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112-638: While Tallmadge was the spies' direct contact, Washington often directed their operations. The ring was tasked to provide Washington information on British Army operations in New York City , the British headquarters. Its members operated mostly in New York City, Long Island , and Connecticut between late October 1778 and the British evacuation of New York in 1783. The information supplied by

224-569: A Long Island resident; Captain Nathan Woodhull, Abraham Woodhull's uncle, who served as a Loyalist militia officer but provided information to Abraham; Nathaniel Ruggles, a schoolmaster and physician born in 1713; Joshua Davis, a Brewster deputy and occasional substitute; and William T. Robinson, a merchant. Hercules Mulligan was recruited to spy for the Continental Army in New York City by Alexander Hamilton . Born in 1740, he

336-472: A box hidden in a field that Roe rented from Woodhull. Woodhull would evaluate and comment on it and pass it to Brewster, who would occasionally add an intelligence note of his own, take it across Long Island Sound, and pass it to Tallmadge. Tallmadge would usually add a cover letter with comments and sent and received messages by a relay of dragoons acting as couriers. Hawkins was bold at first but later became increasingly anxious about British patrols. His role

448-468: A company of light infantry. These men were generally hand picked from the fittest and most proficient of the rank and file. The light infantry companies of several regiments were usually combined in composite light infantry battalions. Similar composite battalions were often formed from the grenadier companies of line regiments. Grenadiers were historically chosen from the tallest soldiers, but as with light infantry companies, were often selected from among

560-492: A further 18,000 men half of which were stationed in garrisons to release regular British units from other theaters. This measure brought the Army's total establishment strength to around 55,000 men. Parliament suffered chronic difficulties in obtaining sufficient manpower, and found it impossible to fill the quotas they had set. The Army was a deeply unpopular profession with one contentious issue being pay. A private infantryman

672-494: A great-grandson of Richard "Bull" Smith . She would publish her findings in The Smithtown News beginning in 1959 in a series called News of Long Ago . A letter by Loyalist soldier Nehemiah Marks was uncovered by Mark Sternberg in 2015 which identifies brothers Nathaniel and Phillip Roe as supporters of the spy ring, with Nathaniel providing intelligence and Phillip material aid. The letter also provides evidence that

784-403: A greater distance apart and three "orders" were used to specify the distance to be expanded or contracted as necessary; "order" (two intervals), "open order" (four intervals), and "extended order" (ten intervals). British infantry advanced at the 'Trott' and fought fluid battles primarily using the bayonet. Although this new formation increased the British army's mobility and tactical flexibility,

896-667: A lieutenant in the Suffolk County, New York, militia in the fall of 1775 but resigned after a few months. He was motivated by the murder of his cousin Brigadier General Nathaniel Woodhull of the New York militia, who was wounded by sword and bayonet cuts after he had been captured on August 29, 1776. According to some reports, he had been deprived of medical care and food and suffered an agonizing death on September 20, 1776, and Abraham Woodhull

1008-482: A major role in the Culper Spy ring was Agent 355 . Agent 355 was best known for providing the intelligence that led to the capture of the treasonous Benedict Arnold. While some sources make note of Agent 355 as an intelligence gatherer, others believe the code number simply referred to Anna Strong , or was a misunderstanding of a cryptic reference in one of Abraham Woodhull's letters. Other women were informants for

1120-591: A military career since an early age, and insisted on sharing his soldiers' hardships. After early victories, he was unable to destroy the American Continental armies opposing him or to raise substantial loyalist support. On Clinton's orders, he tried to create a fortified enclave on the Chesapeake coast, but was cut off by a French fleet and forced to surrender at the Siege of Yorktown , which signalled

1232-469: A more discreet and well-organized espionage system would be necessary in order to infiltrate British operations. He decided that civilians would attract less attention than soldiers, and he asked William Duer to recommend a suitable agent. Duer recommended Nathaniel Sackett ; his army contact was Hale's former classmate, then Captain Benjamin Tallmadge . Sackett had some success, for example

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1344-403: A mutual childhood friend, Abraham Woodhull of Setauket on Long Island . Washington may have suggested the alias "Samuel Culper" after Culpeper County, Virginia , where he had worked as a surveyor in his youth. Tallmadge and Scott had different approaches. Scott preferred single-mission agents, who returned to base after each completion, Tallmadge favored embedding agents and establishing

1456-910: A new communication method for light infantry officers when in command of loosely deployed, scattered troops; whistle signals rather than drums would indicate movements such as advance, retire, extend or contract. In 1774, William Howe wrote the Manual for Light Infantry Drill and formed an experimental Light Infantry battalion trained at Salisbury camp. This became the pattern for all regular light infantry serving in North America. Howe's system differed in that it focused on development of composite battalions of light infantry more suited to large scale campaigning in North America, rather than individual companies. On taking command in America, Howe gave orders that every regiment which had not already done so to form

1568-437: A quantity of white handkerchiefs to indicate which of the six hiding places he was in. Woodhull used her signals to meet Brewster or to drop messages at one of the meeting places. The historian Richard Welch writes that the tradition of the clothesline signal is unverifiable, but it is known that the British suspected a Setauket woman who fit Anna's profile of Patriot activities. Brewster occasionally would add his own report to

1680-408: A rallying point in the most bitter actions. Both regimental standards were highly regarded and a source of pride each regiment. However, because of the tactical constraints in conducting the war and the adapted mode of fighting, it is likely that British regiments only used their colours for ceremonial purposes in America, particularly the armies commanded by Howe and Cornwallis. In the early years of

1792-484: A secure line of communication . Since Scott lost three out of five agents sent into New York City in early September, Washington decided that Tallmadge's method should be used. He opened discussions on setting up an embedded network with Woodhull and Brewster. Scott resigned on October 29, and Tallmadge replaced him as intelligence chief. Woodhull traveled to New York City every few weeks to gather intelligence. His married sister, Mary Underhill, lived there and gave him

1904-609: A small experimental company of riflemen armed with this weapon, but this was disbanded in 1778. In many instances, British forces relied on Jagers from among the German contingents to provide skirmishers armed with rifles. British infantry regiments possessed two flags: the King's Colour (the Union flag ) and their regimental colour , which displayed colour of the regiment's facings. In 18th and 19th century warfare 'the colours' often became

2016-608: A society column in a Loyalist newspaper and owned an interest in a coffeehouse with the newspaper's owner, James Rivington , who also was a secret member of the Culper Ring. Once Townsend began his intelligence activities in New York City, Woodhull operated almost exclusively from Setauket and revised the communications network. Townsend would pass intelligence to a courier (initially Hawkins, later Hawkins and Roe, and exclusively Roe after September 1779), who would take it to Setauket and pass it to Woodhull, usually by dead drop in

2128-457: A time for fear that he would also be discovered. Woodhull passed on the information concerning Townsend's dejection and concern over the arrest of "one that hath been ever serviceable to this correspondence." Arnold did not have any hard evidence against Mulligan, so he was released, but he may have spent as many as five months in prison, until February 1781. Undeterred, he continued to pick up intelligence after his release. Mulligan discovered that

2240-489: A valid reason to visit. He was questioned at a British checkpoint on October 31, 1778, which increased his anxiety about the dangerous mission, but he returned to Setauket with valuable information about the British supply fleet. He provided a precise report on November 23 with the identity of British units and the numbers of troops and dispositions in New York City, which proved his worth as a spy. Woodhull soon recruited his brother-in-law, Amos Underhill, to gather intelligence;

2352-857: A valuable recruit for the Culper Ring. British Army during the American War of Independence The British Army during the American Revolutionary War served for eight years in the American Revolutionary War , which was fought throughout North America , the Caribbean , and elsewhere from April 19, 1775, to September 3, 1783. The war formally commenced at the Battles of Lexington and Concord in present-day Massachusetts . Two months later, in June 1775,

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2464-605: Is buried in the Setauket Presbyterian Church and Burial Ground . Warren Walker suggested in 1956 that James Fenimore Cooper 's character Harvey Birch had been based upon the work of "Samuel Culper" as a spy. That would include both Woodhull as "Culper Sr." and Robert Townsend , who used the alias "Samuel Culper Jr." Woodhull was portrayed from 2014 to 2017 by Jamie Bell in AMC 's spy thriller and historical drama series Turn: Washington's Spies , which

2576-624: Is the British Army's strength based on Lord North's reports. These figures exclude the Irish establishment, Hanoverians, militia, and the East India Company's private army. The totals in North America specifically are listed in parentheses. A detailed order of battle for British Army forces in North America circa October 1778 is as follows (about one-third of its then-strength is discounted due to disease, desertion, and other causes;

2688-573: Is well documented. William Howe was said to have seen many "crapulous mornings" while campaigning in New York. John Burgoyne drank heavily on a nightly basis towards the end of the Saratoga campaign. The two generals were also reported to have found solace with the wives of subordinate officers to ease the stressful burdens of command. During the Philadelphia campaign, British officers deeply offended local Quakers by entertaining their mistresses in

2800-591: The Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, led to the capture of Philadelphia on September 26, which became a new focus of intelligence gathering. Washington assigned this task to Major John Clark . Recently returned to service after being wounded before Brandywine, Clark set up a successful network, but poor health forced him to take up a desk job. In August, 1778, Washington accepted an offer from Lieutenant Caleb Brewster , based at Norwalk, Connecticut , to provide intelligence. His first report included details on

2912-589: The French and Indian War . However, Gage was blamed for underestimating the strength of republican sympathy and was relieved in 1776. Howe had the advantage of large numbers of reinforcements, and was the brother of Admiral Richard Howe , the Royal Navy's commander in chief in America. The two brothers gained much success in 1776, but failed to destroy Washington's Army. They also tried to initiate peace talks but these came to nothing. In 1777, General John Burgoyne

3024-559: The Patriot cause during the American Revolutionary War . Woodhull had been caught smuggling contraband across Long Island Sound , and Tallmadge spoke with Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull and got him released. Tallmadge then set up a spy network in New York, with Woodhull as the lead agent. Woodhull began spying in October 1778 and sent his first "Samuel Culper" letter on October 29, 1778, after he had sworn an oath of loyalty to

3136-760: The Second Continental Congress , gathered in the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia , appointed George Washington to organize patriot militias into the Continental Army and lead them in a war against the British Army. The following year, in July 1776, the Second Continental Congress, representing the Thirteen Colonies , declared themselves free and independent from colonial governance. The war

3248-467: The "press gang", was a favored recruiting method, though it was unpopular with the public, leading many to enlist in local militias to avoid regular service. Attempts were made to draft such levies, much to the chagrin of the militia commanders. Competition between naval and army press gangs, and even between rival ships or regiments, frequently resulted in brawls between the gangs in order to secure recruits for their unit. Men would maim themselves to avoid

3360-466: The American civilian populations, reports indicated that British troops were generally scrupulous in their treatment of non-combatants. The soldiers' own families were permitted to join soldiers in the field. Wives often washed, cooked, mended uniforms and served as nurses in the time of battle or sickness. Abraham Woodhull Abraham Woodhull (October 7, 1750 – January 23, 1826)

3472-536: The American seaboard, beginning with the July 1782 withdrawal from Savannah to Charleston , and the subsequent evacuations of Charleston, South Carolina in December 1782 and New York City in November 1783. At the 1783 Anglo-Spanish Treaty of Versailles , Britain turned Florida back to Spain, and the Royal Navy administered another mass migration of Loyalists to Bahamas, Jamaica, and Great Britain. The following

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3584-529: The British Army was a volunteer force that had suffered from a lack of peacetime spending and ineffective recruitment in the decade since the Seven Years' War . In 1776, to offset this deficiency, the British Crown hastily hired German Hessian contingents, who supplemented their fighting capabilities and served with regular British units for the rest of the war. In 1778, limited army impressment

3696-578: The British Army's ultimate defeat. At Yorktown in 1781, the British Army, then led by Charles Cornwallis , was forced to surrender, contributing to the Whigs gaining control of a parliamentary majority, which brought offensive British military operations in North America to an end. Britain had incurred a large national debt fighting the Seven Years' War , during which the armies' establishment strength had been increased to an unprecedented size. With

3808-437: The British and Loyalists planned to capture several prominent Patriot leaders, including Washington and governor of New Jersey William Livingston . Mulligan had received the information from his brother Hugh, who worked as a contractor for the British Army through the firm Kortright and Company. The British arrested Mulligan on suspicion of espionage after Benedict Arnold defected in New York. Townsend ceased his activities for

3920-460: The British planned to ambush Washington while he was on his way to a meeting with Rochambeau on March 5, 1781. Mulligan and Cato remained under suspicion and could not communicate directly with Washington's headquarters, so Mulligan gave the information to Townsend, who sent it to Washington via the Culper Ring. The message arrived in time for Washington to avoid the trap and travel to the meeting by another route. Alexander Rose writes that "John Cork"

4032-582: The British war effort ultimately fell to the Secretary of State for the Colonies , George German . Despite holding no formal position in the army, he appointed or relieved generals, took care of provisions and supplies, and directed much of the strategic planning. While some historians argue that Sackville performed effectively and even brilliantly, others argue that he made several miscalculations and struggled to hold genuine authority over his subordinates in

4144-535: The Continental Army from Brooklyn Heights, Washington asked William Heath and George Clinton to set up "a channel of information" on Long Island, but he did not yet try to establish permanent agents behind enemy lines. Instead, he sought volunteers for espionage missions. Among them was Captain Nathan Hale , who went to New York City under a false identity but was quickly captured by the British and executed on September 22, 1776. This made Washington realize that

4256-605: The Crown as cover. His plan was to travel to Manhattan , ostensibly to visit his married sister, Mary Underhill, and her husband, Amos, at their boarding house. In Manhattan, he collected information from various sources, including British officers staying at the Underhill boarding house and then return to Setauket, where he passed the information to the Continental Army lieutenant and whaleboat operator Caleb Brewster to take across Long Island Sound to Tallmadge. Tallmadge then sent

4368-584: The Culper Ring operated in Drowned Meadow beyond Setauket and Oyster Bay, as previously believed. The letter is housed in the William L. Clements library at the University of Michigan, where it was discovered by Sternberg, a former resident of Port Jefferson researching the Culper Ring. In 2022, Sternberg would discover that Selah Strong, husband of Anna "Nancy" Smith Strong, was an active member of

4480-433: The Culper Ring, such as Robert Townsend's sister Sarah (Sally) Townsend and Abraham Woodhull's sister Mary Underhill, who provided important information about Major John Andre and his alias of John Anderson, according to some sources. The members of the ring gathered information from a variety of sources, including persons other than unwitting British officers. Some of those informants or associates included Joseph Lawrence,

4592-599: The Culper Ring. In his Fall 2022 article in New York Archives magazine entitled, Selah Strong: Records Reveal an Overlooked Hero of the Culper Spy Ring , he clarifies myths surrounding Selah Strong, including the length of his imprisonment and clarifying that he never fled to Connecticut upon release, as well as where he and his family lived during the Revolutionary War. Sternberg also quotes

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4704-608: The Culper messages. In a January 1779 report received by Washington in early February, Brewster sent some information about naval matters and boat building at New York City and warned that Loyalists were outfitting privateers for operations on Long Island Sound. That was delivered with a message from Woodhull that precisely described the British regiments and commanders at the northern tip of Manhattan, totaling about 8,500 men. Woodhull also reported on British boatbuilding, confirming Brewster's report. Tallmadge and Washington thought that

4816-537: The French attempted to extend they were threatened with bayonet charge... and when the French advanced they fell back to prepare for further skirmishing and ambushes from all directions." Fortescue similarly describes the action: "Advancing in skirmish order and keeping themselves always under cover, the light companies maintained at close range the most destructive fire on the Heavy French columns... At last one of

4928-525: The Guards commanded the highest prices. Wealthy individuals lacking any formal military education or practical experience often found their way into positions of high responsibility, diluting the effectiveness of a regiment. However, according to Reid, the Georgian army through necessity drew its officers from a far wider base than its later Victorian counterpart and was much more open to promotion from

5040-660: The Northern colonies during which they were accused of participating in Indian led-massacres at Wyoming and Cherry Valley . The majority of Native Americans favoured the British cause and Mohawk leader Joseph Brant commanded Iroquois and Loyalists in campaigns on the New York Frontier. Colonel Thomas Brown led another group of King's Rangers in the Southern colonies, defending East Florida from invasion, raiding

5152-496: The abandonment of linear formation was later blamed by some British officers for defeats in the later stages of the war, like the Battle of Cowpens , in which British troops engaged denser bodies of men deployed in successive lines. The hired German regiments, the Hessians , joined Howe's army in 1776 also adopted the two rank formation used by the British army, but retained the traditional close order system of fighting throughout

5264-410: The armed forces, and the lash was used to punish even trivial offences—and not used sparingly. For instance, two redcoats received 1,000 lashes each for robbery during the Saratoga campaign, while another received 800 lashes for striking a superior officer. Flogging was an even more common punishment in the Royal Navy and it came to be associated with the stereotypical hardiness of sailors. Despite

5376-485: The army could call on 16 regiments of the cavalrymen and 2,712 men in the artillery. This gave a theoretical strength of just over 46,000 men exclusive of the artillery. The British government deemed this troop strength to be inadequate to prosecute an insurrection in the Americas, as well as deal with defence of the rest of its territories. Treaties with German states (mainly Hesse-Kassel and Brunswick) were negotiated for

5488-403: The army often running out of food and supplies in the field, and forced to live off the land. Soldiers spent a great deal of time cleaning and preparing their clothing and equipment. The harsh conditions of life in the army meant that discipline was severe. Crimes such as theft or desertion could result in hanging and punishments such as lashings were administered publicly. Discipline was harsh in

5600-429: The army. Although a large portion of the rank and file were lower class and the officers upper class, the army of the mid-1700s recruited officers from a variety of social backgrounds. Officers in British service could purchase commissions to ascend the ranks, and the practice was common in the Army. Values of commissions varied but were usually in line with social and military prestige; for example, regiments such as

5712-621: The ascension of peace in 1763 the army was dramatically reduced to a peacetime home establishment of just over 11,000 men, with a further 9,750 for the Irish establishment and 10,000 for the colonies. This meant 20 regiments of infantry totaling just over 11,000 men were stationed in Great Britain, 21 regiments were stationed in Ireland, 18 regiments were stationed in the Americas, and 7 regiments were stationed in Gibraltar. Alongside this,

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5824-503: The boats might be planned for transport for an attack against Connecticut from Major General William Tryon , who had conducted a raid during the winter. Woodhull became increasingly anxious about being discovered and did little in May and June 1779. John Wolsey was a Long Island privateer who was captured by the British. To secure parole, he told British officers on June 5 that Woodhull was up to something dubious. Colonel John Graves Simcoe ,

5936-540: The brightest young officers of light companies sought commissions elsewhere because being a "light-bob" officer lacked social prestige. In 1772, General George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend wrote Instructions, and Training and Equipping of the new Light Companies which was issued to regiments on the Irish establishment and offered a practical guide for training light companies and guidance for tactics such as skirmishing in broken terrain when acting independently, in sections or in large groups. Townshend also introduced

6048-411: The coat of arms of their colonel and wore mitre caps. Most German regiments wore dark blue coats, while cavalry and loyalists often wore green. Grenadiers often wore bearskin headdress and usually carried hangers, a type of curved sword, as a side arm. Light infantry were issued with short coats, without lace, with an ammunition box containing nine cartridges lined up in a row for easy access worn across

6160-453: The command of Colonel Banastre Tarleton attacked Tallmadge's camp and captured his horse and some papers, including the letter mentioning Higday. They were trying to capture Tallmadge himself because they knew that he was head of Washington's intelligence operation. The second letter confirmed that the agent C______ was operating in New York City and that Tallmadge was the chief intelligence officer for Washington. Higday escaped execution but

6272-587: The commander of the Queen's Rangers , came to Setauket to look for Woodhull, but he was away, in New York City. Simcoe's men attacked and beat Woodhull's father, Judge Richard Woodhull. Abraham Woodhull escaped arrest because Loyalist militia officer Colonel Benjamin Floyd vouched for him. Floyd was married to a member of the Woodhull family. Woodhull reported that he could not continue to operate in New York City after

6384-438: The condition of British warships prior to the Battle of Rhode Island , and the dispatching of several regiments to Newport, Rhode Island . Washington asked General Charles Scott to handle Brewster and find additional agents, assisted by Tallmadge. Scott delegated most of the work to Tallmadge, and Washington asked him to recruit reliable intelligence agents in New York City. As a contact for Brewster, Tallmadge recommended

6496-498: The conditions and terrain in North America during the French and Indian War prompted changes to its tactics and dress. In battle the redcoats usually formed in two ranks rather than three, to increase mobility and firepower. The Army further adapted this formation during the American Revolution by forming and fighting in looser ranks, a tactic that was known as "loose files and American scramble". Soldiers stood at

6608-406: The deposition of Robert Brush from his 1835 pension application. Brush was a member of Caleb Brewster's whaleboat crew and his deposition describes Selah's role in the ring: [Brewster and his crew] usually started and landed on the island during the night and taking their boat up in the woods, they lay under it if the weather was inclement and it was safe to do so or concealed themselves somewhere in

6720-479: The destroyed messages. Hawkins finally stopped his courier services for the spy ring in September 1779, as Townsend refused to deal with him any longer. Woodhull acted as courier on September 11 so that he could explain to Townsend the loss of the earlier letters, and Roe became the sole permanent courier for the ring. Secrecy was so strict that Washington did not know the identity of all of the operatives. Townsend

6832-467: The discovery that the British were building flat-bottomed boats for a campaign against Philadelphia ; however, Washington felt he did not produce enough correct intelligence fast enough, and Sackett was soon paid off. Early in 1777, American Colonel Elias Dayton set up a spy network on Staten Island , which worked with an established network known as the Mersereau Ring . The British victory at

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6944-470: The early summer. The courier's task was to get the letters to Brewster, who would pick up messages at one of six secluded coves near Setauket and take them across Long Island Sound with his rotating whaleboat crews to Tallmadge at Fairfield, Connecticut. Tallmadge would then take them to Washington's headquarters. The time-consuming task was replaced in January 1779 by the assignment of express riders to take

7056-470: The end of effective British attempts to retake America. The final effective British commander in chief in America was Sir Guy Carleton , who had defended Quebec in 1775, but had been passed over in favour of Burgoyne in 1777 as a result of his perceived over-caution. As commander in chief, his main concern was to secure the safety of the many Loyalists and former slaves in the British enclave in New York. Carleton successfully administered British removal from

7168-572: The end of the war. After the United States gained independence, Woodhull served as a magistrate, as had his father before him, and served as a judge in Suffolk County, New York . Woodhull was a descendant of Richard Lawrence Woodhull, a wealthy settler of Setauket, and was also related to New York militia Brigadier General Nathaniel Woodhull . His parents were Judge Richard Woodhull and Mary Woodhull (née Smith). Woodhull served as

7280-500: The enemy's battalions fairly gave way and the light companies followed them to complete the rout with the bayonet". Large numbers of scouts and skirmishers were also formed from loyalists and Native Americans. The renowned Robert Rogers formed the Queen's Rangers , while his brother James Rogers led the King's Rangers . Loyalist pioneer John Butler raised the provincial regiment known as Butler's Rangers , who were heavily engaged in

7392-642: The fact to Brewster. He remembers many times to have seen Strong pass the place of their concealment, as it were to fodder his cattle or [to] see to some work on his farm and by a shake of his head as he passed intimate to them that it was unsafe to hold any conversation or for them to stay there. For his work, Mark Sternberg would be recognized as a 2022 Person of the Year by TBR News Media . Women were not considered threats to military commanders, allowing them to spy uninterrupted. Women who were cooks and maids were recruited to spy on soldiers. A prominent woman who played

7504-440: The formation of the Culper Ring. Historian Stephen Knott says that Mulligan cooperated with the Culper Ring but mostly operated as a lone agent. Alexander Rose states that Mulligan gave Townsend information which Townsend added to his reports. Mulligan's slave Cato was his "faithful accomplice" in his intelligence activities. In January 1779, Cato delivered a message from Mulligan to George Washington's aide Alexander Hamilton that

7616-401: The handwriting was a match. Other evidence later corroborated Townsend's identity. James Rivington was confirmed by scholars to be a member of the ring only in the 1950s. In the 1950s, local Smithtown historian, Virginia Eckels Malone, would discover that "S.G.", the codename for a spy who joined the Culper Ring in 1781 to replace Culper Jr., was George Smith, originally of Nissequogue and

7728-431: The harsh discipline, a distinct lack of self-discipline pervaded all ranks of the British forces. Soldiers had an intense passion for gambling, reaching such excesses that troops would often wager their own uniforms. Many drank heavily, and this was not exclusive to the lower ranks. The army often suffered from poor discipline away from the battlefield, gambling and heavy drinking were common among all ranks. However, among

7840-479: The houses where they had been quartered. In 1776, there were 119 generals of various grades in the British Army. However, since generals never retired, perhaps a third of this number were too old or infirm to command in the field. Others were opposed to war against the colonists or unwilling to serve for years in North America . Britain had a difficult time appointing a determined senior military leadership in America. Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief of North America at

7952-708: The information to General George Washington . Austin Roe became the main courier for the ring later after Woodhull stopped going to New York City to gather intelligence personally. He delivered messages via dead drop , burying them in a box in a pasture that he rented on Woodhull's property. Woodhull married his friend Mary Smith in 1781 and had three children with her. He held a few minor political appointments, including magistrate in Suffolk County, New York , from 1799 to 1810. Mary died in 1806, and he married Lydia Terry in 1824. He died in Setauket on January 23, 1826, and

8064-487: The latter ran a boarding house in the city with his wife, Mary, but Underhill's reports were often too vague to be of much value. At first, Woodhull had to return to Setauket to pass messages to Caleb Brewster, which Brewster would take to Tallmadge or to receive messages from Tallmadge via Brewster. Tallmadge set up couriers in December who would take messages the 55 miles (89 km) between New York and Setauket, initially Jonas Hawkins then mainly Austin Roe beginning in

8176-447: The listed troops are solely effectives): Infantry formed the backbone of crown forces throughout the war. Two of the most heavily engaged infantry regiments, the 23rd and the 33rd , earned enduring reputations for their competence and professionalism in the field. In the middle of the eighteenth century, the Army's uniforms were highly elaborate, and maneuvers were ponderous and slow, with "innumerable words of command." Experience of

8288-539: The many walls, swamps, and stone cliffs. The English cannot lose their colours, for they do not carry them with them." During the Saratoga campaign Baroness Riedesel , the wife of a German officer, saved the colours of the Brunswick regiments by burning the staffs and hiding the flags in her mattress. The distance between the colonies and the British Isles meant logistics were stretched to breaking point, with

8400-509: The measure proved unpopular and both acts were repealed in May 1780, permanently discontinuing impressment in the army. The recruiting acts of 1778 and 1779 also provided greater incentives for voluntarily joining the regular army, including a bounty of £3 and the entitlement to discharge after three years unless the nation remained at war. Thousands of volunteer militia battalions were raised for home defence in Ireland and England , and some of

8512-435: The messages from Tallmadge to Washington. Local tradition claims that Anna Strong , a resident of Setauket and a friend and neighbor of Abraham Woodhull, helped pass along messages from the spy ring by posting prearranged signals to indicate when one of the spies was ready to submit intelligence. If she hung a black petticoat on her clothesline, it meant that Brewster had arrived in town in his whaleboat. Also, she would hang

8624-404: The most competent of these were embodied to the regular army. The British government took a further step by releasing criminals and debtors from prison on the condition they joined the army. Three entire regiments were raised from this early release program. In November 1778 the establishment was set at 121,000 men, of whom 24,000 were foreigners, along with 40,000 embodied militia. This was raised

8736-449: The most proficient soldiers in their parent units. At the Battle of Vigie Point in 1778 a force of British infantry who were veterans of colonial fighting inflicted heavy casualties on a far larger force of regular French troops who advanced in columns. Clayton describes how "...the use of light infantry, well led by their officers and NCOs, was of key importance in advance as skirmishers fired on French columns from behind cover; when

8848-552: The neighborhood. Their usual places of landing were Setauket, Stony Brook, a place called the Old Man’s, and Crab Meadow (seldom however at the latter place being too near the British). At the place called “Old Man’s,” Capt. Selah Strong lived and from him they received such assistance and information as they needed when it was safe for him to do so, but if it was unsafe to do so or for them to remain there, Strong by some sign communicated

8960-670: The next year to 104,000 men on the British establishment, 23,000 on the Irish establishment, 25,000 Hessians , and 42,000 embodied militia, for a total force of about 194,000 men. The Commander-in-Chief, India formally held command over crown forces in the East Indies and the Commander-in-Chief, North America commanded crown forces in the Americas . However, the British Army had no formal command structure, so British commanders often worked on their own initiative during

9072-474: The outbreak of the war, was criticized for being too lenient on the rebellious colonists. Jeffrey Amherst was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in 1778, but he refused a direct command in America because he was unwilling to take sides in the war. Admiral Augustus Keppel similarly opposed a command: "I cannot draw the sword in such a cause". The Earl of Effingham resigned his commission when his regiment

9184-508: The press gangs, while many deserted at the first opportunity. Pressed men were militarily unreliable; regiments with large numbers of such men were deployed to remote garrisons such as Gibraltar or the West Indies, to make it harder to desert. After the losses at the Battles of Saratoga and the outbreak of hostilities with France and Spain, the existing voluntary enlistment measures were judged to be insufficient. Between 1775 and 1781,

9296-714: The ranks. Officers were required to be literate, but there was no formal requirement on the level of education or their social standing, and most regimental officers did not come from the landed gentry, but from middle class private individuals in search of a career. The system of sale of commissions which officially governed the selection and promotion of officers was, in practice, considerably relaxed during wartime, with far more stringent requirements placed on promotion. Many British officers were professional soldiers rather than wealthy dilettantes and showed themselves ready to discard their drill manuals and use innovative methods and tactics. Heavy drinking among senior British officers

9408-476: The regular army increased from 48,000 to 121,000. In 1778 the army adopted some non traditional recruiting measures to further augment its strength, a system of private subscription was established, whereby some 12 new regiments totaling 15,000 men were raised by individual towns and nobles. The same year, the government passed the first of two recruiting acts which allowed a limited form of impressment in parts of England and Scotland under strict conditions, however

9520-706: The ring's operations, they were forced to rely on crude tactics to conceal their information before a complex web of codes and invisible ink were accessible, and so they relied on a small number of codes for memory. Woodhull used the codes 10 (New York), 30 and 40 (Post Riders), and 20 (Setauket) in his first letter of correspondence. Tallmadge realized the significance of creating a code book to increase their vocabulary. By July 1779, he had completed pocket dictionaries with lists of verbs, nouns, people, and places with their corresponding code numbers. The dictionaries were given to Washington, Woodhull, Townsend, and Tallmadge himself to ensure that they did not get into enemy hands. With

9632-480: The southern frontier and participating in the conquest of the southern colonies. Colonial Governor John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore raised a regiment composed entirely of freed slaves known as the Ethiopian Regiment , which served through the early skirmishes of the war. The loyalist units were vital to the British primarily for their knowledge of local terrain. One of the most successful of these units

9744-522: The spy ring included details of a surprise attack on the newly arrived French forces under Lieutenant General Rochambeau at Newport, Rhode Island , before they had recovered from their arduous sea voyage, as well as a British plan to counterfeit American currency on the actual paper used for Continental dollars , which prompted the Continental Congress to retire the bills. The ring also informed Washington that Tryon's raid of July 1779

9856-601: The stomach rather than at the side. They did not use bayonets but carried naval boarding axes. The most common infantry weapon was the Brown Bess used with a fixed bayonet. However, some of the light companies were issued with the short barrel muskets or the Pattern 1776 Rifle . The British army also conducted limited experimental use of the breech-loading Ferguson Rifle , which proved too difficult to mass-produce to be used more extensively. Major Patrick Ferguson formed

9968-438: The use of the codes, the letters were very complex and required much effort to write and comprehend. The code book helped Washington make sure that the Culper Ring spies had more support and operated in greater secrecy than previous Continental spies, perhaps with Nathan Hale in mind. Tallmadge, Woodhull, and Townsend were given code names and code numbers, along with Washington, Brewster, Roe, and Rivington. Washington's code number

10080-439: The visit from Simcoe in June because of suspicion, but Woodhull had a new agent lined up and would go to New York to finalize arrangements with him. In late June, Washington sent a letter to Tallmadge in which he identified George Higday as a possible operative to relieve Woodhull in New York City. The British had intercepted a June 13 letter from Washington that referred to "C_____" and Tallmadge. On July 2, British cavalry under

10192-477: The war to a successful conclusion with fewer troops and resources than had been available to Howe. He repeatedly tried to resign, and quarrelled with the Navy's commanders and his own subordinates. While Clinton held New York, Lord Cornwallis conducted a largely separate campaign in the southern states. Cornwallis was one of the most aristocratic of the British generals who served in America, but had been dedicated to

10304-510: The war, however, the Hessians continued to carry their colours on campaign. Major-General Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Lossberg wrote, "They [the British] have their colours with them only when quartered, while we carry them with us wherever the regiments go... the country is bad for fighting. Nothing worries me more than the colours, for the regiments cannot stay together in an attack because of

10416-555: The war. In 1758, Thomas Gage (then a lieutenant colonel) had formed an experimental light infantry regiment known as 80th Regiment of Light-Armed Foot , considered to be the first such unit to serve in the British Army. Other officers, notably George Howe , the elder brother of William Howe, had adapted their regiments to serve as light infantry on their own initiative. On becoming commander-in-chief in North America in 1758, General Jeffery Amherst ordered every regiment to form light infantry companies from their ranks. The 80th regiment

10528-466: The war. The position of Commander-in-Chief of the Forces remained vacant until 1778 when it was given to Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst who held it until the end of the war. However, his role in advising the government on strategy was limited and Amherst found himself primarily occupied with the organisation of home forces to oppose the threatened invasion in 1779, and suppress the outbreak of severe anti-Catholic rioting in 1780. The direction of

10640-686: Was 711. The general public was unaware of the Culper Ring's existence until the 1930s. Robert Townsend's identity as "Culper Jr." was discovered in 1929 upon examination of old letters written by Townsend in the Townsend family home. The historian Morton Pennypacker reviewed the letters and noticed that the handwriting in letters from the trunk, written by Robert Townsend, was similar to handwriting in letters written by "Samuel Culper Jr.", in Washington's collection. Pennypacker would then approach Questioned Document Examiner, Albert S. Osborn , to confirm

10752-400: Was a code name for an unidentified informant. Harry Thayer Mahoney writes that John Corke of Groton, New York posed as a Tory and was able to travel back and forth to New York City because he was "exceedingly intimate at British headquarters." Corke wrote intelligence reports to Tallmadge in invisible ink or reported verbally to him. Mahoney states that Washington and Tallmadge considered Corke

10864-627: Was a friend of Townsend's father and an active member of the Sons of Liberty . He had taken in the orphaned Hamilton when Hamilton arrived in New York in 1773 to attend King's College , and he had later helped Hamilton obtain a commission in the army. He was married to Elizabeth Sanders, daughter of a Royal Navy admiral, and he also had a fashionable clothing business near Robert Townsend's establishment. These things gave him access to officers who would openly talk to him about military matters. Mulligan began his activities in late 1776 or early 1777, well before

10976-512: Was a leading member of the Culper Spy Ring in New York City and Setauket, New York , during the American Revolutionary War . He used the alias "Samuel Culper" (later "Samuel Culper Sr."), which was a play on Culpeper County, Virginia , and was suggested by George Washington . The Culper Ring was a successful operation that provided Washington with valuable information on the British Army headquartered in New York from October 1778 to

11088-496: Was allowed to mount an ambitious campaign southward from present-day Canada . After early success, he pushed ahead despite major supply difficulties, and was surrounded and forced to capitulate at Saratoga, an event which precipitated intervention by Britain's European rivals. Unlike his Philadelphia campaign the same year, in which the British Army captured and occupied the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia, Howe failed to achieve decisive results in present-day New York state. He

11200-413: Was disbanded in 1764 and the other ad-hoc light infantry units were converted back to "line" units, but infantry regiments retained their light companies until the mid-nineteenth century. In 1771 and 1772, the British army began implementing a new training scheme for light infantry companies. Much of the early training was found to be inadequate, with officers unsure how to use light companies. Many of

11312-519: Was formed by an escaped slave, and veteran of the Ethiopian Regiment known as Colonel Tye , who led the so-called Black Brigade in numerous raids in New York and New Jersey, interrupting supply lines, capturing rebel officers, and killing suspected leaders. He died from wounds in 1780. The standard uniform of the British army consisted of the traditional red coat with cocked hats, white breeches and black gaiters with leather knee caps. Hair

11424-529: Was indecisive for several years. But on October 19, 1781, the British Army's defeat at the Siege of Yorktown led the British to conclude that the war was unwinnable, forcing them to forfeit the Thirteen Colonies in eastern North America in the Treaty of Paris , which they signed in 1783, though sporadic fighting continued for several additional years. When the American Revolutionary War commenced,

11536-609: Was inflamed against the British by that event. He did not immediately take up arms or begin spying, however, and was more placid than some of his friends, who joined the Continental Army at the outset of the war. He was the only surviving son of aging parents, and he stayed on the family farm to attend to his family and their property. Continental Army Major Benjamin Tallmadge was Woodhull's neighbor in Setauket and approached Woodhull in August 1778 about gathering intelligence for

11648-736: Was intended to divide his forces and allow Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton to attack them piecemeal. In 1780, the Culper Ring discovered a high-ranking American officer, subsequently identified as Benedict Arnold , was plotting with British Major John André to turn over the vitally important American fort at West Point, New York on the Hudson River and surrender its garrison to the British forces. Prior to British Major General William Howe 's move from Staten Island , George Washington had received information of varying utility from individual spies working independently and without significant direction, such as Lawrence Mascoll. After evacuating

11760-553: Was introduced in England and Scotland to bolster the army's size, but the practice proved unpopular and was suspended until being reintroduced two years later, in 1780. The attrition of constant fighting, the decision by the Kingdom of France to ultimately lend considerable military support to the cause of American independence, and the withdrawal of a sizable number of British forces from North America in 1778 were all factors in

11872-449: Was of no use as a spy to Washington or to Clinton, who tried to recruit him as a double agent . In June 1779, Woodhull engaged Robert Townsend to gather intelligence in New York City by using the alias "Samuel Culper Jr." Townsend was involved in business there, and his presence would arouse less suspicion than Woodhull's visits. He had access to British officers through several channels, including his own tailoring business. He also wrote

11984-611: Was paid a wage of just 8 d. per day, the same pay as for a New Model Army infantryman 130 years earlier. The rate of pay in the army was insufficient to meet the rising costs of living which did not help entice potential recruits, as service was nominally for life. To increase voluntary enrollment, Parliament offered a bounty of £ 1.10 s for every recruit. As the war dragged on, Parliament became desperate for manpower; criminals were offered military service to escape legal penalties, and deserters were pardoned if they re-joined their units. Impressment , essentially conscription by

12096-480: Was posted to America, while William Howe and John Burgoyne were opposed to military solutions to the crisis. Howe and Henry Clinton both stated that they were unwilling participants and were only following orders. Sir William Howe , who was chosen to succeed Sir Thomas Gage as Commander in Chief in North America, was only 111th in seniority. Gage and Howe had both served as light infantry commanders in America during

12208-459: Was recalled and replaced by Sir Henry Clinton . Clinton was regarded as one of the most studious and well-read experts on tactics and strategy. However, even before becoming commander in chief, he had been reluctant to succeed Howe. He took command when the widening of the war compelled him to relinquish troops to other theatres, and became embittered at the Government's demands that he bring

12320-403: Was recruited by Woodhull, who was especially insistent that his identity not be revealed, although Austin Roe and Jonas Hawkins needed to know him. Among the techniques that the Culper Ring used to relay information were coded messages published in newspapers and invisible ink , called a sympathetic stain , to write between the lines of what appeared to be typical letters. In the first months of

12432-456: Was reduced between April and July, when Tallmadge assigned a code number in his code directory to Roe but not to Hawkins. Woodhull wrote in a coded message on August 15 that Hawkins had had to destroy a letter from Culper Jr. or be captured. He also wrote that Hawkins insisted his next meeting with Townsend be in an out-of-the-way location. Townsend did not like taking the additional risk and was beginning to doubt Hawkins' reliability and to regret

12544-526: Was usually cut short or fixed in plaits at the top of the head. As the war progressed, many line regiments replaced their cocked hats with slouch hats . The full "marching order" a line infantryman was expected to carry on campaign was extensive, and British soldiers often dropped much of their equipment before battle. Soldiers were also issued with greatcoats to be worn in adverse conditions, which were often used as tents or blankets. Drummers usually wore colours in reverse of their regimental colour, they carried

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