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124-649: The relationship between the Chavin culture and the Cupisnique culture is not well understood, and the names are sometimes used interchangeably. For instance, the anthropological scholar, Alana Cordy-Collins, treats as Cupisnique a culture lasting from 1000 – 200 BC, which are the dates some associate with the Chavin culture. Another scholar, Izumi Shimada, calls Cupisnique a possible ancestor of Mochica (Moche) culture with no mention of Chavin. Yet another scholar, Anna C. Roosevelt, refers to "the coastal manifestation of

248-578: A garroted teenage girl, probably a servant, were also found in the tomb. News of the discovery was announced by Peruvian and U.S. archaeologists in collaboration with National Geographic in May 2006. In 2005 an elaborate gold mask thought to depict a sea god, with curving rays radiating from a stone-inlaid feline face, was recovered in London by the Metropolitan Police . Experts believe that

372-536: A complete Moche demise. Moche polities survived beyond 650 AD in the Jequetepeque Valley and the Moche Valleys. For instance, in the Jequetepeque Valley, later settlements are characterized by fortifications and defensive works. While there is no evidence of a foreign invasion (i.e. a Huari invasion) as many scholars have suggested in the past, the defensive works suggest social unrest, possibly

496-419: A cult, due to two main reasons. The first reason being that there had been very "little direct evidence of their patterns of social organization, demography, or subsistence strategies". The second reason being the buildings [are] embellished with painted, incised stucco relief work depicting surreal creatures". The Cupisnique motifs seem to be deeply rooted in religion, which apparently had a great influence upon

620-515: A different political entity. The Southern Moche region, believed to be the heartland of the culture, originally comprised the Chicama and Moche valleys, and was first described by Rafael Larco Hoyle . The Huaca del Sol-Huaca de la Luna site was probably the capital of this region. The Northern Moche region includes three valley systems: The Piura was fully part of the Moche phenomenon only for

744-448: A figure which scholars have nicknamed the "Decapitator"; it is frequently depicted as a spider, but sometimes as a winged creature or a sea monster: together all three features symbolize land, water and air. When the body is included, the figure is usually shown with one arm holding a knife and another holding a severed head by the hair; it has also been depicted as "a human figure with a tiger's mouth and snarling fangs". The "Decapitator"

868-480: A forced draft of air. It is probable that the Moche used a similar method. In fact, archaeologists are aware of several bowls from the Moche culture that depict this process. Many of the Moche metalworking techniques were invented or at least perfected by the Moche themselves, but they owe the invention of some of their most-used techniques at least in part to the influences of the Chavín culture that preceded them. Like

992-586: A head cloth for men and a long tunic for women. Foreigners to the Moche Culture were commonly portrayed wearing Moche clothing that contained details pertaining to both genders or items that were not specific to either. Descendants of Moche people today continue to have strong weaving traditions. The Moche discovered both electrochemical replacement plating and depletion gilding , which they used to cover copper crafts found at Loma Negra in thin layers of gold or silver. Modern attempts were able to recreate

1116-598: A household level of production. However, more monochrome, homogenized relics suggest mass-production may have become more common by 500-800 AD. Variation in garments likely correlates with different social classes. Sophisticated weaving techniques and bright dyes are more common on elites' clothing, whereas commoners may have had garments that were less sophisticated and lacked dye—and they likely had fewer of them. Complex tapestries developed by artisans are another good associated with high social hierarchy. Several specific items also correlate to gender in Moche culture, such as

1240-801: A large body of evidence for social stratification. Those lowest in the Moche hierarchy were buried in a simple hole near their household; platform mounds with an abundance of goods were awarded to the highest-ranking members of society. An incomplete list of possible funerary objects includes copper masks, silver, pottery, and gold goods. Presence of metal-worked goods is thought to be especially significant with respect to high status. Excavation of dwellings indicates that living conditions of Moche likely also differed based on social standing, but excavation data here remains skewed and not entirely complete so far. Excavated elite burials also illustrate that remains sexed both male and female held elite positions in Moche culture. There are many theories as to what caused

1364-620: A long thread. After the desired lengths of threads are attained, the threads are intersected and woven in various combinations to make fabrics. The Chimú embellished their fabrics with brocades , embroidery , fabrics doubles, and painted fabrics. Sometimes textiles were adorned with feathers and gold or silver plates. Tropical feathers used in such textiles are evidence of long-distance trade. Colored dyes were created from plants containing tannin , mole , or walnut ; and minerals, such as clay , ferruginosa, or mordant aluminum; as well as from animals, such as cochineal . The garments were made of

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1488-715: A loss of power. The coloration of Moche pottery is often simple, with yellowish cream and rich red used almost exclusively on elite pieces. White and black are rarely used. The Moche are known for their portraiture pottery . The pottery portraits created by the Moche appear to represent actual individuals. Many of the portraits are of individuals with physical disfigurements or genetic defects. The realistic detail in Moche ceramics may have helped them serve as didactic models. Older generations could pass down general knowledge about reciprocity and embodiment to younger generations through such portrayals. The sex pots could teach about procreation, sexual pleasure, cultural and social norms,

1612-634: A luxury good traded over long distances, and the shell was often viewed as a symbol of elite status and divine power. Using shell as a medium for their art and artifacts, the Chimú frequently employed the shell of Spondylus , a type of marine bivalve mollusk. The most abundant Spondylus species present in Peru are Spondylus calcifer Carpenter and Spondylus princeps Broderip. Spondylus calcifer has red and white hues, primarily used for beads and artifacts. While this species resides in shallower waters and

1736-405: A population estimate of around 30,000. These workshop were all built in around adobe palaces in order to impose social hierarchy ideals. The Chan Chan also had restrictions and were not offered the same privileges as the elite. They had limited access to rituals, bureaucracy, and administrative roles. The high regulations were necessary to keep order with food production and state re-distribution of

1860-433: A process of specialization began that led to the development of the Moche civilization. Both iconography and the finds of human skeletons in ritual contexts seem to indicate that human sacrifice played a significant part in Moche religious practices. These rites appear to have involved the elite as key actors in a spectacle of costumed participants, monumental settings and possibly the ritual consumption of blood. The tumi

1984-553: A result of Chimú conquest. As there is evidence of both metalwork and weaving in the same domestic unit, it is likely that both men and women were artisans. They engaged in fishing, agriculture, and metallurgy, and made ceramics and textiles from cotton and the wool of llama , alpaca , and vicuña . People used reed fishing canoes (displayed in the image on the right), hunted, and traded using bronze coins. The Chimú developed mainly through intensive farming techniques and hydraulic work, which joined valleys to form complexes, such as

2108-484: A rock that previously had been polished. Many animals, fruits, characters, and mystical entities have been represented pictorially on Chimú ceramics. Archaeological evidence suggest that Chimor grew out of the remnants of the Moche , as early Chimú pottery had some resemblance to that of the Moche. Their ceramics are all black, and their work in precious metals is very detailed and intricate. Metalworking picked up quickly in

2232-430: A short time—during its Early Moche, or Early Moche-Vicús phase—and then developed independently. It appears that there was a lot of independent development among these various Moche centers (except in the eastern regions). They all likely had ruling dynasties of their own, related to each other. Centralized control of the whole Moche area may have taken place from time to time, but appears infrequent. Pampa Grande , in

2356-515: A significant level of investment in the construction of a sophisticated network of irrigation canals for the diversion of river water to supply their crops. Their artifacts express their lives, with detailed scenes of hunting, fishing, fighting, sacrifice, sexual encounters, and elaborate ceremonies. The Moche are particularly noted for their elaborately painted ceramics , gold work, monumental constructions ( huacas ), and irrigation systems. Moche history may be broadly divided into three periods:

2480-507: A similar chemical plating process using boiling water and salts found naturally in the area. It is the Moche ceramic tradition that had previously been given the most attention in Archaeology, though this is beginning to change as archaeologists continue to discover ties between iconography on ceramic and other parts of Moche art. Just as important to Moche craftsmanship and culture is metallurgy . The skill required to create these objects

2604-499: A sort of immortality, the transfer of life and souls, transformation, and the relationship between the two cyclical views of nature and life. Extreme weather and fragility of garments mean that relatively few examples of Moche textiles exist. However, limited quantities have been found in tombs, especially of higher-status members of society. Many of the remaining garments are incomplete articles, partially broken down. Nevertheless, scholars have been able to gain cultural insights from

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2728-523: A supplemental way of attaining meat, but by the Late Intermediate period and Late Horizon, inland sites used llamas as a main resource, although they maintained contact with coastal sites to use supplemental marine resources. They also made masks. One of the earliest known examples of distance communication is a Chimú device consisting of two resin-coated gourds connected by a 75-foot length of twine. Only one example has been found, and nothing

2852-533: A wealth of metal objects unparalleled with any previous discovery. Most of these objects remained in their original context, allowing researchers to prove beyond reasonable doubt that metal objects were closely intertwined with the power of the Moche elite. The rulers of the Moche were incredibly adept at portraying and perpetuating their power through art, which is well-exemplified by the Moche metallurgy. Moche techniques in metalworking have proved to be an intriguing area of research. Their techniques were likely some of

2976-562: A year, the mollusk tissue contains substances that are toxic to humans, caused by poisonous algae that the mollusks consume. During these months, the shells are offered to weather and fertility deities as “food for the gods”, as it was thought that only deities were powerful enough to eat the flesh of the bivalve. At tolerable levels, human consumption of this toxic flesh may result in muscle weakness, mind-altering states, and euphoria, but in more concentrated doses, may lead to paralysis and death. Because of these hallucinogenic effects, Spondylus

3100-434: Is anal sex , with scenes of vaginal penetration being very rare. Most pairs are heterosexual, with carefully carved genitalia to show that the anus, rather than the vagina, is being penetrated. Often an infant is depicted breastfeeding while the couple has sex. Fellatio is sometimes represented, but cunnilingus is absent. Some depict male skeletons masturbating, or being masturbated by living women. Because irrigation

3224-746: Is also characterized by realistic modeling and painted scenes. During the reign of the Wari Empire over Peru , the mature Chimú culture developed in roughly the same territory where the Mochica had existed centuries before. The Chimú was also a coastal culture - according to legend, its capital of Chan Chan was founded by Taycanamo, who arrived in the area by sea. It was developed in the Moche Valley north of present-day Lima, northeast of Huarmey , and finishing in central present-day Trujillo. Later, it expanded to Arequipa . During this time Arequipa

3348-406: Is also common among samples from this period, though by the 500-800 AD range, these patterns become much less abundant. It is thought that elite members of Moche society had specialized artisans who manufactured their textiles, whereas lower-ranking typical members of society would manufacture their own clothing. Whorls and needles have proven quite common in excavation of Moche dwellings—pointing to

3472-407: Is an instrument made of a small wand that usually gets thinner at both ends; that was used alongside a tortera or piruro . The spindle is inserted into the bottom to make a counterweight. It starts spinning, taking the rueca (where the fiber was set to be spun). Fibers that are laid down in the zone are quickly turned between the thumb and index fingers and twisted to interlock the fibers, creating

3596-594: Is another northern site in the Jequetepeque valley. It was prominent in the Middle and Late Moche Periods (400–850 AD). Numerous Moche tombs have been excavated here, including several burials containing high status female individuals. These women were depicted in Moche iconography as the Priestess . The best known differences are: Moche pottery is some of the most varied in the world. The use of mold technology

3720-478: Is another site that was influenced by the Cupisnique culture. In 2020, local farmers clearing land in the La Libertad region of northwestern Peru found the ruins of a shrine bearing a large mural painted in shades of ocher, yellow, gray and white. The site was previously unknown and it is estimated that about 60% of the shrine complex was accidentally destroyed during the process. Researchers have now identified

3844-421: Is captured in the imagery of many portable Andean artifacts, such as bowls, earspools, and textiles. Many of these images are similar, illustrating a boat with sailors holding cords attached to the divers in the water. Stone weights are suspended from the divers as they gather shells, and portrayals of Spondylus often emphasize their characteristic spines. The image to the right features a Chimú earspool, which

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3968-532: Is easier to obtain, the Spondylus princeps , known as the “thorny oyster” for its characteristic spines, is a solid red color and can only be harvested by experienced divers. Thus, this shell is more highly desired and traded by the Chimú people. Spondylus shell had a wide variety of uses in Andean culture and took a variety of forms, ranging from whole shells to fragments to ground shell powder. This material

4092-792: Is evident, which would have enabled the mass production of certain forms. But Moche ceramics vary widely in shape and theme, with most important social activities documented in pottery, including war, agriculture, metalwork , weaving , and erotica . Traditional north coast Peruvian ceramic art uses a limited palette, relying primarily on red and white colors, fineline painting, fully modeled clay, veristic figures, and stirrup spouts. Moche ceramics created between 150 and 800 AD epitomize this style. Moche pots have been found not just at major north coast archaeological sites, such as Huaca de la luna, Huaca del sol, and Sipán, but also at small villages and unrecorded burial sites as well. At least 500 Moche ceramics have sexual themes. The most frequently depicted act

4216-521: Is known about its originator or use. The Chimu capital, Chan Chan, had a series of elite residential compounds or cuidadelas that were not occupied simultaneously, but sequentially. The reason for this is that Chimu rulers practiced split inheritance, which dictated that the heir to the throne had to build his own palace. After the death of a ruler, all the ruler's wealth would be distributed to more distant relatives. The Chimú people highly valued mollusk shell for its economic and political significance as

4340-632: Is not known for certain, but it ended around 700 CE. It was centered in the Chicama , Moche, and Viru Valleys . "Many large pyramids are attributed to the Early Chimú period." (37) These pyramids are built of adobe in rectangular shapes made from molds. "Early Chimú cemeteries are also found without pyramid associations. Burials are usually in extended positions, in prepared tombs. The rectangular, adobe-lined and covered tombs have niches in their walls in which bowls were placed." (39) The Early pottery

4464-438: Is often in the shape of a creature or has a human figure sitting or standing on a cuboid bottle. The shiny black finish of most Chimú pottery was achieved by firing the pottery at high temperatures in a closed kiln , which prevented oxygen from reacting with the clay . The oldest civilization present on the north coast of Peru is the Moche or Mochica civilization, which is identified as Early Chimú. The start of this period

4588-415: Is one of the most arid areas in the world, where there is no rain throughout the year. That factor, far from discouraging the establishment of communities, was the trigger for the construction of an outstanding culture that developed engineering works that interconnected various river valleys, with the aim of irrigating desert territories. Many of the Moche agricultural systems are still in operation, such as

4712-441: Is perhaps some of the finest the world has ever known. The first Moche metalworks entered into the archaeological record were unearthed by Max Uhle at Huaca del Sol and Huaca de Luna during 1899 and 1900, but were largely ignored while Uhle focused on other aspects of the sites. Moche metal work gained attention after Peruvian researcher Rafael Larco Hoyle published Los Mochicas in 1945. Here, he mostly focused on describing

4836-419: Is thought to have figured prominently in the beliefs surrounding the practice of sacrifice. Although it remains somewhat unclear how geographically divided Moche culture was, scholars are very confident that the Moche were a socially divided society. Beyond royalty, the Moche can be divided into a general upper and lower class, and each class can be further stratified into smaller groups. Intra-class movement

4960-563: The Spondylus shellfish, which resides only in the warm coastal waters off present-day Ecuador . Associated with the sea, rainfall, and fertility, Spondylus shells were highly valued and traded by the Chimú people, and the exchange of the shells played a significant economic and political role in the empire. The Chimú people are best known for their distinctive monochromatic pottery and fine metal working of copper , gold , silver , bronze , and tumbaga (copper and gold). The pottery

5084-468: The El Brujo complex, Mocollope, Cerro Mayal, Galindo, Huanchaco , and Pañamarka . Their adobe huacas have been mostly destroyed by looters and natural forces over the last 1,300 years. The surviving ones show that the coloring of their murals was quite vibrant. Two distinct regions of the Moche civilization have been identified, Southern and Northern Moche, with each area probably corresponding to

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5208-600: The Late Sicán in the north and the Casma in the South. Despite this, many areas kept distinctive aspects of their culture and some gained autonomy after the conquest. It has been argued that Chimú leaders conquered territories further away because of the deviations in inheritance. The opposition to this is that an El Niño that had caused the state to increase the extractive economy in place and get supplies from other areas of

5332-484: The Nazca , to draw water, and reservoirs to contain the water from rivers. This system increased the productivity of the land, which increased Chimú wealth, and likely contributed to the formation of a bureaucratic system. The Chimú cultivated beans, sweet potato, papaya, and cotton with their reservoir and irrigation system. This focus on large-scale irrigation persisted until the Late Intermediate period. At this point, there

5456-479: The Regional Development Epoch . While this issue is the subject of some debate, many scholars contend that the Moche were not politically organized as a monolithic empire or state. Rather, they were likely a group of autonomous polities that shared a common culture, as seen in the rich iconography and monumental architecture that survives today. Moche society was agriculturally based, with

5580-451: The 4,000-year-old temple of Ventarrón throughout time, to its appearance on artifacts of the Moche culture dated to c. 300 AD. The temple found in 2008 also includes imagery of the spider deity, thought to be associated with rainfall, hunting, and warfare. The spider deity image combines a spider's neck and head, with the mouth of a large feline, and the beak of a bird. According to the team leader Walter Alva, "Cupisnique and Chavin shared

5704-590: The Andes. This El Niño is theorized to have occurred around A.D. 1100 and would have caused the destruction of irrigation canals. Both arguments suggest that agriculture expansion led to increased identities socially and politically. The Chimú conquered the Jequetepeque around 1320 and changed the political structure of the society. Places like Pacatnamú were left behind and other sites like Farfán had increased laborers for administrative compounds constructed under

5828-640: The Ascope aqueduct, the La Cumbre Canal, in Chicama, or the San Jose dam, which continue to provide water, coming from the Andean region and groundwater, guaranteeing several harvests per year. Access to new farmland, gained from the desert, was the starting point of a civilization that, based on abundant harvests, became socially stratified. All this allowed certain members of the community to no longer dedicate themselves exclusively to food production, and

5952-676: The Chavin Horizon... dominated by the Cupisnique style". A Cupisnique adobe temple was discovered in 2008 in the Lambayeque valley in the area of the archaeological site of Ventarron . That newly discovered temple was very close to the Ventarron temple. The adjacent location is known as "Collud". This spider deity temple sheds some light on the connection between the Cupisnique and the Chavin because of shared iconography. In fact, some other related temples also had been discovered in

6076-522: The Chicama-Moche complex, which was a combination of two valleys in La Libertad. The Lambayeque linked the valleys of La Leche, Lambayeque, Reque, and Saña Jequetepeque. They developed an excellent agricultural techniques which expanded the strength of their cultivated areas. Huachaques were sunken farms where land was withdrawn to work the moist, sandy soil underneath, an example of which is Tschudi. The Chimú used walk-in wells, similar to those of

6200-441: The Chimú government on lower levels of the hierarchy. These lower-order centers managed land, water, and labor, while the higher-order centers either moved the resources to Chan Chan or carried out other administrative decisions. Rural sites were used as engineering headquarters, while the canals were being built; later they operated as maintenance sites. The numerous broken bowls found at Quebrada del Oso support this theory, as

6324-513: The Chimú's canals and irrigated fields. Chan Chan was the top of the Chimu hierarchy, with Farfán in the Jequetepeque Valley as a subordinate. This organization, which was quickly established during the conquest of the Jequetepeque Valley, suggests the Chimú established the hierarchy during the early stages of their expansion. The existing elite at peripheral locations, such as the Jequetepeque Valley and other centers of power, were incorporated into

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6448-424: The Cupisnique society that had a base population of farming and fishing along with a middle and elite class. The main connection between the Cupisnique and the Moche is the incorporation of the decapitation theme where there exists a decapitator and a decapitated character. In the Cupisnique society, "the decapitators appear in five supernatural guises: human, monster, bird, fish, and spider..." Moche decapitators are

6572-494: The Ica-Nazca because they later mined guano for fertilizer and may have traded with northerners. Moche pottery has been found near Ica, but no Ica-Nazca pottery has been found in Moche territory. The coastal Moche culture also co-existed (or overlapped in time) with the slightly earlier Recuay culture in the highlands. Some Moche iconographic motifs can be traced to Recuay design elements. The Moche also interacted with

6696-454: The Kingdom by conquering the head of the valley of Chimor and the neighboring valleys of Sana, Pacasmayo, Chicama, Viru, Chao and Santa." The estimated founding date of the last Chimú kingdom is in the first half of the fourteenth century. Nacen-pinco was believed to have ruled around 1370 and was followed by seven rulers whose names are not yet known. Minchançaman followed these rulers, and

6820-637: The Lambayeque Valley, on the shore of the Chancay River, became one of the largest Moche sites anywhere, and occupied an area of more than 400 hectares. It was prominent in the Moche V period (600–700 AD), and features an abundance of Moche V ceramics. The site was laid out and built in a short period of time and has an enormous ceremonial complex. It includes Huaca Fortaleza , which is the tallest ceremonial platform in Peru. San Jose de Moro

6944-494: The Late Chimú periods. The Chimú worked with metals such as gold, silver, and copper. Some Chimú artisans worked in metal workshops divided into sections for each specialized treatment of metals: plating, gold, stamping, lost-wax, pearl, the watermark, and embossing wooden molds. These techniques produced large variety of objects, such as cups, knives, containers, figurines, bracelets, pins, and crowns. They used arsenic to harden

7068-452: The Moche way of life, political hierarchy, and jeopardized their faith in their religion. This super El Niño may have hindered Moche agriculture. Moche agriculture relied considerably on canal-based irrigation from Andes mountain runoff, which a severe drought would have jeopardized. Certain scholars attribute strain on the irrigation systems to sensitive tectonics in the region. Other evidence demonstrates that these events did not cause

7192-414: The Moche's collapse. Several examples of the molds used to shape the low relief sculptures have been discovered, most are made of a solid metal alloy but wood molds were also used. Researchers Christopher B. Donnan and David A. Scott proved how delicate this process of shaping is when they used a cast of one of the copper alloy molds to recreate the process. They found one of the most important parts of

7316-666: The Warrior Priest tomb at the Huaca de la Cruz site one year later also encouraged further study. The same would happen when burial grounds at the site now known as Loma Negra in the Piura Valley were unearthed by looters finding a wealth of gold, silver, and copper objects along with ceramic vessels. An important discovery in the context of Moche metallurgy was the discovery of the Tombs of Sipán in 1986. These burials included

7440-600: The architecture and ornamentation of these structures symbolize the treasures of the sea. Los Buceadores (the Divers), a relief in Chan Chan in Ciudadela Uhle, displays imagery of a pair of figures in a tule boat, one of whom holds a paddle, and another pair of shell divers beneath the boat and connected to ropes. The relief also features a net-like semicircle, as well as spiny figures that represent shells. Much of

7564-446: The area at approximately the same time. The Chavin people who came after the Cupisnique built a temple adjacent to Collud about three hundred years later, in a location named "Zarpan". The three temples are close together and form a single archaeological site. There are many shared elements among motifs used in all three locations. For example, one common element is that of the spider deity. This spider motif appears to persevere from

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7688-688: The arrival of the Spanish in the region. Chimor ( Spanish pronunciation: [tʃi'mu] ) was the largest kingdom in the Late Intermediate Period , encompassing 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) of coastline. According to Chimú oral history , the history of Chimor began with the arrival of Taycanamo in the Moche Valley from the sea on a balsa raft . From there his descendants would conquer surrounding areas starting with his son Guacriur . Guacricur integrated Chimú reign over

7812-529: The artifact had been looted in the late 1980s from an elite tomb at the Moche site of La Mina. It was returned to Peru in 2006. Chim%C3%BA culture Chimor (also Kingdom of Chimor or Chimú Empire ) was the political grouping of the Chimú culture . The culture arose about 900 CE, succeeding the Moche culture , and was later conquered by the Inca emperor Topa Inca Yupanqui around 1470, fifty years before

7936-493: The artists of Chavín, they mostly used alloys that contained some combination of gold, silver, or copper that they had developed. While Moche art as a whole is very much independent of the Chavín style, many recurring motifs found across Moche art, including the metalwork, also seem to have their roots in Chavín culture. Moche art continues the tradition of anthropomorphic figures as well as characters with prominent fangs, although

8060-439: The association of the shell with divine power and the supernatural world. The external spines of Spondylus lend to the shell its ties to strength and protection. Because of its shape and red blood-like color, the shell often represents death, sacrifice, and ritual bloodletting practices, as well as female reproductive body parts. Known as the "daughter of the sea," the Spondylus shell has also been linked to femininity, with

8184-400: The bowls were probably used to feed the large workforce that built and maintained that section of canal. The workers were probably fed and housed at state expense. Cultural and Economic Exchange The Chimú's vast territorial expansion increased the amount of cultural identities within the civilization. They also incorporated political ideologies along with cultural beliefs this is seen with

8308-647: The character of emerging cultures such as the Salinar, Vicus, Gallinazo, and as mentioned, the Moche culture. One of the most important Cupisnique sites is Caballo Muerto in the Moche Valley . In 2008, it was reported that archaeologists had excavated the Cupisnique site of Limoncarro in the Guadalupe District, Pacasmayo , La Libertad Region of the northern Peru coast. Two phases of construction were identified; among other things, animal faces indicating Cupisnique iconography were uncovered. Kuntur Wasi

8432-540: The citizens in each ciudadela were artisans. In the late Chimú, about 12,000 artisans lived and worked in Chan Chan alone. They engaged in fishing, agriculture, craft work, and trade. Artisans were forbidden to change their profession, and were grouped in the ciudadela according to their area of specialization. Archeologists have noted a dramatic increase in Chimú craft production, and they believe that artisans may have been brought to Chan Chan from another area taken as

8556-485: The demise of the Moche political structure. Some scholars have emphasized the role of environmental change. Studies of ice cores drilled from glaciers in the Andes reveal climatic events between 563 and 594 AD, possibly a super El Niño , that resulted in 30 years of intense rain and flooding followed by 30 years of drought, part of the aftermath of the climate changes of 535–536 . These weather events could have disrupted

8680-786: The development of the first interpretations of Moche culture, ranking the Moche as being "high on the list of advanced societies" as a civilization. He listed traits of the Moche culture such as "exquisite artworks" and the "creation of large scale facilities and public works" as a testament to this ranking. Arguably the most significant event which shaped Moche archaeological research was the Virú Valley Project, beginning in 1946 and led by Willian Duncan Strong and Wendell Bennett. Their stratigraphic excavations in Virú showed an earlier ceramic style known as Gallinazo, which appeared to have “abruptly ended”. In 1987, archaeologists, alerted by

8804-681: The emergence of the Moche culture in Early Moche (100–300 AD), the expansion and flourishing during Middle Moche (300–600 AD), and the urban nucleation and subsequent collapse in Late Moche (500–800 AD). The Salinar culture reigned on the north coast of Peru from 200 BC–200 AD. According to some scholars, this was a short transition period between the Cupisnique and the Moche cultures. There are considerable parallels between Moche and Cupisnique iconography and ceramic designs, including

8928-670: The existing evidence for shell-working in the Andes stems from archaeological findings and colonial texts. Spondylus is abundant in sites across Peru, discovered in burial sites and with the remains of shell workshops. The high level of uniformity in these shell objects, combined with the technical nature of shell-working, indicate that Spondylus production was domestic and carried out by independent craftsmen. Many collections of Spondylus artifacts contain objects from various stages of shell production: whole shells, fragments, worked pieces, and debris from shell reduction. Though researchers have uncovered worked shell debris and ample proof for

9052-526: The fangs are usually less pronounced than Chavín art and not present quite as often. That is not to say that the Moche did not leave their own mark on the Anden society. Many of the techniques developed by the Moche, especially their electroplating and gilding techniques used to make copper alloys appear to be almost internally gold or silver, would continue to be used up until the Inca conquest hundreds of years after

9176-625: The final Chimú emperor, to Cusco and redirected gold and silver there to adorn the Qurikancha . Chan Chan could be said to have developed a bureaucracy due to the elite's controlled access to information. The economic and social system operated through the import of raw materials, where they were processed into prestige goods by artisans at Chan Chan. The elite at Chan Chan made the decisions on most other matters concerning organization, monopolizing production, storage of food and products, and distribution or consumption of goods. The majority of

9300-490: The iconography of the 'Spider god'. The Moche cultural sphere is centered on several valleys on the north coast of Peru in regions La Libertad , Lambayeque , Jequetepeque , Chicama , Moche , Virú , Chao , Santa , and Nepena. It occupied 250 miles of desert coastline and up to 50 miles inland. The Huaca del Sol , a pyramidal adobe structure on the Rio Moche, was the largest pre-Columbian structure in Peru. It

9424-411: The large flared headdresses and brilliantly decorated nose ornaments often found in connection with the Moche elite. Despite having no formal training in archaeology, Larco Hoyle was the first to truly attempt a systematic reconstruction of the Moche by drawing on information from excavations, art, iconography, Spanish documents, and modern traditions. The discovery of bronze and gold artifacts buried in

9548-519: The leaders Naylamp in the Sican language and Taycanamo in Chimú . The people paid tribute to the rulers with products or labor. Chimor was the last Andean kingdom capable of stopping the Inca Empire, but the Inca conquest began in the 1470s by Topa Inca Yupanqui , defeating the emperor Minchançaman, and was nearly complete when Huayna Capac assumed the throne in 1493. They moved Minchançaman,

9672-514: The local police, discovered the first intact Moche tomb at Sipán in northern Peru. Inside the tomb, which was carbon dated to about 300 AD, the archaeologists found the mummified remains of a high ranking male, the Lord of Sipán . Also in the tomb were the remains of six other individuals, several animals, and a large variety of ornamental and functional items, many of which were made of gold, silver, and other valuable materials. Continuing excavations of

9796-509: The lower valley and Ñancempinco , Taycanamo's grandson would expand the kingdom by conquering the upper valley. Ñançenpinco began to further expansion both north and south of the Moche Valleys . The first valleys seem to have joined forces willingly, but the Sican culture was acquired through conquest. They also were significantly influenced by the pre-Inca Cajamarca and Wari cultures . According to legend, its capital of Chan Chan

9920-438: The materials are not found on the Moche coast. Lapis Lazuli was available only from modern Chile hundreds of miles to the south and Spondulus shells had to be acquired from modern Ecuador to the north. This makes it clear that the Moche must have had extensive trade networks, and likely contact with other cultures. Also notable in this context is the fact that many of the animals accurately depicted in Moche artwork are found only in

10044-400: The metal or the use of interlocking tabs and slits in the two parts, but soldering and edged-wielding were also used. Finishing touches could also be added with embossing, punching and chasing along with embedding other precious materials. Stones such as lapis lazuli , turquoise, spondylus shells, and others have all been found embedded in Moche metal works. It is worth noting that several of

10168-436: The metals after they were cast. Large-scale smelting took place in a cluster of workshops at Cerro de los Cemetarios. The process starts with ore extracted from mines or a river, which is heated to very high temperatures and then cooled. The result is a group of prills, such as small round sections of copper, in a mass of slag, which are other materials which are not useful for metallurgy. The prills are then extracted by crushing

10292-451: The most advanced in the world during the time of the Moche; restoration has proven difficult to many present-day metalworkers. Craftspeople perfected a wide variety of metalworking techniques. When they invaded in the sixteenth century, Spanish conquistadors took note of the highly skilled metalwork the Inca were able to produce. Unlike European metalworkers, the Inca blew through long tubes to heat coals, rather than using bellows to create

10416-568: The mural image as a 3,200-year-old painting of a knife-wielding spider god. Mirrors dating to 900-200 BC were discovered in archaeological sites that have been identified as Cupisnique. They reflect high quality images. Moche (culture) The Moche civilization ( Spanish pronunciation: [ˈmotʃe] ; alternatively, the Moche culture or the Early, Pre- or Proto- Chimú ) flourished in northern Peru with its capital near present-day Moche, Trujillo , Peru from about 100 to 800 AD during

10540-539: The neighbouring Virú culture . Eventually, by 700 CE, they had established control over the Viru. In 1899 and 1900, Max Uhle was the first archaeologist to excavate a Moche site, Huaca de la Luna, which is where the architectural complex that is known as Huacas de Moche (Pyramids of Moche) is located in the Moche Valley. The name of this architectural complex is where the name of the Moche site and culture came from. Excavations in 1938 and 1939 by Rafael Larco Hoyle saw

10664-466: The presence of shell workshops, they have only identified and discussed very few specific shell workshops. One workshop, which was thought to be maintained by the Chimú people, was identified at Túcume in the Lambayeque Region of Peru by archaeologist and researcher Daniel Sandweiss. Dating back to around 1390-1480 A.D., the workshop comprised various small rooms and contained evidence for

10788-401: The process is the thickness of the sheet metal. Too thick and it will fail to capture the details of the mold and prove too difficult to shape, but too thin and the metal would winkle and tear. They found 0.4mm to be the ideal thickness although the repeated hammering thinned the sheet down to 0.25mm, in addition to hammering repeated annealing was also required. Analysis of the items found at

10912-579: The production of Spondylus beads. Shell debris from all stages of production, ranging from cut pieces to finished beads, along with the stone tools used to work the shell, were excavated from the site. While many archaeological sources point to the abundance of shell-working, as the remains of shell workshops and artifacts were uncovered widely in Peru, little evidence documents the movement of Spondylus from its source in Ecuador to workshops in Chan Chan . The archaeological record indicates that Chimor

11036-403: The products. The class system also helped to determine who would work to create state-sponsored monuments. The Chimú society was a four-level hierarchical system, with a powerful elite rule over administrative centers. The hierarchy was centered at the walled cities, called ciudadelas , at Chan Chan . The political power at Chan Chan is demonstrated by the organization of labor to construct

11160-410: The region carved a series of fertile valley plains, which were very flat and well-suited to irrigation. Agriculture and fishing were both very important to the Chimú economy. Worshipping the moon , the Chimú, unlike the Inca, considered it more powerful than the sun . Offerings played an important role in religious rites. A common object for offerings, as well as one used by artisans, was the shell of

11284-438: The remaining Moche textiles. The Moche wove textiles, mostly using cotton and wool from vicuña and alpaca . The relative presence of these fabrics, as well as which patterns were used, varies chronologically throughout Moche culture. Too few relics exist from early Moche culture to draw conclusive findings. Textiles from around 450 AD uniquely include a male head cloth—which is not readily found elsewhere. Twill and gauze weaving

11408-510: The result of climatic changes, as factions fought for control over increasingly scarce resources. Chronologically, the Moche was an Early Intermediate Period culture, which was preceded by the Chavín horizon , as well as the Cupisnique, and succeeded by the Huari and Chimú . The Moche co-existed with the Ica-Nazca culture in the south. They are thought to have had some limited contact with

11532-487: The rule of the nobles. Unlike the Inca Empire, the Chimú did not attempt to expand its command of the Spondylus trade through imperial conquests of neighboring states, but rather, used its existing access to the trade as a religious and financial justification for power. Little information exists about the means by which Spondylus was acquired and exchanged along trade routes, and many scholars have proposed various models for Spondylus movement. The marine bivalve

11656-430: The same five plus two additional characters: the crab and the scorpion. Images of the five main decapitators from both the Cupisnique and the Moche culture appear in many references. Scholars believe that the parallelism between Moche and Cupisnique iconography is not just coincidental, rather, that the Moche were "the heirs to a belief that they subscribed to in practice". Sometimes the Cupisnique people are spoken of as

11780-517: The same gods and the same architectural and artistic forms, showing intense religious interaction among the cultures of the Early Formative Period from the north coast to the Andes and down to the central Andes." Sometimes the Moche and the Cupisnique cultures are referred to interchangeably. The reason for that is because of similarities in their ceramic designs. The Moche were a very "vibrant" culture among emerging cultures within

11904-451: The sea and role in water and fertility rituals, used as offerings in agricultural fields to promote abundant crop yields. The Chimú also placed shells in sources of water, such as wells and springs, to bring rain to their fields, especially in times of drought. The symbolic significance of the Spondylus shell is closely related to the physical attributes and biological properties of the bivalve. Its characteristic morphology contributed to

12028-565: The shell was ground into powder and spread out before the Chimor king by an official called the Fonga Sigde, forming a “red carpet” for the ruler as he walked. Shell were likewise used for ornamentation of certain buildings and architectural structures. Found in the tombs of nobles, these artifacts were often used as burial goods and played a role in sacrificial practices. Due to its aquatic origins, shells were prized for their connection to

12152-669: The site have yielded thirteen additional tombs. In 2005, a mummified Moche woman known as the Lady of Cao was discovered at the Huaca Cao Viejo, part of the El Brujo archaeological site on the outskirts of present-day Trujillo, Peru . It is the best preserved Moche mummy found to date; the elaborate tomb that housed her had unprecedented decoration. Archaeologists believe that the tomb had been undisturbed since approximately 450 AD. The tomb contained military and ornamental artifacts, including war clubs and spear throwers. The remains of

12276-455: The skeletons of young men deliberately excarnated , perhaps for temple displays. The Moche may have also held and tortured the victims for several weeks before sacrificing them, with the intent of deliberately drawing blood. Verano believes that some parts of the victim may have been eaten as well in ritual cannibalism. The sacrifices may have been associated with rites of ancestral renewal and agricultural fertility. Moche iconography features

12400-407: The slag, and then melted together to form ingots, which were fashioned into various items. The Chimú also shaped metals through hammering, as displayed in the image on the right of the silver Chimú beaker. Chimú metalsmiths achieved this technique with simple tools and a single sheet of gold. The artist would first carve a wooden mold. Then they would carefully hammer the paper-thin sheet of gold around

12524-426: The supervision of Imperial administrators. Land use, agricultural methods and settlement patterns of the Jequetepeque societies all changed after the conquest. Many households had to see tribute requirements and agricultural production increased. The state governed such social classes until the empire of the Sican culture conquered the kingdom of Lambayeque, Peru . The legends of war were said to have been told by

12648-401: The tombs of Sipan has found that the Moche were able to maintain an almost completely uniform thickness between 1 and about 0.1 millimeters depending on the object. When this was completed several other techniques could be used to finish the piece. Oftentimes other pieces were attached, sometimes with the intention of being moving parts of the work. More often than not this was done by crimping

12772-408: The transportation methods of shells and whether they were exported via sea or land. Imagery in Andean pottery and reliefs depict llama caravans carrying shell, providing evidence that the transportation of shell was at least in part overland. Spinning is the practice of combining a small set of threads to achieve a long and continuous thread with the use of an instrument called a spindle . The zone

12896-560: The tropical Amazon. Researchers of the Moche culture agree that the emergence of the Moche culture is related to the intensification of the production of corn, cotton, beans and squash, among other agricultural products, which allowed the development of a regional Moche political economy in the Valley of Moche from the north coast of Peru during the Early Intermediate Period (400 BC–600 AD). The northern region of Peru

13020-406: The twist, and colors of the threads, it is likely that all of the fibers were pre-spun and imported from a single location. The civilization is known for its exquisite and intricate metalworking, one of the most advanced of the pre-Columbian era. Chimú ceramics were crafted for two functions: containers for daily domestic use and those made for ceremonial use for offerings at burials. Domestic pottery

13144-538: The univalve embodying masculinity. Spondylus has specialized sensory organs, in particular sensitive eyes and papillae, that Andean cultures associate with extra sensory protection. Sensitive to temperature changes in water and thriving in warmer waters, the shell was thought to have divinatory powers, and because its migratory patterns are related to El Niño conditions, its presence is seen as an omen for disaster. Moreover, Spondylus exhibits seasonal toxicity, known as Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). Twice

13268-402: The wool of four animals: the guanaco , llama, alpaca, and vicuna. The people also used varieties of cotton, that grows naturally in seven different colors. The clothing consisted of the Chimú loincloth, sleeveless shirts with or without fringes, small ponchos, and tunics. The majority of Chimú textiles were made from alpaca wool and cotton. Judging from the uniform spin direction, degree of

13392-491: Was a crescent-shaped metal knife used in sacrifices. While some scholars, such as Christopher B. Donnan and Izumi Shimada , argue that the sacrificial victims were the losers of ritual battles among local elites, others, such as John Verano and Richard Sutter , suggest that the sacrificial victims were warriors captured in territorial battles between the Moche and other nearby societies. Excavations in plazas near Moche huacas have found groups of people sacrificed together and

13516-489: Was a shift to a more specialized system that focused on importing and redistributing resources from satellite communities. There appears to have been a complex network of sites that provided goods and services for Chimú subsistence. Many of these sites produced commodities that the Chimú could not. Many sites relied on marine resources, but after the advent of agriculture, there were more sites further inland, where marine resources were harder to attain. Keeping llamas arose as

13640-461: Was a symbol of spiritual transcendence and was viewed as bridge between physical and supernatural worlds. Though the remains of shell workshops and artifacts are abundant in Chimor, the Spondylus shell originates in the warm waters of Ecuador . Harvesting the shell is both a time and labor-intensive process, requiring experienced divers to free dive to depths of up to 50 meters and pry the shells off of rocks. The difficult task of shell diving

13764-499: Was also ruled by the Chimú. To the south, they expanded as far as Carabayllo. Their expansion southward was stopped by the military power of the great valley of Lima . Historians and archeologists contest how far south they managed to expand. Life in the Chimú Empire From what scholars can tell the Chimú had a complex and consolidated empire. The capitol consisted of Chan Chan , lower-class, workshops and homes with

13888-486: Was an agglutinative process initiated by earlier rulers." (17) The Chimú expanded to include a vast area and many different ethnic groups. The first valleys seem to have joined forces willingly, but the Sican culture was assimilated through conquest. At its peak, the Chimú advanced to the limits of the desert coast to the valley of the Jequetepeque River in the north. Pampa Grande in the Lambayeque Valley

14012-429: Was an important center for the exchange of trade, and shell often traveled long distances from its geographic source to reach the empire of Chimor. The trade of Spondylus was integral to the expanding political power and economy of the Chimú. The shell was viewed as an exotic material, and the Chimor control of the exchange of the imported luxury good served as a means of political control, establishing and legitimizing

14136-419: Was developed without higher finishing, while funeral ceramics show more aesthetic refinement. The main features of Chimú ceramics were small sculptures, and manufacturing molded and shaped pottery for ceremonial or daily use. Ceramics were usually stained black, although there are some variations. Lighter ceramics were also produced in smaller quantities. The characteristic brightness was obtained by rubbing with

14260-469: Was for members of the elite, such as priests and priestesses, to use ceremonies to reinforce their standing (see the Religion section for more information on ceremonies). It may also be true that physical force was used. The Moche elite may have struggled to retain power at times, and inter-elite quarreling is speculated to have played into the culture's collapse. Excavated Moche burial sites constitute

14384-486: Was founded by Taycanamo, who arrived in the area by sea. Chimor was the last kingdom that had any chance of stopping the Inca Empire . But the Inca conquest began in the 1470s by Topa Inca Yupanqui , defeating the emperor and descendant of Taycanamo, Minchançaman, and was nearly complete when Huayna Capac assumed the throne in 1493. The Chimú resided on a strip of desert on the northern coast of Peru . The rivers in

14508-403: Was framed by 3 volcanoes. (39) The Chimú appeared in the year 900: Chimor, also known as the Kingdom of Chimor, had its capital "at the great site now called Chanchan, between Trujillo and the sea, and we may assume that Taycanamo founded his kingdom there. His son, Guacri-caur, conquered the lower part of the valley and was succeeded by a son named Nancen-pinco who really laid the foundations of

14632-498: Was likely traded either through independent merchants or state-administered long-distance trade, with a north-south movement of the items. One of the first accounts of exchange of Spondylus is a report written by Spanish colonist Francisco Xerez , who was a member of the expedition led by Francisco Pizarro , and describes a raft of luxury goods, such as textiles, emeralds, and gold and silver objects, which were to be traded for Spondylus shells. Researchers likewise disagree on

14756-423: Was molded from gold-copper and silver alloys and depicts a shell diving scene. The rectangle in the upper half of the earspool is a boat with large sails, and birds reside at the top of the piece. Four divers swim beneath the boat and are near spiky eggshell-shaped shells. Sections of ciudadelas , large compounds often reserved for the kings and elite individuals, were used as storage areas for shell artifacts, and

14880-415: Was partly destroyed when Spanish Conquistadors looted its graves for gold in the 16th century. The nearby Huaca de la Luna is better preserved, with many of its interior walls still filled with many colorful murals and complex iconography. The site has been under professional archaeological excavation since the early 1990s. Other major Moche sites include Sipán , Loma Negra, Dos Cabezas, Pacatnamu ,

15004-559: Was possible within these broad categories, but inter-class switches between them were less feasible. Many pre-contact cultures share a divided structure comparable to the Moche—but each may have unique development. Although religion seems to have been a centripetal force for the Moche, members of the elite class likely used it to reinforce their status. Other ideological, economic, political, and social factors may have also been leveraged to similar ends. A common approach to maintaining power

15128-412: Was ruling around the time of the Inca conquest (between 1462 and 1470). This great expansion is believed to have occurred during the late period of Chimú civilization, called: Late Chimú, but the development of the Chimú territory spanned a number of phases and more than a single generation. Nacen-pinco, "may have pushed the imperial frontiers to Jequetepeque and to Santa, but conquest of the entire region

15252-529: Was the source of wealth and foundation of the empire, the Moche culture emphasized the importance of circulation and flow. Expanding upon this, Moche artwork frequently depicted the passage of fluids, particularly life fluids through vulnerable human orifices. There are countless images of defeated warriors losing life fluids through their nose, or helpless victims getting their eyes torn out by birds or captors. Images of captive sex-slaves with gaping orifices and leaking fluids portray extreme exposure, humiliation, and

15376-407: Was worked to create intricately carved ornaments, tools, and goods reserved for the nobles and deities. Shell fragments have been found as inlays for body ornaments and as beads for pieces of jewelry. The image to the right displays a Chimú collar made of cotton, red Spondylus shell beads, and black stone beads, and the image below displays a sling shot made of shell. Representing wealth and power,

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