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99-551: Le Marin ( French pronunciation: [lə maʁɛ̃] ; Martinican Creole : Maren or Mawen ) is a town and commune in the French overseas department of Martinique . In Le Marin there is Église du Marin, an old church built in 1766. It contains a marble altar and some figurettes worth seeing. This Martinique location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Martinican Creole There are two main geographical and linguistic groups in

198-573: A universal monarchy . When in 1630 French diplomats in Regensburg agreed to make peace with Spain, Richelieu refused to support them. The agreement would have prohibited French interference in Germany. Therefore, Richelieu advised Louis XIII to refuse to ratify the treaty. In 1631, he allied France to Sweden, which had just invaded the empire , in the Treaty of Bärwalde . Military expenses placed

297-696: A : If a word ends in a nasal vowel , it becomes an : If the last sound is a nasal consonant , it becomes nan , but this form is rare and is usually replaced by lan : Note that in Guadeloupean Creole there is no agreement of sounds between the noun and definite article and la is used for all nouns Demonstrative article Like the definite article this is placed after the noun. It varies widely by region. sa'a Cardinal Richelieu Armand Jean du Plessis, 1st Duke of Richelieu ( French: [aʁmɑ̃ ʒɑ̃ dy plɛsi] ; 9 September 1585 – 4 December 1642), known as Cardinal Richelieu ,

396-642: A French settlement in Grenada in 1649. Despite the long history of British rule, Grenada's French heritage is still evident by the number of French loanwords in Grenadian Creole and the French-style buildings, cuisine and placenames ( Petit Martinique , Martinique Channel , etc.) In 1642, the Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique received a 20-year extension of its charter. The king would name

495-676: A Lombard peasant expresses his own conspiracy theories about the bread riots happening in Milan. The 1839 play Richelieu; Or the Conspiracy by Edward Bulwer-Lytton portrayed Richelieu uttering the now famous line " The pen is mightier than the sword ." The play was adapted into the 1935 film Cardinal Richelieu . Richelieu and Louis XIII are depicted in Ken Russell's 1971 film The Devils . The Monty Python's Flying Circus episode "How to Recognise Different Types of Trees from Quite

594-520: A Long Way Away", first released in 1969, features the sketch "Court Scene with Cardinal Richelieu", in which Richelieu (played by Michael Palin ) possesses the casual and somewhat smarmy demeanor of a master of ceremonies. Richelieu is a minor and eventually a major character in the Fortune de France novel series (published between 1977 and 2003) by Robert Merle . Also, in the 21st century 1632/Ring of Fire alternative history series by Eric Flint, he

693-780: A commission to build a château and a surrounding town in Indre-et-Loire ; the project culminated in the construction of the Château Richelieu and the town of Richelieu . To the château, he added one of the largest art collections in Europe and the largest collection of ancient Roman sculpture in France. The heavily resurfaced and restored Richelieu Bacchus continued to be admired by neoclassical artists . Among his 300 paintings by moderns, most notably, he owned Leonardo 's Virgin and Child with Saint Anne , The Family of

792-415: A considerable strain on royal revenues. In response, Richelieu raised the gabelle (salt tax) and the taille (land tax). The taille was enforced to provide funds to raise armies and wage war. The clergy, nobility, and high bourgeoisie either were exempt or could easily avoid payment, so the burden fell on the poorest segment of the nation. To collect taxes more efficiently, and to keep corruption to

891-640: A consonant and 'w' and 'y' after nouns ending in a vowel. All other possessive adjectives are invariable. Kaz ou - Your house, Kouto'w - Your knife Madanm li - His wife, Sésé'y - Her sister The indefinite article is placed before the noun and can be pronounced as on, an, yon, yan . The word yonn means "one". On chapo, Yon wavèt An moun, Yan tòti This exemples doesn't work for Guadeloupe Creole where article are always "la", and for haitian creole whose article are more similar but have "nan" in addition. In Creole, there are five definite articles (la, lan, a, an, nan) which are placed after

990-410: A course of action, as he personally disliked Richelieu. Despite this, the persuasive statesman was able to secure the king as an ally against his own mother. On 11 November 1630, Marie de Médicis and the king's brother, Gaston, duc d'Orléans , secured the king's agreement for the dismissal. Richelieu, however, was aware of the plan, and quickly convinced the king to repent. Meanwhile, Marie de Médicis

1089-698: A famous mercenary general operating in Germany in English service. However, in May 1626, when war costs had almost ruined France, king and cardinal made peace with Spain via the Treaty of Monçon . This peace quickly ended after tensions due to the War of the Mantuan Succession . In 1629, Emperor Ferdinand II subjugated many of his Protestant opponents in Germany. Richelieu, alarmed by Ferdinand's growing influence, incited Sweden to intervene, providing money. In

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1188-508: A major defeat at La Rochelle, they continued to fight, led by Henri, duc de Rohan . Protestant forces, however, were defeated in 1629; Rohan submitted to the terms of the Peace of Alais . As a result, religious toleration for Protestants, which had first been granted by the Edict of Nantes in 1598, was permitted to continue, but the cardinal abolished their political rights and protections. Rohan

1287-450: A military career. There, he learned mathematics, fencing, horse riding, dancing skills, courtly manners, and military drill. His private life seems to have been typical for a young officer of the era; in 1605, aged twenty, he was treated by Théodore de Mayerne for gonorrhea . Henry III had rewarded Richelieu's father for his participation in the Wars of Religion by granting his family

1386-452: A minimum, Richelieu bypassed local tax officials, replacing them with intendants (officials in the direct service of the Crown). Richelieu's financial scheme, however, caused unrest among the peasants; there were several uprisings in 1636 to 1639. Richelieu crushed the revolts violently, and dealt with the rebels harshly. Because he openly aligned France with Protestant powers, Richelieu

1485-577: A number of countries (including Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia, Trinidad, Brazil ( Lanc-Patuá ) and Venezuela) the language is referred to as patois . It has historically been spoken in nearly all of the Lesser Antilles , but its number of speakers has declined in Trinidad and Tobago and Grenada . Conversely, it is widely used on the islands of Dominica and Saint Lucia ; though they are officially English-speaking, there are efforts to preserve

1584-400: A result, they were forced to develop a new form of communication by relying on what they heard from their colonial enslavers and other slaves. According to Jesuit missionary Pierre Pelleprat, French settlers would change their way of speaking to a simpler form to be more accommodating to the enslaved people. For example, to say "I have not eaten" settlers would say "moi point manger" even though

1683-468: A sentence, the word "point" to inflect the negative, and the non-distinguished adverbs and adjectives. The language emerged in a context of plantation slavery in the French Antilles . Due to differing native tongues, it was difficult for French settlers to communicate with the enslaved Africans and vice versa, as well as for slaves of different ethnic origins to communicate between each other. As

1782-547: Is a character. Actors who have portrayed Cardinal Richelieu on film and television include Nigel De Brulier , George Arliss , Miles Mander , Vincent Price , Charlton Heston , Aleksandr Trofimov , Tcheky Karyo , Stephen Rea , Tim Curry , Christoph Waltz and Peter Capaldi . Richelieu is one of the clergymen more frequently portrayed in film, notably as the lead villain in Alexandre Dumas 's 1844 novel The Three Musketeers and its numerous film adaptations . He

1881-512: Is some variation in orthography between the islands. In St. Lucia, Dominica and Martinique 'dj' and 'tj' are used whereas in Guadeloupe 'gy' and 'ky' are used. These represent differences in pronunciations. Several words may be pronounced in various ways depending on the region: The letter 'r' in St. Lucia and Dominica represents the English / ɹ / whereas in Guadeloupe and Martinique it represents

1980-599: Is still spoken as a secondary language because of Dominica's location between the French-speaking departments of Guadeloupe and Martinique. In Trinidad , the Spanish possessed the island but contributed little towards advancements, with El Dorado being their focus. Trinidad was perfect for its geographical location. Because Trinidad was considered underpopulated, Roume de St. Laurent, a Frenchman living in Grenada,

2079-411: Is usually portrayed as a sinister character, but the 1950 Cyrano de Bergerac shows Richelieu (played by Edgar Barrier in a scene not from Rostand's original verse drama ) as compassionate to Cyrano's financial plight, and playfully having enjoyed the duel at the theatre. Richelieu is indirectly mentioned in a famous line of Alessandro Manzoni 's novel The Betrothed (1827–1840), set in 1628, as

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2178-531: The Antilles or Caribbean Islands : the Greater Antilles and the Lesser Antilles . Intercomprehension between these two groups is possible, but despite a large proportion of shared vocabulary and largely similar grammatical functioning, it is limited by varying key vocabulary and different words for basic grammar. Nevertheless, it is easy to begin to understand each other completely, as long as one of

2277-504: The Bishopric of Luçon . The family appropriated most of the revenues of the bishopric for private use; they were, however, challenged by clergymen who desired the funds for ecclesiastical purposes. To protect the important source of revenue, Richelieu's mother proposed to make her second son, Alphonse , the bishop of Luçon. Alphonse, who had no desire to become a bishop, became instead a Carthusian monk. Thus, it became necessary that

2376-576: The Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a cardinal in 1622 and chief minister to King Louis XIII of France in 1624. He retained that office until his death in 1642, when he was succeeded by Cardinal Jules Mazarin , whose career the cardinal had fostered. Richelieu became engaged in a bitter dispute with Marie de Médici , the king's mother, and formerly his close ally. Richelieu sought to consolidate royal power and restrained

2475-477: The Château de Blois , becoming the titular leader of an aristocratic rebellion. The king and the duc de Luynes recalled Richelieu, believing that he would be able to reason with the queen. Richelieu was successful in this endeavour, mediating between her and her son. Complex negotiations bore fruit when the Treaty of Angoulême was ratified; Marie de Médicis was given complete freedom, but would remain at peace with

2574-570: The Dutch West India Company . Unlike the other colonial powers, France encouraged a peaceful coexistence in New France between natives and colonists and sought the integration of Indians into colonial society. Samuel de Champlain , governor of New France at the time of Richelieu, saw intermarriage between French and Indians as a solution to increase population in its colony. Under the guidance of Richelieu, Louis XIII issued

2673-542: The Galerie des hommes illustres had twenty-six historicizing portraits of great men , larger than life, from Abbot Suger to Louis XIII; some were by Simon Vouet , others were careful copies by Philippe de Champaigne from known portraits; with them were busts of Roman emperors. Another series of portraits of authors complemented the library. The architect of the Palais-Cardinal, Jacques Lemercier , also received

2772-480: The Gallicanists . As he neared death, Richelieu faced a plot that threatened to remove him from power. The cardinal had introduced a young man named Henri Coiffier de Ruzé, marquis de Cinq-Mars to Louis XIII's court. The cardinal had been a friend of Cinq-Mars's father. More importantly, Richelieu hoped that Cinq-Mars would become Louis's favourite, so that he could indirectly exercise greater influence over

2871-610: The Gonzaga collection at Mantua by French military forces in 1630, as well as numerous antiquities. Richelieu's tenure was a crucial period of reform for France. Earlier, the nation's political structure was largely feudal , with powerful nobles and a wide variety of laws in different regions. Parts of the nobility periodically conspired against the king, raised private armies, and allied themselves with foreign powers. This system gave way to centralized power under Richelieu. Local and even religious interests were subordinated to those of

2970-666: The Holy Roman Empire , so subsidies and aid were provided secretly to their adversaries. Richelieu however, believed that war against Spain would be unavoidable. He considered the Dutch Republic as one of France's most important allies, for it bordered directly with the Spanish Netherlands and was right in the middle of the Eighty Years' War with Spain at that time. Luckily for him, Richelieu

3069-688: The Kingdom of England and the Dutch Republic to help him achieve his goals. However, although he was a powerful political figure in his own right, events such as the Day of the Dupes ( French : Journée des Dupes ) in 1630 showed that Richelieu's power still depended on the king's confidence. An alumnus of the University of Paris and headmaster of the College of Sorbonne , Richelieu renovated and extended

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3168-746: The Ordonnance of 1627 by which the Indians, converted to Catholicism, were considered as "natural Frenchmen": The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country [New France], together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take letters of declaration of naturalization. The 1666 census of New France , conducted some 20 years after

3267-524: The Saintes . The Knights of Malta bought Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin and then sold them in 1665 to the Compagnie des Indes occidentales , formed one year earlier. Dominica is a former French and British colony in the Eastern Caribbean , about halfway between the French islands of Guadeloupe (to the north) and Martinique (to the south). Christopher Columbus named the island after

3366-676: The United States Virgin Islands , British Virgin Islands , and the Collectivity of Saint Martin . Antillean Creole has approximately thirteen million speakers and is a means of communication for migrant populations traveling between neighboring English- and French-speaking territories. Since French is a Romance language, French Antillean Creole is considered to be one of Latin America’s languages by some linguists. In

3465-413: The "father of the modern nation-state , modern centralised power [and] the modern secret service ." His legacy is also important for the world at large; his ideas of a strong nation-state and aggressive foreign policy helped create the modern system of international politics. As a statesman and churchman, Richelieu played an important role in shaping France's prominence in the 17th century and influencing

3564-570: The Académie's protector . Since 1672, that role has been fulfilled by the French head of state. In 1622, Richelieu was elected the proviseur or principal of the Sorbonne. He presided over the renovation of the college's buildings and over the construction of its famous chapel, where he is now entombed. As he was Bishop of Luçon, his statue stands outside the Luçon cathedral. Richelieu oversaw

3663-580: The British. Fort Royal (now Fort-de-France) on Martinique was a major port for French battle ships in the region from which the French were able to explore the region. In 1638, Dyel du Parquet decided to have Fort Saint Louis built to protect the city against enemy attacks. From Fort Royal, Martinique, Du Parquet proceeded south in search for new territories, established the first settlement in Saint Lucia in 1643 and headed an expedition that established

3762-469: The French army to northern Italy to restrain Spain. On 26 November 1629, he was created duc de Richelieu and a Peer of France . In the next year, Richelieu's position was seriously threatened by his former patron, Marie de Médicis. Marie believed that the cardinal had robbed her of her political influence; thus, she demanded that her son dismiss the chief minister. Louis XIII was not, at first, averse to such

3861-459: The French islands with wood and gradually become permanent settlers. France had a colony for several years and imported slaves from West Africa , Martinique and Guadeloupe to work on its plantations. The Antillean Creole language developed. France formally ceded possession of Dominica to Great Britain in 1763. The latter established a small colony on the island in 1805. As a result, Dominica uses English as an official language, but Antillean Creole

3960-635: The Grand Provost of France, and his mother, Susanne de La Porte, was the daughter of a famous jurist. When he was five years old, Richelieu's father died of fever in the French Wars of Religion , leaving the family in debt; however, with the aid of royal grants , the family was able to avoid financial difficulties. At the age of 9, young Richelieu was sent to the College of Navarre in Paris to study philosophy. Thereafter, he began to train for

4059-565: The Huguenot faction. In 1627, Richelieu ordered the army to besiege the Huguenot stronghold of La Rochelle ; the cardinal personally commanded the besieging troops. English troops under the Duke of Buckingham led an expedition to help the citizens of La Rochelle, but failed abysmally. The city, however, remained firm for over a year before capitulating in 1628. Although the Huguenots suffered

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4158-458: The Palais-Cardinal, for which Simon Vouet executed the paintings, were of solid gold – crucifix, chalice, paten , ciborium, candlesticks – set with 180 rubies and 9,000 diamonds. His taste also ran to massive silver, small bronzes and works of vertu , enamels and rock crystal mounted in gold, Chinese porcelains, tapestries and Persian carpets, cabinets from Italy, and Antwerp and the heart-shaped diamond bought from Alphonse Lopez that he willed to

4257-547: The Virgin by Andrea del Sarto , the two famous Bacchanales of Nicolas Poussin , as well as paintings by Veronese and Titian , and Diana at the Bath by Rubens , for which he was so glad to pay the artist's heirs 3,000 écus , that he made a gift to Rubens' widow of a diamond-encrusted watch. His marble portrait bust by Bernini was not considered a good likeness and was banished to a passageway. The fittings of his chapel in

4356-538: The bad manners that were commonly displayed at the dining table by users of sharp knives (who would often use them to pick their teeth), in 1637 Richelieu ordered that all of the knives on his dining table have their blades dulled and their tips rounded. The design quickly became popular throughout France and later spread to other countries. As of April 2013, the Internet Movie Database listed 94 films and television programs in which Cardinal Richelieu

4455-535: The cardinal's arms. The library was transferred to the Sorbonne in 1660. He funded the literary careers of many writers. He was a lover of the theatre, which was not considered a respectable art form during that era; a private theatre, the Grande Salle , was a feature of his Paris residence, the Palais-Cardinal . Among the individuals he patronized was the famous playwright Pierre Corneille . Richelieu

4554-588: The church floor enabled the head to be photographed in 1895. Richelieu was a chess player and a famous patron of the arts. An author of various religious and political works (most notably his Political Testament ), he sent his agents abroad in search of books and manuscripts for his unrivaled library, which he specified in his will – leaving it to Armand Jean de Vignerot du Plessis , his great-nephew, fully funded – should serve not merely his family but to be open at fixed hours to scholars. The manuscripts alone numbered some 900, bound as codices in red Morocco with

4653-550: The company and Martinique in the hands of his nephew, Jacques Dyel du Parquet , who inherited d'Esnambuc's authority over the French settlements in the Caribbean. Dyel du Parquet became governor of the island. He remained in Martinique and did not concern himself with the other islands. The French permanently settled on Martinique and Guadeloupe after being driven off Saint Kitts and Nevis ( French : Saint-Christophe ) by

4752-511: The conflict of Protestantism versus Catholicism to that of nationalism versus Habsburg hegemony. In this conflict France effectively drained the already overstretched resources of the Habsburg empire and drove it inexorably towards bankruptcy. The defeat of Habsburg forces at the Battle of Lens in 1648, coupled with their failure to prevent a French invasion of Catalonia , effectively spelled

4851-653: The construction of his own palace in Paris, the Palais-Cardinal . The palace, renamed the Palais-Royal after Richelieu's death, now houses the French Constitutional Council , the Ministry of Culture, and the Conseil d'État . The Galerie de l'avant-cour had ceiling paintings by Philippe de Champaigne , the cardinal's chief portraitist, celebrating the major events of the cardinal's career;

4950-649: The council (Richelieu was officially appointed president in November 1629). Cardinal Richelieu's policy involved two primary goals: centralization of power in France and opposition to the Habsburg dynasty (which ruled in both Austria and Spain). He saw the reestablishment of the Catholic orthodoxy as a political maneuver of the Habsburg and Austrian states which was detrimental to the French national interests. Shortly after he became Louis' principal minister, he

5049-529: The day of the week on which he spotted it, a Sunday (Latin: dies Dominica ), on 3 November 1493. In the 100 years after Columbus's landing, Dominica remained isolated. At the time, it was inhabited by the Island Caribs , or Kalinago people. Over time, more settled there after they had been driven from surrounding islands, as European powers entered the region. In 1690, French woodcutters from Martinique and Guadeloupe begin to set up timber camps to supply

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5148-414: The death of Cardinal Richelieu, showed a population of 3,215 habitants in New France, many more than there had been only a few decades earlier, but also a great difference in the number of men (2,034) and women (1,181). Toward the end of his life, Richelieu alienated many people, including Pope Urban VIII . Richelieu was displeased by the pope's refusal to name him the papal legate in France; in turn,

5247-518: The end for Habsburg domination of the continent, and for the personal career of Spanish prime minister Olivares . When Richelieu came to power, New France , where the French had a foothold since Jacques Cartier , had no more than 100 permanent European inhabitants. Richelieu encouraged Louis XIII to colonize the Americas by the foundation of the Compagnie de la Nouvelle France in imitation of

5346-598: The fledgling colony along the St. Lawrence River . The retention and promotion of Canada under Richelieu allowed it – and through the settlement's strategic location, the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes gateway into the North American interior – to develop into a French empire in North America, parts of which eventually became modern Canada and Louisiana. Richelieu is known as the inventor of the table knife . Annoyed by

5445-460: The governor general of the company, and the company would name the governors of the various islands. However, by the late 1640s, Cardinal Mazarin had little interest in colonial affairs, and the company languished. In 1651, it dissolved itself, selling its exploitation rights to various parties. The Du Paquet family bought Martinique, Grenada and Saint Lucia for 60,000 livres . The sieur d' Houël bought Guadeloupe , Marie-Galante , La Desirade and

5544-667: The grey colour of his robes, Father Joseph was also nicknamed L'éminence grise ( lit.   ' the Grey Eminence ' ). Later, Richelieu often used him as an agent during diplomatic negotiations. In 1614, the clergymen of Poitou asked Richelieu to be one of their representatives to the Estates-General . There, he was a vigorous advocate of the Catholic Church, arguing that it should be exempt from taxes and that bishops should have more political power. He

5643-454: The influences from its origins, this creole has some distinctive linguistic features. Features of French included in Lesser Antillean Creole include infinitive forms of verbs, the use of only the masculine noun forms, oblique pronouns, and its subject to verb word order. Features from African languages include their verbal marking system as well as providing a West-African substrate. Other features of this creole also include doubling to emphasize

5742-461: The institution. He became famous for his patronage of the arts and founded the Académie Française , the learned society responsible for matters pertaining to the French language . As an advocate for Samuel de Champlain and New France , he founded (1627) the Compagnie des Cent-Associés ; he also negotiated the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye under which Quebec City returned to French rule after English privateers took it in 1629. He

5841-442: The islands. It originated in the Guadeloupe and Martinique areas of the Lesser Antilles. It was not until 1700, when there was an increase in African influences, that this pidgin transitioned into the creole that it is today. The formation of this creole was influenced by many different dialects and languages. These include dialects of French, other European languages, Carib (both Karina and Arawakan), and African languages. Due to

5940-416: The king's armies during rebellions. As a result, Richelieu was hated by most of the nobility. Another obstacle to the centralization of power was religious division in France. The Huguenots , one of the largest political and religious factions in the country, controlled a significant military force, and were in rebellion. Moreover, Charles I , the king of England, declared war on France in an attempt to aid

6039-427: The king's brother, the duc d'Orléans) to raise a rebellion; he also signed a secret agreement with the king of Spain, who promised to aid the rebels. Richelieu's spy service, however, discovered the plot, and the cardinal received a copy of the treaty. Cinq-Mars was promptly arrested and executed; although Louis approved the use of capital punishment, he grew more distant from Richelieu as a result. However, Richelieu

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6138-425: The king. Richelieu died on 4 December 1642, aged 57. His body was embalmed and interred at the church of the Sorbonne . By that time, the populace detested him. In many provinces of the kingdom, bonfires were kindled to celebrate his death. During the French Revolution , the corpse was removed from its tomb, and the mummified front of his head, having been removed and replaced during the original embalming process,

6237-402: The king. After he was appointed to the royal council of ministers on 29 April 1624, he intrigued against the chief minister Charles, duc de La Vieuville . On 12 August of the same year, La Vieuville was arrested on charges of corruption, and Cardinal Richelieu took his place as the king's principal minister the following day, but the Cardinal de la Rochefoucauld nominally remained president of

6336-407: The king. The queen-mother was restored to the royal council. After the death of the king's favourite, the duc de Luynes, in 1621, Richelieu rose to power quickly. The year after, the king nominated Richelieu for a cardinalate, which Pope Gregory XV accordingly granted in September 1622. Crises in France, including a rebellion of the Huguenots , rendered Richelieu a nearly indispensable advisor to

6435-481: The king. When the Palais-Cardinal was complete, he donated it to the Crown, in 1636. With the queen in residence, the paintings of the Grand Cabinet were transferred to Fontainebleau and replaced by copies, and the interiors were subjected to much rearrangement. Michelangelo 's two Slaves were among the rich appointments of the château Richelieu, where there were the Nativity triptych by Dürer , and paintings by Mantegna , Lorenzo Costa and Perugino , lifted from

6534-477: The language. Édouard Glissant has written theoretically and poetically about its significance and its history. Pierre Belain d'Esnambuc was a French trader and adventurer in the Caribbean who established the first permanent French colony, Saint-Pierre , on the island of Martinique in 1635. Belain sailed to the Caribbean in 1625, hoping to establish a French settlement on the island of St. Christopher (St. Kitts). In 1626, he returned to France , where he won

6633-422: The legal age of majority in 1614, she remained the effective ruler of the realm. However, her policies, and those of Concini, proved unpopular with many in France. As a result, both Marie and Concini became the targets of intrigues at court; their most powerful enemy was Charles de Luynes . In April 1617, in a plot arranged by Luynes, Louis XIII ordered that Concini be arrested, and killed should he resist; Concini

6732-400: The meantime, France and Spain remained hostile due to Spain's ambitions in northern Italy. At that time northern Italy was a major strategic region in Europe's balance of power, serving as a link between the Habsburgs in the Empire and in Spain. Had the imperial armies dominated this region, France would have been threatened by Habsburg encirclement. Spain was meanwhile seeking papal approval for

6831-421: The monarch's decisions. Cinq-Mars had become the royal favourite by 1639, but, contrary to Cardinal Richelieu's belief, he was not easy to control. The young marquis realized that Richelieu would not permit him to gain political power. In 1641, he participated in the comte de Soissons 's failed conspiracy against Richelieu, but was not discovered. Then, the following year, he schemed with leading nobles (including

6930-415: The more French-like sound / ɣ / . Form Personal pronouns in Antillean Creole are invariable so they do not inflect for case as in European languages such as French or English. This means that mwen, for example, can mean I, me or my; yo can mean they, them, their etc. Possessive adjectives are placed after the noun; kay mwen 'my house', manman'w 'your mother' 'ou' and 'li' are used after nouns ending in

7029-558: The most powerful monarch, and France the most powerful nation, in all of Europe during the late seventeenth century. Richelieu is also notable for the authoritarian measures he employed to maintain power. He censored the press, established a large network of internal spies, forbade the discussion of political matters in public assemblies such as the Parlement de Paris (a court of justice), and had those who dared to conspire against him prosecuted and executed. The Canadian historian and philosopher John Ralston Saul has referred to Richelieu as

7128-412: The nouns they modify, in contrast to French. The final syllable of the preceding word determines which is used with which nouns. If the last sound is an oral consonant and is preceded by an oral vowel , it becomes la : If the last sound is an oral consonant and is preceded by a nasal vowel , it becomes lan : If the last sound is an oral vowel and is preceded by an oral consonant , it becomes

7227-480: The pope did not approve of the administration of the French church, or of French foreign policy. However, the conflict was largely resolved when the pope granted a cardinalate to Jules Mazarin , one of Richelieu's main political allies, in 1641. Despite troubled relations with the Roman Catholic Church, Richelieu did not support the complete repudiation of papal authority in France, as was advocated by

7326-496: The pope was a foretaste of the purely diplomatic power politics he espoused in his foreign policy. To further consolidate power in France, Richelieu sought to suppress the influence of the feudal nobility. In 1626, he abolished the position of Constable of France and ordered all fortified castles razed, with the exception only of those needed to defend against invaders. Thus he stripped the princes, dukes, and lesser aristocrats of important defences that could have been used against

7425-607: The power of the nobility in order to transform France into a strong centralized state. In foreign policy, his primary objectives were to check the power of the Habsburg dynasty (reigning notably in Spain and Austria ) and to ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648 after that conflict engulfed Europe. Despite suppressing the Huguenot rebellions of the 1620s, he made alliances with Protestant states like

7524-416: The proper French translation is "Je n'ai pas mangé". This simpler form of French, along with linguistic influences from other languages, eventually evolved into Antillean Creole. (or à before an n) p à n (when not followed by a vowel) nasalized [ a ] (when not followed by a vowel) nasalized [ ɛ ] (when not followed by a vowel) nasalized [ o ] There

7623-458: The queen-mother's favourite, Concino Concini , the most powerful minister in the kingdom. In 1616, Richelieu was made Secretary of State, and was given responsibility for foreign affairs. Like Concini, the Bishop was one of the closest advisors of Louis XIII's mother, Marie de' Medici . The queen had become Regent of France when the nine-year-old Louis ascended the throne; although her son reached

7722-476: The same vein as the cardinal, he enacted policies that further suppressed the once-mighty aristocracy, and utterly destroyed all remnants of Huguenot political power with the Edict of Fontainebleau . Moreover, Louis took advantage of his nation's success during the Thirty Years' War to establish French hegemony in continental Europe. Thus, Richelieu's policies were the requisite prelude to Louis XIV becoming

7821-406: The secularization of international policies during the Thirty Years' War. His pioneering approach to French diplomatic relations using raison d'etat vis-a-vis the power relationship at play were first frowned upon but later emulated by other European nation-states to add to their diplomatic strategic arsenal. A less renowned aspect of his legacy is his involvement with Samuel de Champlain and

7920-539: The stake in the Loudun affair . These and other harsh measures were orchestrated by Richelieu to intimidate his enemies. He also ensured his political security by establishing a large network of spies in France and in other European countries. Before Richelieu's ascent to power, most of Europe had become enmeshed in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). France was not openly at war with the Habsburgs , who ruled Spain and

8019-617: The support of Cardinal Richelieu to establish French colonies in the region. Richelieu became a shareholder in the Compagnie de Saint-Christophe , created to accomplish that with d'Esnambuc at its head. The company was not particularly successful, and Richelieu had it reorganised as the Compagnie des Îles de l'Amérique. In 1635, d'Esnambuc sailed to Martinique with 100 French settlers to clear land for sugarcane plantations . After six months on Martinique, d'Esnambuc returned to St. Christopher , where he soon died prematurely in 1636, leaving

8118-534: The two has a basic knowledge of the other's language. Antillean Creole is spoken natively, to varying degrees, in Haïti , Saint Lucia , Grenada , Guadeloupe , Îles des Saintes , Martinique , Saint-Barthélemy (St. Barts), Dominica , French Guiana , Trinidad and Tobago , and Venezuela (mainly in Macuro , Güiria and El Callao Municipality ). It is also spoken in various Creole-speaking immigrant communities in

8217-555: The use of Antillean Creole, as there are in Trinidad and Tobago and its neighbour, Venezuela . In recent decades, Creole has gone from being seen as a sign of lower socio-economic status, banned in school playgrounds, to a mark of national pride. Since the 1970s, there has been a literary revival of Creole in the French-speaking islands of the Lesser Antilles, with writers such as Raphaël Confiant and Monchoachi employing

8316-567: The whole nation, and of the embodiment of the nation – the king. Equally critical for France was Richelieu's foreign policy, which helped restrain Habsburg influence in Europe. Richelieu did not survive to the end of the Thirty Years' War. However, the conflict ended in 1648, with France emerging in a far better position than any other power, and the Holy Roman Empire entering a period of decline. Richelieu's successes were extremely important to Louis XIII's successor, King Louis XIV . He continued Richelieu's work of creating an absolute monarchy ; in

8415-511: The younger Richelieu join the clergy. He had strong academic interests and threw himself into studying for his new post. In 1606, Henry IV nominated Richelieu to become Bishop of Luçon. As Richelieu had not yet reached the canonical minimum age, it was necessary that he journey to Rome for a special dispensation from Pope Paul V . This secured, Richelieu was consecrated bishop in April 1607. Soon after he returned to his diocese in 1608, Richelieu

8514-471: Was a French Catholic prelate and statesman who had an outsize influence in civil and religious affairs. He became known as l'Éminence Rouge (English: " the Red Eminence "), a term derived from the title "Eminence" applied to cardinals and their customary red robes. Consecrated a bishop in 1607, Richelieu was appointed Foreign Secretary in 1616. He continued to rise through the hierarchy of both

8613-696: Was a bon français , just like the king, who had already decided to subsidize the Dutch to fight against the Spanish via the Treaty of Compiègne in June 1624, prior to Richelieu's appointment to First Minister in August. That same year, a military expedition, secretly financed by France and commanded by Marquis de Coeuvres, started an action with the intention of liberating the Valtelline from Spanish occupation. In 1625, Richelieu also sent money to Ernst von Mansfeld ,

8712-497: Was able to obtain a Cédula de Población from King Charles III of Spain on 4 November 1783. Trinidad's population jumped to over 15,000 by the end of 1789, from just under 1,400 in 1777. In 1797, Trinidad became a British crown colony, despite its French-speaking population. Antillean Creole began as the pidgin "baragouin" in 1635. It was spoken by French settlers, the Africans they enslaved, and Aboriginal peoples that resided on

8811-458: Was also the founder and patron of the Académie française , the pre-eminent French literary society. The institution had previously been in informal existence; in 1635, however, Cardinal Richelieu obtained official letters patent for the body. The Académie française includes 40 members, promotes French literature, and remains the official authority on the French language. Richelieu served as

8910-445: Was consequently assassinated, and Marie de Médicis overthrown. His patron having died, Richelieu also lost power; he was dismissed as Secretary of State, and was removed from the court. In 1618, the king, still suspicious of the Bishop of Luçon, banished him to Avignon. There, Richelieu spent most of his time writing; he composed a catechism titled L'Instruction du chrétien . In 1619, Marie de Médicis escaped from her confinement in

9009-407: Was created Duke of Richelieu in 1629. Born in Paris on 9 September 1585, Armand du Plessis was the fourth of five children and the last of three sons: he was delicate from childhood and suffered frequent bouts of ill-health throughout his life. His family belonged to the lesser nobility of Poitou : his father, François du Plessis , seigneur de Richelieu , was a soldier and courtier who served as

9108-455: Was denounced by many as a traitor to the Roman Catholic Church. (He ordered ships of war from Jean Bicker . ) Military action, at first, was disastrous for the French, with many victories going to Spain and the Empire. Neither side, however, could obtain a decisive advantage, and the conflict lingered on after Richelieu's death. Richelieu was instrumental in redirecting the Thirty Years' War from

9207-467: Was exiled to Compiègne . Both Marie and the duc d'Orléans continued to conspire against Richelieu, but their schemes came to nothing. The nobility also remained powerless. The only important rising was that of Henri, duc de Montmorency in 1632; Richelieu, ruthless in suppressing opposition, ordered the duke's execution. In 1634, the cardinal had one of his outspoken critics, Urbain Grandier , burned at

9306-584: Was faced with a crisis in Valtellina , a valley in Lombardy (northern Italy). To counter Spanish designs on the territory, Richelieu supported the Protestant Swiss canton of Grisons , which also claimed the strategically important valley. The cardinal deployed troops to Valtellina, from which the pope's garrisons were driven out. Richelieu's early decision to support a Protestant canton against

9405-464: Was heralded as a reformer . He became the first bishop in France to implement the institutional reforms prescribed by the Council of Trent between 1545 and 1563. At about this time, Richelieu became a friend of François Leclerc du Tremblay (better known as " Père Joseph " or "Father Joseph"), a Capuchin friar , who would later become a close confidant. Because of his closeness to Richelieu, and

9504-509: Was not executed (as were leaders of rebellions later in Richelieu's tenure); in fact, he later became a commanding officer in the French army. Habsburg Spain exploited the French conflict with the Huguenots to extend its influence in northern Italy. It funded the Huguenot rebels to keep the French army occupied, meanwhile expanding its Italian dominions. Richelieu, however, responded aggressively; after La Rochelle capitulated, he personally led

9603-517: Was now dying. For many years he had suffered from recurrent fevers (possibly malaria), strangury, intestinal tuberculosis with fistula, and migraine. Now his right arm was suppurating with tubercular osteitis, and he coughed blood (after his death, his lungs were found to have extensive cavities and caseous necrosis). His doctors continued to bleed him frequently, further weakening him. As he felt his death approaching, he named Mazarin, one of his most faithful followers, to succeed him as chief minister to

9702-407: Was stolen. It ended up in the possession of Nicholas Armez of Brittany by 1796, and he occasionally exhibited the well-preserved face. His nephew, Louis-Philippe Armez, inherited it and also occasionally exhibited it and lent it out for study. In 1866, Napoleon III persuaded Armez to return the face to the government for re-interment with the rest of Richelieu's body. An investigation of subsidence of

9801-764: Was the most prominent clergyman to support the adoption of the decrees of the Council of Trent throughout France; the Third Estate (commoners) was his chief opponent in this endeavour. At the end of the assembly, the First Estate (the clergy) chose him to deliver the address enumerating its petitions and decisions. Soon after the dissolution of the Estates-General, Richelieu entered the service of King Louis XIII 's wife, Anne of Austria , as her almoner . Richelieu advanced politically by faithfully serving

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