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59-453: The formation contains pyroclastic flows , lahars , agglomerates , tuffs and ash-fall deposits, as well as volcanic-rich sandstones and other sediments. The whole-rock chemistry of the volcanics is relatively normal, ranging from trachyandesite ( latite ) to phonolite and trachyte , but the mineralogy is unusual. In addition to analcime and melanite, common minerals include sanidine , aegerine - augite and chlorite . Blairmorite ,

118-599: A marine transgression in the Late Cretaceous . The volcanics were laid down on an inland floodplain that is represented by the underlying Ma Butte Formation. The eruptions probably occurred to the west near what is now Cranbrook, British Columbia , and the material was subsequently moved eastward by thrust faulting during the Laramide orogeny . It's estimated that the volcanics originally covered an area of about 1,800 km (690 sq mi), and their volume

177-454: A pyroclastic density current or a pyroclastic cloud ) is a fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter (collectively known as tephra ) that flows along the ground away from a volcano at average speeds of 100 km/h (30 m/s; 60 mph) but is capable of reaching speeds up to 700 km/h (190 m/s; 430 mph). The gases and tephra can reach temperatures of about 1,000 °C (1,800 °F). Pyroclastic flows are

236-523: A home port for French pirates, including Captain Crapeau , Étienne de Montauban , and Mathurin Desmarestz . In later years, pirate Bartholomew Roberts styled his jolly roger as a black flag depicting a pirate standing on two skulls labeled "ABH" and "AMH" for "A Barbadian's Head" and "A Martinican's Head" after governors of those two islands sent warships to capture Roberts. On 28 November 1717

295-661: A motion of constructive censure. Unlike the previous functioning of the General Council and the Regional Council, the Assembly of Martinique is separate from the Executive Council and is headed by a bureau and a president. The new collectivity of Martinique combines the powers of the general and regional councils, but may obtain new powers through empowerments under Article 73. The executive council

354-570: A notable proponent of this was the author Aimé Césaire , who founded the Progressive Party of Martinique in the 1950s. Tensions boiled over in December 1959 when riots broke out following a racially-charged altercation between two motorists, resulting in three deaths. In 1962, as a result of this and the global turn against colonialism, the strongly pro-independence OJAM ( Organisation de la jeunesse anticolonialiste de la Martinique )

413-523: A period from 1802 to 1809 following signing of the Treaty of Amiens , Britain controlled the island for most of the time from 1794 to 1815, when it was traded back to France at the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars. Martinique has remained a French possession since then. Despite the introduction of successful coffee plantations to Martinique in the 1720s, making it the first coffee-growing area in

472-399: A poster calling for physical distancing against the coronavirus and showing a black man and a white man separated by pineapples. The President of the Executive Council of Martinique is Serge Letchimy as of 2 July 2021. The Executive Council of Martinique is composed of nine members (a president and eight executive councilors). The deliberative assembly of the territorial collectivity

531-511: A punishment for refusing to convert to Catholicism, many of them dying en route. Those who survived were quite industrious and over time prospered, though the less fortunate were reduced to the status of indentured servants. Although edicts from King Louis XIV's court regularly came to the islands to suppress the Protestant "heretics", these were mostly ignored by island authorities until Louis XIV's Edict of Revocation in 1685. As many of

590-425: A pyroclastic flow traveled for several hundreds of meters above the sea. A pyroclastic flow can interact with a body of water to form a large amount of mud, which can then continue to flow downhill as a lahar . This is one of several mechanisms that can create a lahar. In 1963, NASA astronomer Winifred Cameron proposed that the lunar equivalent of terrestrial pyroclastic flows may have formed sinuous rilles on

649-728: A rare analcime-rich rock-type named for the town of Blairmore, Alberta , is known only from the Crowsnest Formation and a locality in Mozambique . The Crowsnest Formation is the uppermost unit of the Blairmore Group . Exposures along the Crowsnest Highway ( Highway 3 ) and the railroad west of Coleman are the type locality . It is underlain by the Ma Butte Formation (also known as

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708-438: A research team at Kiel University , Germany, of pyroclastic flows moving over the water. When the reconstructed pyroclastic flow (stream of mostly hot ash with varying densities) hit the water, two things happened: the heavier material fell into the water, precipitating out from the pyroclastic flow and into the liquid; the temperature of the ash caused the water to evaporate, propelling the pyroclastic flow (now only consisting of

767-561: A result, some plantation owners imported workers from India and China. Despite the abolition of slavery, life scarcely improved for most Martinicans; class and racial tensions exploded into rioting in southern Martinique in 1870 following the arrest of Léopold Lubin, a trader of African ancestry who retaliated after he was beaten by a Frenchman. After several deaths, the revolt was crushed by French militia. On 8 May 1902, Mont Pelée erupted and completely destroyed St. Pierre, killing 30,000 people. Refugees from Martinique travelled by boat to

826-585: A single institution. This proposal was rejected in Martinique (but also in Guadeloupe ) by 50.48% in a referendum held on 7 December 2003. On 10 January 2010, a consultation of the population was held. Voters were asked to vote in a referendum on a possible change in the status of their territory. The ballot proposed voters to "approve or reject the transition to the regime provided for in Article 74 of

885-601: A statutory evolution based on Article 74 of the French Constitution). Indeed, on 18 December 2008, during the congress of Martinique's departmental and regional elected representatives, the thirty-three pro-independence elected representatives (MIM/CNCP/MODEMAS/PALIMA) of the two assemblies voted unanimously in favor of a change in the island's status based on Article 74 of the French Constitution, which allows access to autonomy; this change in status

944-478: Is Fort-de-France. The three sub-prefectures are Le Marin, Saint-Pierre and La Trinité. The French State is represented in Martinique by a prefect (Stanislas Cazelles since 5 February 2020), and by two sub-prefects in Le Marin (Corinne Blanchot-Prosper) and La Trinité / Saint-Pierre (Nicolas Onimus, appointed on 20 May 2020). The prefecture was criticized for racism following the publication on its Twitter account of

1003-693: Is Justin Daniel since 20 May 2021. Martinique has been represented since 17 June 2017, in the National Assembly by four deputies (Serge Letchimy, Jean-Philippe Nilor , Josette Manin and Manuéla Kéclard-Mondésir ) and in the Senate by two senators ( Maurice Antiste and Catherine Conconne ) since 24 September 2017. Martinique is also represented in the Economic, Social and Environmental Council by Pierre Marie-Joseph since 26 April 2021. During

1062-811: Is an island in the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies , in the eastern Caribbean Sea . A part of the French West Indies (Antilles), Martinique is an overseas department and region and a single territorial collectivity of the French Republic . It is a part of the European Union as an outermost region within the special territories of members of the European Economic Area , and an associate member of

1121-550: Is assisted by an advisory council, the Economic, Social, Environmental, Cultural and Educational Council of Martinique. The bill was approved on 26 January 2011, by the French Government . The ordinary law was submitted to Parliament during the first half of 2011 and resulted in the adoption of Law No. 2011-884 27 July 2011, on the territorial communities of French Guiana and Martinique. Political life in Martinique

1180-421: Is divided into four sections). A majority bonus of 20% is granted to the first place list. The executive body of this community is called the "executive council", which is composed of nine executive councilors, including a president. The president of the community of Martinique is the president of the executive council. The executive council is responsible to the Assembly of Martinique, which may overrule it by

1239-429: Is essentially based on Martinican political parties and local federations of national parties (PS and LR). The following classification takes into account their position with regard to the statutory evolution of the island: there are the assimilationists (in favor of an institutional or statutory evolution within the framework of Article 73 of the French Constitution), the autonomists and the independentists (in favor of

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1298-502: Is estimated at 209 km (50 cu mi). The Crowsnest Volcanics are exposed along a series of folded, west-dipping fault plates in the Front Ranges and foothills of the southern Canadian Rockies . They reach maximum thicknesses of 426 to 488 metres (1,400 to 1,600 ft) along a trend that extends northward from Coleman along McGillivray Ridge to Ma Butte. Pyroclastic flow A pyroclastic flow (also known as

1357-548: Is sometimes abbreviated to PDC (pyroclastic density current). Several mechanisms can produce a pyroclastic flow: Flow volumes range from a few hundred cubic meters to more than 1,000 cubic kilometres (240 cu mi). Larger flows can travel for hundreds of kilometres, although none on that scale has occurred for several hundred thousand years. Most pyroclastic flows are around one to ten cubic kilometres ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 2 + 1 ⁄ 2  cu mi) and travel for several kilometres. Flows usually consist of two parts:

1416-458: Is the Assembly of Martinique , composed of 51 elected members and chaired by Lucien Saliber as of 2 July 2021. The advisory council of the territorial collectivity of Martinique is the Economic, Social, Environmental, Cultural and Educational Council of Martinique (Conseil économique, social, environnemental, de la culture et de l'éducation de Martinique), composed of 68 members. Its president

1475-511: Is thought that Martinique is a corruption of the Taíno name for the island ( Madiana / Madinina , meaning 'island of flowers', or Matinino , 'island of women'), as relayed to Christopher Columbus when he visited the island in 1502. According to historian Sydney Daney, the island was called Jouanacaëra or Iouanacaera by the Caribs , which means 'the island of iguanas'. The island

1534-529: The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa , supported by experimental evidence, shows that pyroclastic flows can cross significant bodies of water. However, that might be a pyroclastic surge , not flow, because the density of a gravity current means it cannot move across the surface of water. One flow reached the Sumatran coast as far as 48 kilometres (26 nautical miles) away. A 2006 BBC documentary film, Ten Things You Didn't Know About Volcanoes , demonstrated tests by

1593-587: The Battle of the Caribbean . In 1942, 182 ships were sunk in the Caribbean, dropping to 45 in 1943, and five in 1944. Free French forces took over on the island on Bastille Day , 14 July 1943. In 1946, the French National Assembly voted unanimously to transform the colony into an Overseas Department of France. Meanwhile, the post-war period saw a growing campaign for full independence;

1652-736: The British American colonies or Protestant countries in Europe. The policy decimated the population of Martinique and the rest of the French Antilles and set back their colonisation by decades, causing the French king to relax his policies in the region, which left the islands susceptible to British occupation over the next century. Under governor of the Antilles Charles de Courbon, comte de Blénac , Martinique served as

1711-754: The CARICOM , but is not part of the Schengen Area or the European Union Customs Union . The currency in use is the euro . Martinique has a land area of 1,128 km (436 sq mi) and a population of 349,925 inhabitants as of January 2024. One of the Windward Islands , it lies directly north of Saint Lucia , northwest of Barbados and south of Dominica . Virtually the entire population speaks both French (the sole official language) and Martinican Creole . It

1770-681: The Moon . In a lunar volcanic eruption, a pyroclastic cloud would follow local relief, resulting in an often sinuous track. The Moon's Schröter's Valley offers one example. Some volcanoes on Mars , such as Tyrrhenus Mons and Hadriacus Mons , have produced layered deposits that appear to be more easily eroded than lava flows, suggesting that they were emplaced by pyroclastic flows. Martinique Martinique ( / ˌ m ɑːr t ɪ ˈ n iː k / MAR -tin- EEK , French: [maʁtinik] ; Martinican Creole : Matinik or Matnik ; Kalinago : Madinina or Madiana )

1829-595: The Second Anglo-Dutch War spilled out into the Caribbean, with Britain attacking the pro-Dutch French fleet in Martinique, virtually destroying it and further cementing British preeminence in the region. In 1674, the Dutch attempted to conquer the island, but were repulsed. Because there were few Catholic priests in the French Antilles, many of the earliest French settlers were Huguenots who sought religious freedom. Others were transported there as

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1888-639: The basal flow hugs the ground and contains larger, coarse boulders and rock fragments, while an extremely hot ash plume lofts above it because of the turbulence between the flow and the overlying air, admixing and heating cold atmospheric air causing expansion and convection. Flows can deposit less than 1 meter to 200 meters in depth of loose rock fragment. The kinetic energy of the moving cloud will flatten trees and buildings in its path. The hot gases and high speed make them particularly lethal, as they will incinerate living organisms instantaneously or turn them into carbonized fossils: Testimonial evidence from

1947-403: The 2000s, the political debate in Martinique focused on the question of the evolution of the island's status. Two political ideologies, assimilationism and autonomism , clashed. On the one hand, there are those who want a change of status based on Article 73 of the French Constitution, i.e., that all French laws apply in Martinique as of right, which in law is called legislative identity, and on

2006-468: The Constitution". The majority of voters, 79.3%, said "no". The following 24 January, in a second referendum, 68.4% of the population of Martinique approved the transition to a "single collectivity" under Article 73 of the Constitution, i.e., a single assembly that would exercise the powers of the General Council and the Regional Council. The project of the elected representatives of Martinique to

2065-543: The English. D'Esnambuc claimed Martinique for the French king Louis XIII and the French " Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique " (Company of the American Islands), and established the first European settlement at Fort Saint-Pierre (now St. Pierre). D'Esnambuc died in 1636, leaving the company and Martinique in the hands of his nephew, Jacques Dyel du Parquet , who in 1637 became governor of the island. In 1636, in

2124-550: The French Republic. It is also an outermost region of the European Union . The inhabitants of Martinique are French citizens with full political and legal rights. Martinique sends four deputies to the French National Assembly and two senators to the French Senate . On 24 January 2010, during a referendum, the inhabitants of Martinique approved by 68.4% the change to be a "special (unique) collectivity" within

2183-648: The Mill Creek Formation). The contact is gradational, with volcanic fragments becoming progressively more common toward the top of the Ma Butte Formation. The lower part of the formation is trachytic with abundant sanidine phenocrysts, melanite and pyroxene. The upper part contains sanidine, analcime, melanite and rock fragments. It is unconformably overlain by the shales of the Blackstone Formation that were deposited during

2242-711: The Republic apply to them under certain conditions established by the organic law defining their status. The overseas departments have a greater degree of autonomy than the DOMs. They have an executive council, a territorial council and an economic and social council. The prefect is the representative of the French State in the overseas collectivity. However, the French Constitution specifies in Article 72-4 that "no change may be made, for all or part of one of

2301-573: The Western hemisphere, the planter class lost political influence as sugar prices declined in the early 1800s. Slave rebellions in 1789, 1815 and 1822, plus the campaigns of abolitionists such as Cyrille Bissette and Victor Schœlcher , persuaded the French government to end slavery in the French West Indies in 1848. Martinique was the first French overseas territory in which the abolition decree came into force, on 23 May 1848. As

2360-478: The communities mentioned in the second paragraph of Article 72-3, from one of the regimes provided for in Articles 73 and 74, without the prior consent of the electors of the community or part of the community concerned having been obtained, under the conditions provided for in the following paragraph. In 2003, a new organization is envisaged, in which the regional and departmental institutions would be merged into

2419-622: The dark is nuée ardente (French, "burning cloud"); this was notably used to describe the disastrous 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée on Martinique , a French island in the Caribbean. Pyroclastic flows that contain a much higher proportion of gas to rock are known as "fully dilute pyroclastic density currents" or pyroclastic surges . The lower density sometimes allows them to flow over higher topographic features or water such as ridges, hills, rivers, and seas. They may also contain steam, water, and rock at less than 250 °C (480 °F); these are called "cold" compared with other flows, although

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2478-525: The economy. Greater autonomy was granted by France to the island in the 1970s–80s. In 2009, Martinique was convulsed by the French Caribbean general strikes . Initially focusing on cost-of-living issues, the movement soon took on a racial dimension as strikers challenged the continued economic dominance of the Béké , descendants of French European settlers. President Nicolas Sarkozy later visited

2537-739: The first of many skirmishes, the Indigenous Kalinago rose against the settlers to drive them off the island. The French repelled the natives and forced them to retreat to the eastern part of the island, on the Caravelle Peninsula in the region then known as the Capesterre. When the Caribs revolted against French rule in 1658, the governor Charles Houël du Petit Pré retaliated with war against them. Many were killed, and those who survived were taken captive and expelled from

2596-512: The framework of article 73 of the French Republic's Constitution. The new council replaces and exercises the powers of both the General Council and the regional council . Martinique is divided into 4 arrondissements and 34 communes . It had also been divided into 45 cantons , but these were abolished in 2015. The four arrondissements of the island, with their respective locations, are as follows: The prefecture of Martinique

2655-436: The government proposes a single territorial community governed by Article 73 of the Constitution, whose name is "Territorial Community of Martinique". The single assembly that replaces the General Council and the Regional Council is called the "Assembly of Martinique". The Assembly of Martinique is composed of 51 councilors, elected for a six-year term of office by the proportional representation system (the electoral district

2714-489: The island, promising reform. While ruling out full independence, which he said was desired neither by France nor by Martinique, Sarkozy offered Martiniquans a referendum on the island's future status and degree of autonomy. On 2 February 2023, Martinique adopted its independent activist flag , symbolising its three colors of Pan-Africanism . Like French Guiana , Martinique is a special collectivity (Unique in French) of

2773-444: The island. Some Caribs fled to Dominica or St. Vincent , where the French agreed to leave them at peace. After the death of du Parquet in 1658, his widow Marie Bonnard du Parquet tried to govern Martinique, but dislike of her rule led King Louis XIV to take over the sovereignty of the island. In 1654, Dutch Jews expelled from Portuguese Brazil introduced sugar plantations worked by large numbers of enslaved Africans. In 1667,

2832-492: The lighter material) along on a bed of steam at an even faster pace than before. During some phases of the Soufriere Hills volcano on Montserrat, pyroclastic flows were filmed about 1 km ( 1 ⁄ 2  nmi) offshore. These show the water boiling as the flow passes over it. The flows eventually built a delta, which covered about 1 km (250 acres). Another example was observed in 2019 at Stromboli when

2891-543: The most deadly of all volcanic hazards and are produced as a result of certain explosive eruptions ; they normally touch the ground and hurtle downhill or spread laterally under gravity. Their speed depends upon the density of the current, the volcanic output rate, and the gradient of the slope. The word pyroclast is derived from the Greek πῦρ ( pýr ), meaning "fire", and κλαστός ( klastós ), meaning "broken in pieces". A name for pyroclastic flows that glow red in

2950-457: The other hand, the autonomists who want a change of status based on Article 74 of the French Constitution, i.e., an autonomous status subject to the regime of legislative specialty following the example of St. Martin and St. Barthelemy . Since the constitutional revision of 28 March 2003, Martinique has four options: Unlike the overseas departments , the overseas collectivities are subject to legislative specialization. The laws and decrees of

3009-472: The pirate Blackbeard and his pirates captured a French frigate named La Concorde near the island of Martinique in the West Indies . After selling her cargo of slaves on the island, Blackbeard made the vessel his flagship , added more heavy cannons and renamed her Queen Anne's Revenge . Martinique was attacked or occupied several times by the British, in 1693, 1759 , 1762 and 1779 . Excepting

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3068-522: The planters on Martinique were Huguenots suffering under the harsh strictures of the Revocation, they began plotting to emigrate from Martinique with many of their recently arrived brethren. Many of them were encouraged by the Catholics, who looked forward to their departure and the opportunities for seizing their property. By 1688, nearly all of Martinique's French Protestant population had escaped to

3127-472: The southern villages of Dominica , and some of them remained permanently on the island. The only survivor in the town of Saint-Pierre, Ludger Sylbaris , was saved by the thick walls of his prison cell. Shortly thereafter, the capital shifted to Fort-de-France , where it remains today. During World War II , the pro-Nazi Vichy government controlled Martinique under Admiral Georges Robert . German U-boats used Martinique for refuelling and re-supply during

3186-519: The surveillance frigates Ventôse and Germinal , the patrol and support ship Dumont d'Urville , the Confiance -class patrol vessel Combattante and the coastal harbor tug (RPC) Maïtos . The naval aviation element includes Eurocopter AS565 Panther and Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin helicopters able to embark on the two Floréal -class surveillance frigates as required. One Engins de Débarquement Amphibie – Standards (EDA-S) landing craft

3245-436: The temperature is still lethally high. Cold pyroclastic surges can occur when the eruption is from a vent under a shallow lake or the sea. Fronts of some pyroclastic density currents are fully dilute; for example, during the eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902, a fully dilute current overwhelmed the city of Saint-Pierre and killed nearly 30,000 people. A pyroclastic flow is a type of gravity current ; in scientific literature, it

3304-400: Was formed. Its leaders were later arrested by the French authorities. However, they were later acquitted. Tensions rose again in 1974, when gendarmes shot dead two striking banana workers. However the independence movement lost steam as Martinique's economy faltered in the 1970s, resulting in large-scale emigration. Hurricanes in 1979–80 severely affected agricultural output, further straining

3363-590: Was massively rejected (79.3%) by the population during the referendum of 10 January 2010. The defence of the department is the responsibility of the French Armed Forces . Some 1,400 military personnel are deployed in Martinique and Guadeloupe – centred on the 33e régiment d'infanterie de Marine in Martinique and incorporating a reserve company of the regiment located in Guadeloupe. Five French Navy vessels are based in Martinique, including:

3422-669: Was occupied first by Arawaks , then by Caribs . The Arawaks came from Central America in the 1st century AD and the Caribs came from the Venezuelan coast around the 11th century. Christopher Columbus charted Martinique (without landing) in 1493, during his second voyage, but Spain had little interest in the territory. Columbus landed during a later voyage, on 15 June 1502, after a 21-day trade wind passage , his fastest ocean voyage. He spent three days there refilling his water casks, bathing and washing laundry. The Indigenous people Columbus encountered called Martinique "Matinino". He

3481-448: Was told by Indigenous people of San Salvador that "the island of Matinino was entirely populated by women on whom the Caribs descended at certain seasons of the year; and if these women bore sons they were entrusted to the father to bring up." On 15 September 1635, Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc , French governor of the island of St. Kitts , landed in the harbour of St. Pierre with 80 to 150 French settlers after being driven off St. Kitts by

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