitate such replication between peers, to greatly reduce the overhead needed for widespread deployment of collaborative virtual worlds. This efficiency, combined with

4002-448: The Croquet collaborative development ability. Users can change the code running the environment while the environment runs. Croquet's time-based synchronization abilities enable real-time , identical interactions between groups of users while dramatically reducing the need for server infrastructures to support virtual world deployment. Croquet's architecture makes it easy to develop deeply collaborative applications without having to spend

4089-466: The Davis Group Ltd., Kay said: I had the misfortune or the fortune to learn how to read fluently starting about the age of three, so I had read maybe 150 books by the time I hit first grade, and I already knew the teachers were lying to me. Originally from Springfield, Massachusetts , Kay's family relocated several times due to his father's career in physiology before ultimately settling in

4176-833: The Etoy architecture in Squeak had reached its limits in what the Morphic interface infrastructure could do. Andreas Raab , a researcher in Kay's group then at Hewlett-Packard, proposed defining a "script process" and providing a default scheduling mechanism that avoided several more general problems. The result was a new user interface, proposed to replace the Squeak Morphic user interface. Tweak added mechanisms of islands, asynchronous messaging, players and costumes, language extensions, projects, and tile scripting. Its underlying object system

4263-595: The Fellows program. In 2001, Kay founded Viewpoints Research Institute, a nonprofit organization dedicated to children, learning, and advanced software development. For their first ten years, Kay and his Viewpoints group were based at Applied Minds in Glendale, California , where he and Ferren worked on various projects. Kay served as president of the Institute until its closure in 2018. In 2002 Kay joined HP Labs as

4350-539: The International Association for Contract and Commercial Management (IACCM, now World Commerce & Contracting ), notes that not all companies have what he calls "collaborative DNA". Huber argues that often when companies fail to implement or sustain successful collaborative relationships, the causes can be traced to insufficient leadership support or to underdeveloped collaboration skills. Andrew Cox, formerly of Birmingham Business School and

4437-560: The OOPSLA 1997 conference, and his ACM Turing Award talk, "The Computer Revolution Hasn't Happened Yet", were informed by his experiences with Sketchpad , Simula , Smalltalk , and the bloated code of commercial software. On August 31, 2006, Kay's proposal to the United States National Science Foundation (NSF) was granted, funding Viewpoints Research Institute for several years. The proposal title

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4524-577: The TeaTime synchronization architecture include: The original authors of Croquet opened a commercial company named Qwaq which was later renamed to Teleplace. That technology was later sold back to a group of the original Croquet developers and became Immersive Terf. Croquet is the confluence of several independent lines of work that were being carried out by its six principal architects, Alan Kay , David A. Smith . David P. Reed , Andreas Raab , Julian Lombardi , and Mark McCahill . The present identity of

4611-461: The US demonstrates that these advances have not been able to overcome the challenges of such projects. Founded in 1933 by John Andrew Rice , Theodore Dreier and other former faculty of Rollins College , Black Mountain College was experimental by nature and committed to an interdisciplinary approach, attracting a faculty which included leading visual artists, poets and designers. Operating in

4698-481: The ability to deploy Croquet-based virtual worlds on consumer-level hardware, makes it possible for developers to deploy large-scale and highly participatory collaborative worlds at very low cost compared with virtual world technologies that are entirely dependent on server-based infrastructures to support the activities of their users. Croquet's virtual machine (VM) runs bit identically on multiple platforms, and supports multiple abilities that could only be provided by

4785-478: The beginning of the modern project management era. Again, in the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt charts , and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project scheduling models were developed: (1) the " Program Evaluation and Review Technique " or PERT, developed as part of the United States Navy 's (in conjunction with

4872-489: The best-known examples are: Collaboration in entertainment dates from the origin of theatrical productions, millennia ago. It takes the form of writers, directors, actors, producers and other individuals or groups working on the same production. In the twenty-first century, new technology has enhanced collaboration. A system developed by Will Wright for the TV series title Bar Karma on CurrentTV facilitates plot collaboration over

4959-609: The classroom and receive instruction by both their general teacher and special education teachers. In the 1996 report "What Matters Most: Teaching for America's Future" economic success could be enhanced if students developed the capacity to learn how to "manage teams… and…work together successfully in teams". Teachers increasingly use collaborative software to establish virtual learning environments (VLEs). This allows them to share learning materials and feedback with both students and in some cases, parents. Approaches include: Writers, both in fiction and non-fiction, may cooperate on

5046-556: The college established The Washington Center for Improving the Quality of Undergraduate Education, which focuses on collaborative education approaches, including learning communities as one of its centerpieces. The school later became notorious for less-successful collaborations. The romanticized notion of a lone, genius artist has existed since the time of Giorgio Vasari 's Lives of the Artists , published in 1568. Vasari promulgated

5133-490: The community's existing membership, rather than by real estate agents or land owners (if the land is not owned by the community). Collaboration in indigenous communities, particularly in the Americas, often involves the entire community working toward a common goal in a horizontal structure with flexible leadership . Children in some indigenous American communities collaborate with the adults. Children can be contributors in

5220-405: The companies they work for, resulting in technical documents that are more comprehensive and accurate than documents produced by individuals. Technical communication collaboration typically occurs on shared document work-spaces (such as Google Docs), through social media sites, videoconferencing, SMS and IM, and on cloud-based authoring platforms. Scientific collaboration rapidly advanced throughout

5307-455: The construction of consensual domains, and 'participate in the negotiation and institutionalization of ... meaning'. In effect, they are participating in learning communities . This analysis does not consider the appearance of Learning communities in the United States in the early 1980s. For example, The Evergreen State College , which is widely considered a pioneer in this area, established an intercollegiate learning community in 1984. In 1985,

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5394-737: The development of the influential object-oriented programming language Smalltalk , both personally designing most of the early versions of the language and coining the term "object-oriented." He has been elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the National Academy of Engineering , and the Royal Society of Arts . He received the Turing award in 2003. In an interview on education in America with

5481-439: The forefather of project management is Henry Gantt , who is known for his use of the "bar" chart as a project management tool, for being an associate of Frederick Winslow Taylor 's theories of scientific management , and for his study of the management of Navy ship building. His work is the forerunner to many modern project management tools including the work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation. The 1950s marked

5568-707: The founder of the International Institute for Advanced Purchasing and Supply (IIAPS), has highlighted the dangers in thinking that collaborative relationships always produce mutually advantageous " win-win " outcomes for both buyers and sellers in commercial relationships. Cox uses case studies which show where competent buyers have used collaboration successful to secure value for money , and other examples where "incompetent buyers" utilizing "what initially appear to be win-win outcomes" subsequently lose out to "more commercially competent suppliers". In relation to one of his examples, Cox concludes that From

5655-446: The idea that artistic skill was endowed upon chosen individuals by gods, which created an enduring and largely false popular misunderstanding of many artistic processes. Artists have used collaboration to complete large scale works for centuries, but the myth of the lone artist was not widely questioned until the 1960s and 1970s. Collaborative art groups include: Ballet is a collaborative art form. It entails music, dancers, costumes,

5742-464: The importance of both formal and informal mechanisms to support inter-organizational collaboration. They especially point to the role of contractual and relational mechanisms and the inherent tensions between the two. Global manufacturer Unilever offers to collaborate with innovating start-up businesses, and its "Unilever Foundry" refers to over 400 examples of "strategic collaboration" in this field. Collaborative procurement has been commended as

5829-485: The invention of a computer language named FLEX . While there, he worked with "fathers of computer graphics " David C. Evans (who had recently been recruited from the University of California, Berkeley to start Utah's computer science department) and Ivan Sutherland (best known for writing such pioneering programs as Sketchpad ). Kay credits Sutherland's 1963 thesis for influencing his views on objects and computer programming . As he grew busier with research for

5916-451: The neighborhood of several hundreds of millions of lines of code these days. We wonder: how small could be an understandable practical 'Model T' design that covers this functionality? 1M lines of code? 200K LOC? 100K LOC? 20K LOC?" Kay is a former professional jazz guitarist , composer, and theatrical designer. He also is an amateur classical pipe organist . Kay has received many awards and honors, including: His other honors include

6003-552: The notion of adversarial collaboration , though this is not a common use of the term. In its applied sense, "[a] collaboration is a purposeful relationship in which all parties strategically choose to cooperate in order to accomplish a shared outcome". Trade between nations is a form of collaboration between two societies which produce and exchange different portfolios of goods. Trade began in prehistoric times and continues because it benefits all of its participants. Prehistoric peoples bartered goods and services with each other without

6090-479: The original Croquet technology has also taken place through the Open Cobalt and Open Croquet projects. Collaboration Collaboration (from Latin com- "with" + laborare "to labor", "to work") is the process of two or more people, entities or organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation . The form of leadership can be social within

6177-409: The process of meeting objectives by taking on tasks that suit their skills. Indigenous learning techniques comprise Learning by Observing and Pitching In . For example, a study of Mayan fathers and children with traditional Indigenous ways of learning worked together in collaboration more frequently when building a 3D model puzzle than Mayan fathers with western schooling. Also, Chillihuani people of

6264-549: The profession. The International Project Management Association (IPMA), founded in Europe in 1967, has undergone a similar development and instituted the IPMA Project Baseline. Both organizations are now participating in the development of a global project management standard. However, the exorbitant cost overruns and missed deadlines of large-scale infrastructure, military R&D/procurement and utility projects in

6351-400: The project has its origins in a conversation between Smith and Kay in 1990, where both expressed their frustration with the state of operating systems at the time. In 1994, Smith built ICE, a working prototype of a two user collaborative system that was a predecessor of the core of what Croquet is today. Also in 1994, Mark McCahill's team at the University of Minnesota developed GopherVR ,

6438-575: The project management industry. The premise of PMI is that the tools and techniques of project management are common even among the widespread application of projects from the software industry to the construction industry. In 1981, the PMI Board of Directors authorized the development of what has become A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), standards and guidelines of practice that are widely used throughout

6525-506: The school's back yard); Merce Cunningham formed his dance company; and John Cage staged his first happening . Black Mountain College was a consciously directed liberal arts school that grew out of the progressive education movement . In its day it was a unique educational experiment for the artists and writers who conducted it, and as such an important incubator for the American avant garde . Dr. Wolff-Michael Roth and Stuart Lee of

6612-475: The sense of communal property and possessions) and Mutual Criticism , where every member of the community was subject to criticism by committee or the community as a whole, during a general meeting. The goal was to remove bad character traits. A kibbutz is an Israeli collective community. The movement combines socialism and Zionism seeking a form of practical Labor Zionism . Choosing communal life, and inspired by their own ideology, kibbutz members developed

6699-481: The technology has also branched into the Open Cobalt and Open Croquet efforts. The most recent iteration of Croquet is a commercial product developed by Croquet Labs. This version of Croquet runs in a web browser and allows programs to be written in Javascript or WebAssembly. Croquet is a software development kit (SDK) for use in developing collaborative virtual world applications. Applications created using

6786-491: The technology was developed under the leadership of its six principal architects with financial support from Hewlett-Packard , Viewpoints Research Institute Inc., the University of Wisconsin–Madison , University of Minnesota , Japanese National Institute of Communication Technology (NICT), and private individuals. On April 18, 2006, the project released a beta version of the Croquet Software development kit 1.0 in

6873-497: The twentieth century as measured by the increasing numbers of coauthors on published papers. Wagner and Leydesdorff found international collaborations to have doubled from 1990 to 2005. While collaborative authorships within nations has also risen, this has done so at a slower rate and is not cited as frequently. Notable examples of scientific collaboration include CERN , the International Space Station ,

6960-541: The use of the words 'object' and 'class', had been developed for Simula 67 at the Norwegian Computing Center . Kay said: I'm sorry that I long ago coined the term "objects" for this topic because it gets many people to focus on the lesser idea. The big idea is " messaging ". While at PARC, Kay conceived the Dynabook concept, a key progenitor of laptop and tablet computers and the e-book . He

7047-765: The world at large. This approach helped ensure that the technical aspects of the novel The Martian were as accurate as possible. The science fiction author Frederik Pohl was noted for his longtime collaborations with Cyril Kornbluth and Jack Williamson . Collaboration in technical communication (also commonly referred to as technical writing) has become increasingly important in the creation and dissemination of technical documents in multiple technical and occupational fields, including: computer hardware and software, medicine, engineering, robotics, aeronautics, biotechnology, information technology, and finance. Collaboration in technical communication allows for greater flexibility, productivity and innovation for technical writers and

7134-482: Was "STEPS Toward the Reinvention of Programming: A compact and Practical Model of Personal Computing as a Self-exploratorium". STEPS is a recursive acronym that stands for "STEPS Toward Expressive Programming Systems". A sense of what Kay is trying to do comes from this quote, from the abstract of a seminar at Intel Research Labs, Berkeley: "The conglomeration of commercial and most open source software consumes in

7221-567: Was Chief Scientist at Atari . In 1984, he became an Apple Fellow. After the closure of the Apple Advanced Technology Group in 1997, he was recruited by his friend Bran Ferren , head of research and development at Disney , to join Walt Disney Imagineering as a Disney Fellow. He remained there until Ferren left to start Applied Minds Inc with Imagineer Danny Hillis , leading to the cessation of

7308-486: Was a prototype implementation of ViOS , a way to spatially organize all Internet -deliverable resources (including web pages) into a massively-scaled multiuser 3D environment. Smith and Kay officially started the Croquet Project in late 2001, and were immediately joined by David Reed and Andreas Raab. Reed brought to the project his longstanding work on massively scalable peer-to-peer messaging architectures in

7395-636: Was present in San Francisco for the Mother of all Demos , a landmark computer demonstration by Douglas Engelbart . Even though he was sick with a high fever on that day, the event was very influential in Kay's career. He recalled later: "It was one of the greatest experiences in my life". In 1969, Kay became a visiting researcher at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in anticipation of accepting

7482-600: Was supported by the stable administration of the Romans. Evidence shows that the Roman Empire and Julius Caesar were influenced by the Greek writer Xenophon 's The Education of Cyrus on leadership. This says that 'social bonds, not command and control, were to be the primary mechanisms of governance'. Classics professor Emma Dench notes that the Roman Empire extended its citizenship "to enemies, former enemies of state, to people who'd helped them. The Romans were incredibly good at co-opting people and ideas." The Romans created

7569-449: Was the song " FourFiveSeconds ". This single represents a type of collaboration because it was developed by pop idol Rihanna , Paul McCartney (former bassist, composer and vocalist for The Beatles ), and rapper/composer Kanye West . Websites and software facilitate musical collaboration over the Internet , resulting in the emergence of online bands . Several awards exist specifically for collaboration in music: Collaboration has been

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