Misplaced Pages

#590409

111-559: Moche society was agriculturally based, with a significant level of investment in the construction of a sophisticated network of irrigation canals for the diversion of river water to supply their crops. Their artifacts express their lives, with detailed scenes of hunting, fishing, fighting, sacrifice, sexual encounters, and elaborate ceremonies. The Moche are particularly noted for their elaborately painted ceramics , gold work, monumental constructions ( huacas ), and irrigation systems. Moche history may be broadly divided into three periods:

222-576: A garroted teenage girl, probably a servant, were also found in the tomb. News of the discovery was announced by Peruvian and U.S. archaeologists in collaboration with National Geographic in May 2006. In 2005 an elaborate gold mask thought to depict a sea god, with curving rays radiating from a stone-inlaid feline face, was recovered in London by the Metropolitan Police . Experts believe that

333-736: A "tile" is a construction tile or similar object, such as rectangular counters used in playing games (see tile-based game ). The word is derived from the French word tuile , which is, in turn, from the Latin word tegula , meaning a roof tile composed of fired clay. Tiles are often used to form wall murals and floor coverings, and can range from simple square tiles to complex mosaics . Tiles are most often made of ceramic , typically glazed for internal uses and unglazed for roofing, but other materials are also commonly used, such as glass, cork, concrete and other composite materials, and stone. Tiling stone

444-535: A complete Moche demise. Moche polities survived beyond 650 AD in the Jequetepeque Valley and the Moche Valleys. For instance, in the Jequetepeque Valley, later settlements are characterized by fortifications and defensive works. While there is no evidence of a foreign invasion (i.e. a Huari invasion) as many scholars have suggested in the past, the defensive works suggest social unrest, possibly

555-511: A different political entity. The Southern Moche region, believed to be the heartland of the culture, originally comprised the Chicama and Moche valleys, and was first described by Rafael Larco Hoyle . The Huaca del Sol-Huaca de la Luna site was probably the capital of this region. The Northern Moche region includes three valley systems: The Piura was fully part of the Moche phenomenon only for

666-585: A distinctive variant of Chinese, and later Japanese, developments. The celadon Goryeo ware from the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) and early Joseon white porcelain of the following dynasty are generally regarded as the finest achievements. From the 8th to 18th centuries, glazed ceramics was important in Islamic art , usually in the form of elaborate pottery , developing on vigorous Persian and Egyptian pre-Islamic traditions in particular. Tin-opacified glazing

777-447: A figure which scholars have nicknamed the "Decapitator"; it is frequently depicted as a spider, but sometimes as a winged creature or a sea monster: together all three features symbolize land, water and air. When the body is included, the figure is usually shown with one arm holding a knife and another holding a severed head by the hair; it has also been depicted as "a human figure with a tiger's mouth and snarling fangs". The "Decapitator"

888-479: A forced draft of air. It is probable that the Moche used a similar method. In fact, archaeologists are aware of several bowls from the Moche culture that depict this process. Many of the Moche metalworking techniques were invented or at least perfected by the Moche themselves, but they owe the invention of some of their most-used techniques at least in part to the influences of the Chavín culture that preceded them. Like

999-527: A group, in a pottery or a ceramic factory with a group designing and manufacturing the artware. In Britain and the United States, modern ceramics as an art took its inspiration in the early twentieth century from the Arts and Crafts movement, leading to the revival of pottery considered as a specifically modern craft. Such crafts emphasized traditional non-industrial production techniques, faithfulness to

1110-583: A head cloth for men and a long tunic for women. Foreigners to the Moche Culture were commonly portrayed wearing Moche clothing that contained details pertaining to both genders or items that were not specific to either. Descendants of Moche people today continue to have strong weaving traditions. The Moche discovered both electrochemical replacement plating and depletion gilding , which they used to cover copper crafts found at Loma Negra in thin layers of gold or silver. Modern attempts were able to recreate

1221-591: A household level of production. However, more monochrome, homogenized relics suggest mass-production may have become more common by 500-800 AD. Variation in garments likely correlates with different social classes. Sophisticated weaving techniques and bright dyes are more common on elites' clothing, whereas commoners may have had garments that were less sophisticated and lacked dye—and they likely had fewer of them. Complex tapestries developed by artisans are another good associated with high social hierarchy. Several specific items also correlate to gender in Moche culture, such as

SECTION 10

#1732772627591

1332-791: A large body of evidence for social stratification. Those lowest in the Moche hierarchy were buried in a simple hole near their household; platform mounds with an abundance of goods were awarded to the highest-ranking members of society. An incomplete list of possible funerary objects includes copper masks, silver, pottery, and gold goods. Presence of metal-worked goods is thought to be especially significant with respect to high status. Excavation of dwellings indicates that living conditions of Moche likely also differed based on social standing, but excavation data here remains skewed and not entirely complete so far. Excavated elite burials also illustrate that remains sexed both male and female held elite positions in Moche culture. There are many theories as to what caused

1443-714: A loss of power. The coloration of Moche pottery is often simple, with yellowish cream and rich red used almost exclusively on elite pieces. White and black are rarely used. The Moche are known for their portraiture pottery . The pottery portraits created by the Moche appear to represent actual individuals. Many of the portraits are of individuals with physical disfigurements or genetic defects. The realistic detail in Moche ceramics may have helped them serve as didactic models. Older generations could pass down general knowledge about reciprocity and embodiment to younger generations through such portrayals. The sex pots could teach about procreation, sexual pleasure, cultural and social norms,

1554-670: A major cause. One of these potters, Yi Sam-pyeong , discovered the raw material of porcelain in Arita and produced first true porcelain in Japan. In the 17th century, conditions in China drove some of its potters into Japan, bringing with them the knowledge to make refined porcelain. From the mid-century, the Dutch East India Company began to import Japanese porcelain into Europe. At this time, Kakiemon wares were produced at

1665-546: A material, "terracotta" also refers to items made out of this material. In archaeology and art history , "terracotta" is often used to describe objects such as statues, and figurines not made on a potter's wheel . A prime example is the Terracotta Army , a collection of man-sized terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang , the first Emperor of China . It is a form of funerary art buried with

1776-718: A medium. Much studio pottery is tableware or cookware but an increasing number of studio potters produce non-functional or sculptural items. Some studio potters now prefer to call themselves ceramic artists, ceramists or simply artists. Studio pottery is represented by potters all over the world. A tile is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic , stone , metal, or even glass , generally used for covering roofs, floors, walls, showers, or other objects such as tabletops. Alternatively, tile can sometimes refer to similar units made from lightweight materials such as perlite , wood , and mineral wool , typically used for wall and ceiling applications. In another sense,

1887-601: A new tradition of Azulejos developed in Spain and especially Portugal , which by the Baroque period produced extremely large painted scenes on tiles, usually in blue and white. Delftware tiles, typically with a painted design covering only one (rather small) tile, were ubiquitous in the Netherlands and widely exported over Northern Europe from the 16th century on. Several 18th-century royal palaces had porcelain rooms with

1998-432: A process of specialization began that led to the development of the Moche civilization. Both iconography and the finds of human skeletons in ritual contexts seem to indicate that human sacrifice played a significant part in Moche religious practices. These rites appear to have involved the elite as key actors in a spectacle of costumed participants, monumental settings and possibly the ritual consumption of blood. The tumi

2109-598: A second is applied, and prior to the scratching or incising decoration. This is particularly useful if the base body is not of the desired colour or texture. In sharp contrast to the archaeological usage, in which the term terra sigillata refers to a whole class of pottery, in contemporary ceramic art, 'terra sigillata' describes only a watery refined slip used to facilitate the burnishing of raw clay surfaces and used to promote carbon smoke effects, in both primitive low temperature firing techniques and unglazed alternative western-style Raku firing techniques. Terra sigillata

2220-428: A short time—during its Early Moche, or Early Moche-Vicús phase—and then developed independently. It appears that there was a lot of independent development among these various Moche centers (except in the eastern regions). They all likely had ruling dynasties of their own, related to each other. Centralized control of the whole Moche area may have taken place from time to time, but appears infrequent. Pampa Grande , in

2331-506: A similar chemical plating process using boiling water and salts found naturally in the area. It is the Moche ceramic tradition that had previously been given the most attention in Archaeology, though this is beginning to change as archaeologists continue to discover ties between iconography on ceramic and other parts of Moche art. Just as important to Moche craftsmanship and culture is metallurgy . The skill required to create these objects

SECTION 20

#1732772627591

2442-455: A smoother surface to a rough body, mask an inferior colour or for decorative effect. Slips or engobes can also be applied by painting techniques, in isolation or in several layers and colours. Sgraffito involves scratching through a layer of coloured slip to reveal a different colour or the base body underneath. Several layers of slip and/or sgraffito can be done while the pot is still in an unfired state. One colour of slip can be fired, before

2553-495: A sort of immortality, the transfer of life and souls, transformation, and the relationship between the two cyclical views of nature and life. Extreme weather and fragility of garments mean that relatively few examples of Moche textiles exist. However, limited quantities have been found in tombs, especially of higher-status members of society. Many of the remaining garments are incomplete articles, partially broken down. Nevertheless, scholars have been able to gain cultural insights from

2664-533: A wealth of metal objects unparalleled with any previous discovery. Most of these objects remained in their original context, allowing researchers to prove beyond reasonable doubt that metal objects were closely intertwined with the power of the Moche elite. The rulers of the Moche were incredibly adept at portraying and perpetuating their power through art, which is well-exemplified by the Moche metallurgy. Moche techniques in metalworking have proved to be an intriguing area of research. Their techniques were likely some of

2775-433: Is anal sex , with scenes of vaginal penetration being very rare. Most pairs are heterosexual, with carefully carved genitalia to show that the anus, rather than the vagina, is being penetrated. Often an infant is depicted breastfeeding while the couple has sex. Fellatio is sometimes represented, but cunnilingus is absent. Some depict male skeletons masturbating, or being masturbated by living women. Because irrigation

2886-402: Is pottery that has not been fired to vitrification and is thus permeable to water. Many types of pottery have been made from it from the earliest times, and until the 18th century it was the most common type of pottery outside the far East. Earthenware is often made from clay, quartz and feldspar . Terracotta , a type of earthenware , is a clay -based unglazed or glazed ceramic , where

2997-410: Is a counterpart to a cast . The very common bi-valve molding process uses two molds, one for each half of the object. Articulated molds have multiple pieces that come together to form the complete mold, and then disassemble to release the finished casting; they are expensive, but necessary when the casting shape has complex overhangs. Piece-molding uses a number of different molds, each creating

3108-439: Is a type of pottery identified by its primary decorating process where slip is placed onto the leather-hard clay body surface before firing by dipping, painting or splashing. Slip is an aqueous suspension of a clay body, which is a mixture of clays and other minerals such as quartz , feldspar and mica . A coating of white or coloured slip, known as an engobe, can be applied to the article to improve its appearance, to give

3219-404: Is also common among samples from this period, though by the 500-800 AD range, these patterns become much less abundant. It is thought that elite members of Moche society had specialized artisans who manufactured their textiles, whereas lower-ranking typical members of society would manufacture their own clothing. Whorls and needles have proven quite common in excavation of Moche dwellings—pointing to

3330-574: Is also used as a brushable decorative colourant medium in higher temperature glazed ceramic techniques. Studio pottery is pottery made by amateur or professional artists or artisans working alone or in small groups, making unique items or short runs. Typically, all stages of manufacture are carried out by the artists themselves. Studio pottery includes functional wares such as tableware , cookware and non-functional wares such as sculpture . Studio potters can be referred to as ceramic artists, ceramists, ceramicists or as an artist who uses clay as

3441-593: Is another northern site in the Jequetepeque valley. It was prominent in the Middle and Late Moche Periods (400–850 AD). Numerous Moche tombs have been excavated here, including several burials containing high status female individuals. These women were depicted in Moche iconography as the Priestess . The best known differences are: Moche pottery is some of the most varied in the world. The use of mold technology

Moche culture - Misplaced Pages Continue

3552-792: Is evident, which would have enabled the mass production of certain forms. But Moche ceramics vary widely in shape and theme, with most important social activities documented in pottery, including war, agriculture, metalwork , weaving , and erotica . Traditional north coast Peruvian ceramic art uses a limited palette, relying primarily on red and white colors, fineline painting, fully modeled clay, veristic figures, and stirrup spouts. Moche ceramics created between 150 and 800 AD epitomize this style. Moche pots have been found not just at major north coast archaeological sites, such as Huaca de la luna, Huaca del sol, and Sipán, but also at small villages and unrecorded burial sites as well. At least 500 Moche ceramics have sexual themes. The most frequently depicted act

3663-406: Is known for its high levels of whiteness and translucency, and very high mechanical strength and chip resistance. Its high strength allows it to be produced in thinner cross-sections than other types of porcelain. Like stoneware it is vitrified , but is translucent due to differing mineral properties. From its initial development and up to the later part of the twentieth century, bone china

3774-559: Is nonporous; it may or may not be glazed. One widely recognised definition is from the Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities, a European industry standard states "Stoneware, which, though dense, impermeable and hard enough to resist scratching by a steel point, differs from porcelain because it is more opaque , and normally only partially vitrified. It may be vitreous or semi-vitreous. It

3885-523: Is now the Russian Far East , providing several from between 20,000 and 10,000 BCE, although the vessels were simple utilitarian objects. Xianrendong Cave in Jiangxi province contained pottery fragments that date back to 20,000 years ago. Recent archaeological excavations at Angkor Borei (in southern Cambodia) have recovered a large number of ceramics, some of which probably date back to

3996-415: Is one of the most arid areas in the world, where there is no rain throughout the year. That factor, far from discouraging the establishment of communities, was the trigger for the construction of an outstanding culture that developed engineering works that interconnected various river valleys, with the aim of irrigating desert territories. Many of the Moche agricultural systems are still in operation, such as

4107-440: Is perhaps some of the finest the world has ever known. The first Moche metalworks entered into the archaeological record were unearthed by Max Uhle at Huaca del Sol and Huaca de Luna during 1899 and 1900, but were largely ignored while Uhle focused on other aspects of the sites. Moche metal work gained attention after Peruvian researcher Rafael Larco Hoyle published Los Mochicas in 1945. Here, he mostly focused on describing

4218-529: Is the art and science of making objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials by the action of heat. It excludes glass and mosaic made from glass tesserae . There is a long history of ceramic art in almost all developed cultures, and often ceramic objects are all the artistic evidence left from vanished cultures, like that of the Nok in Africa over 2,000 years ago. Cultures especially noted for ceramics include

4329-429: Is the process of manufacturing by shaping liquid or pliable raw material using a rigid frame called a mold or matrix. This itself may have been made using a pattern or model of the final object. A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a liquid or pliable material such as plastic , glass , metal , or ceramic raw material. The liquid hardens or sets inside the mold, adopting its shape. A mold

4440-415: Is thought to have figured prominently in the beliefs surrounding the practice of sacrifice. Although it remains somewhat unclear how geographically divided Moche culture was, scholars are very confident that the Moche were a socially divided society. Beyond royalty, the Moche can be divided into a general upper and lower class, and each class can be further stratified into smaller groups. Intra-class movement

4551-790: Is typically marble, onyx, granite or slate. Thinner tiles can be used on walls than on floors, which require more durable surfaces that will resist impacts. A figurine (a diminutive form of the word figure ) is a statuette that represents a human , deity , legendary creature , or animal . Figurines may be realistic or iconic , depending on the skill and intention of the creator. The earliest were made of stone or clay. In ancient Greece, many figurines were made from terracotta (see Greek terracotta figurines ). Modern versions are made of ceramic, metal, glass, wood and plastic. Figurines and miniatures are sometimes used in board games , such as chess , and tabletop role playing games . Old figurines have been used to discount some historical theories, such as

Moche culture - Misplaced Pages Continue

4662-436: Is usually coloured grey or brownish because of impurities in the clay used for its manufacture, and is normally glazed." Porcelain is a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin , in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C (2,200 and 2,600 °F). The toughness, strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery , arises mainly from vitrification and

4773-622: The Chinese , Cretan , Greek , Persian , Mayan , Japanese , and Korean cultures, as well as the modern Western cultures. Elements of ceramic art, upon which different degrees of emphasis have been placed at different times, are the shape of the object, its decoration by painting, carving and other methods, and the glazing found on most ceramics. Different types of clay , when used with different minerals and firing conditions, are used to produce different types of ceramic, including earthenware, stoneware, porcelain and bone china. Earthenware

4884-468: The El Brujo complex, Mocollope, Cerro Mayal, Galindo, Huanchaco , and Pañamarka . Their adobe huacas have been mostly destroyed by looters and natural forces over the last 1,300 years. The surviving ones show that the coloring of their murals was quite vibrant. Two distinct regions of the Moche civilization have been identified, Southern and Northern Moche, with each area probably corresponding to

4995-620: The Linear Pottery culture , Beaker culture , Globular Amphora culture , Corded Ware culture and Funnelbeaker culture , to take examples only from Neolithic Europe (approximately 7000–1800   BCE). Ceramic art has generated many styles from its own tradition, but is often closely related to contemporary sculpture and metalwork. Many times in its history styles from the usually more prestigious and expensive art of metalworking have been copied in ceramics. This can be seen in early Chinese ceramics, such as pottery and ceramic-wares of

5106-761: The Medici porcelain made in Florence . None was successful until a recipe for hard-paste porcelain was devised at the Meissen factory in Dresden in 1710. Within a few years, porcelain factories sprung up at Nymphenburg in Bavaria (1754) and Capodimonte in Naples (1743) and many other places, often financed by a local ruler. The earliest Japanese pottery was made around the 11th millennium BCE. Jōmon ware emerged in

5217-573: The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) have a wider reputation. Chinese emperors gave ceramics as diplomatic gifts on a lavish scale, and the presence of Chinese ceramics no doubt aided the development of related traditions of ceramics in Japan and Korea in particular. Until the 16th century, small quantities of expensive Chinese porcelain were imported into Europe. From the 16th century onwards attempts were made to imitate it in Europe, including soft-paste and

5328-482: The Mingei folk movement led by potters Shoji Hamada , Kawai Kajiro and others. They studied traditional methods in order to preserve native wares that were in danger of disappearing. Modern masters use ancient methods to bring pottery and porcelain to new heights of achievement at Shiga , Iga , Karatsu , Hagi , and Bizen . A few outstanding potters were designated living cultural treasures ( mukei bunkazai 無形文化財). In

5439-491: The Russian Far East , providing several from 20,000 to 10,000   BCE, although the vessels were simple utilitarian objects. Xianrendong Cave in Jiangxi province contained pottery fragments that date back to 20,000 years ago. These early pottery containers were made well before the invention of agriculture , by mobile foragers who hunted and gathered their food during the Late Glacial Maximum. Many of

5550-789: The origins of chess . Tableware is the dishes or dishware used for setting a table, serving food and dining. It includes cutlery , glassware , serving dishes and other useful items for practical as well as decorative purposes. Dishes, bowls and cups may be made of ceramic, while cutlery is typically made from metal, and glassware is often made from glass or other non-ceramic materials. The quality, nature, variety and number of objects varies according to culture, religion, number of diners, cuisine and occasion. For example, Middle Eastern, Indian or Polynesian food culture and cuisine sometimes limits tableware to serving dishes, using bread or leaves as individual plates. Special occasions are usually reflected in higher quality tableware. In addition to being

5661-905: The 13th century BCE. Glazed and coloured bricks were used to make low reliefs in Ancient Mesopotamia , most famously the Ishtar Gate of Babylon ( c.  575   BCE ), now partly reconstructed in Berlin , with sections elsewhere. Mesopotamian craftsmen were imported for the palaces of the Persian Empire such as Persepolis . The tradition continued, and after the Islamic conquest of Persia coloured and often painted glazed bricks or tiles became an important element in Persian architecture , and from there spread to much of

SECTION 50

#1732772627591

5772-507: The 6th millennium BCE and the plainer Yayoi style in about the 4th century BCE. This early pottery was soft earthenware, fired at low temperatures. The potter's wheel and a kiln capable of reaching higher temperatures and firing stoneware appeared in the 3rd or 4th centuries CE, probably brought from China via the Korean peninsula. In the 8th century, official kilns in Japan produced simple, green lead-glazed earthenware . Unglazed stoneware

5883-459: The 9th century. Pottery was produced in Raqqa , Syria , in the 8th century. Other centers for innovative ceramics in the Islamic world were Fustat (near modern Cairo ) from 975 to 1075, Damascus from 1100 to around 1600 and Tabriz from 1470 to 1550. Molding (process) Molding ( American English ) or moulding ( British and Commonwealth English ; see spelling differences )

5994-693: The Ascope aqueduct, the La Cumbre Canal, in Chicama, or the San Jose dam, which continue to provide water, coming from the Andean region and groundwater, guaranteeing several harvests per year. Access to new farmland, gained from the desert, was the starting point of a civilization that, based on abundant harvests, became socially stratified. All this allowed certain members of the community to no longer dedicate themselves exclusively to food production, and

6105-494: The Ica-Nazca because they later mined guano for fertilizer and may have traded with northerners. Moche pottery has been found near Ica, but no Ica-Nazca pottery has been found in Moche territory. The coastal Moche culture also co-existed (or overlapped in time) with the slightly earlier Recuay culture in the highlands. Some Moche iconographic motifs can be traced to Recuay design elements. The Moche also interacted with

6216-777: The Islamic world, notably the İznik pottery of Turkey under the Ottoman Empire in the 16th and 17th centuries. Using the lusterware technology, one of the finest examples of medieval Islamic use of ceramics as wall decoration can be seen in the Mosque of Uqba also known as the Great Mosque of kairouan (in Tunisia ), the upper part of the mihrab wall is adorned with polychrome and monochrome lusterware tiles; dating from 862 to 863, these tiles were most probably imported from Mesopotamia. Transmitted via Islamic Iberia ,

6327-636: The Lambayeque Valley, on the shore of the Chancay River, became one of the largest Moche sites anywhere, and occupied an area of more than 400 hectares. It was prominent in the Moche V period (600–700 AD), and features an abundance of Moche V ceramics. The site was laid out and built in a short period of time and has an enormous ceremonial complex. It includes Huaca Fortaleza , which is the tallest ceremonial platform in Peru. San Jose de Moro

6438-446: The Moche way of life, political hierarchy, and jeopardized their faith in their religion. This super El Niño may have hindered Moche agriculture. Moche agriculture relied considerably on canal-based irrigation from Andes mountain runoff, which a severe drought would have jeopardized. Certain scholars attribute strain on the irrigation systems to sensitive tectonics in the region. Other evidence demonstrates that these events did not cause

6549-413: The Moche's collapse. Several examples of the molds used to shape the low relief sculptures have been discovered, most are made of a solid metal alloy but wood molds were also used. Researchers Christopher B. Donnan and David A. Scott proved how delicate this process of shaping is when they used a cast of one of the copper alloy molds to recreate the process. They found one of the most important parts of

6660-591: The Shang dynasty, in Ancient Roman and Iranian pottery, and Rococo European styles, copying contemporary silverware shapes. A common use of ceramics is for "pots" - containers such as bowls, vases and amphorae , as well as other tableware, but figurines have been very widely made. The earliest evidence of glazed brick is the discovery of glazed bricks in the Elamite Temple at Chogha Zanbil , dated to

6771-680: The UK and around the world. Fine china is not necessarily bone china, and is a term used to refer to ware which does not contain bone ash. China painting, or porcelain painting is the decoration of glazed porcelain objects such as plates, bowls, vases or statues. The body of the object may be hard-paste porcelain , developed in China in the 7th or 8th century, or soft-paste porcelain (often bone china ), developed in 18th-century Europe. The broader term ceramic painting includes painted decoration on lead-glazed earthenware such as creamware or tin-glazed pottery such as maiolica or faience . Typically

SECTION 60

#1732772627591

6882-665: The Warrior Priest tomb at the Huaca de la Cruz site one year later also encouraged further study. The same would happen when burial grounds at the site now known as Loma Negra in the Piura Valley were unearthed by looters finding a wealth of gold, silver, and copper objects along with ceramic vessels. An important discovery in the context of Moche metallurgy was the discovery of the Tombs of Sipán in 1986. These burials included

6993-616: The artifact had been looted in the late 1980s from an elite tomb at the Moche site of La Mina. It was returned to Peru in 2006. Ceramics (art) Ceramic art is art made from ceramic materials, including clay . It may take varied forms, including artistic pottery , including tableware , tiles , figurines and other sculpture . As one of the plastic arts , ceramic art is a visual art . While some ceramics are considered fine art , such as pottery or sculpture, most are considered to be decorative , industrial or applied art objects. Ceramic art can be created by one person or by

7104-492: The artists of Chavín, they mostly used alloys that contained some combination of gold, silver, or copper that they had developed. While Moche art as a whole is very much independent of the Chavín style, many recurring motifs found across Moche art, including the metalwork, also seem to have their roots in Chavín culture. Moche art continues the tradition of anthropomorphic figures as well as characters with prominent fangs, although

7215-547: The beginning of the 11th century and brown-glazed wares have been found in abundance at Khmer sites in northeast Thailand. Decorating pottery with animal forms was a popular style from the 11th to 13th century. Archaeological excavations in the Angkor region have revealed that towards the end of Angkor period production of indigenous pottery declined while there was a dramatic increase in Chinese ceramic imports. Direct evidence of

7326-458: The body is first fired in a kiln to convert it into a hard porous biscuit . Underglaze decoration may then be applied, followed by ceramic glaze , which is fired so it bonds to the body. The glazed porcelain may then be decorated with overglaze painting and fired again at a lower temperature to bond the paint with the glaze. Decoration may be applied by brush or by stenciling , transfer printing , lithography and screen printing . Slipware

7437-483: The demise of the Moche political structure. Some scholars have emphasized the role of environmental change. Studies of ice cores drilled from glaciers in the Andes reveal climatic events between 563 and 594 AD, possibly a super El Niño , that resulted in 30 years of intense rain and flooding followed by 30 years of drought, part of the aftermath of the climate changes of 535–536 . These weather events could have disrupted

7548-784: The development of the first interpretations of Moche culture, ranking the Moche as being "high on the list of advanced societies" as a civilization. He listed traits of the Moche culture such as "exquisite artworks" and the "creation of large scale facilities and public works" as a testament to this ranking. Arguably the most significant event which shaped Moche archaeological research was the Virú Valley Project, beginning in 1946 and led by Willian Duncan Strong and Wendell Bennett. Their stratigraphic excavations in Virú showed an earlier ceramic style known as Gallinazo, which appeared to have “abruptly ended”. In 1987, archaeologists, alerted by

7659-679: The emergence of the Moche culture in Early Moche (100–300 AD), the expansion and flourishing during Middle Moche (300–600 AD), and the urban nucleation and subsequent collapse in Late Moche (500–800 AD). The Salinar culture reigned on the north coast of Peru from 200 BC–200 AD. According to some scholars, this was a short transition period between the Cupisnique and the Moche cultures. There are considerable parallels between Moche and Cupisnique iconography and ceramic designs, including

7770-607: The emperor in 210–209   BCE and whose purpose was to protect the emperor in his afterlife. French sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse made many terracotta pieces, but possibly the most famous is The Abduction of Hippodameia depicting the Greek mythological scene of a centaur kidnapping Hippodameia on her wedding day. American architect Louis Sullivan is well known for his elaborate glazed terracotta ornamentation, designs that would have been impossible to execute in any other medium. Terracotta and tile were used extensively in

7881-591: The factories of Arita , which had much in common with the Chinese Famille Verte style. The superb quality of its enamel decoration was highly prized in the West and widely imitated by the major European porcelain manufacturers. In 1971 it was declared an important "intangible cultural treasure" by the Japanese government . In the 20th century, interest in the art of the village potter was revived by

7992-526: The fangs are usually less pronounced than Chavín art and not present quite as often. That is not to say that the Moche did not leave their own mark on the Anden society. Many of the techniques developed by the Moche, especially their electroplating and gilding techniques used to make copper alloys appear to be almost internally gold or silver, would continue to be used up until the Inca conquest hundreds of years after

8103-427: The fired body is porous. Its uses include vessels (notably flower pots ), water and waste water pipes, bricks, and surface embellishment in building construction . Terracotta has been a common medium for ceramic art ( see below ). Stoneware is a vitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic made primarily from stoneware clay or non- refractory fire clay. Stoneware is fired at high temperatures. Vitrified or not, it

8214-552: The first true porcelain was made in the province of Zhejiang in China during the Eastern Han period. Shards recovered from archaeological Eastern Han kiln sites estimated firing temperature ranged from 1,260 to 1,300 °C (2,300 to 2,370 °F). As far back as 1000 BCE, the so-called "porcelaneous wares" or "proto-porcelain wares" were made using at least some kaolin fired at high temperatures. The dividing line between

8325-535: The formation of the mineral mullite within the body at these high temperatures. Properties associated with porcelain include low permeability and elasticity ; considerable strength , hardness , toughness , whiteness , translucency and resonance ; and a high resistance to chemical attack and thermal shock . Porcelain has been described as being "completely vitrified, hard, impermeable (even before glazing), white or artificially coloured, translucent (except when of considerable thickness), and resonant". However,

8436-488: The iconography of the 'Spider god'. The Moche cultural sphere is centered on several valleys on the north coast of Peru in regions La Libertad , Lambayeque , Jequetepeque , Chicama , Moche , Virú , Chao , Santa , and Nepena. It occupied 250 miles of desert coastline and up to 50 miles inland. The Huaca del Sol , a pyramidal adobe structure on the Rio Moche, was the largest pre-Columbian structure in Peru. It

8547-409: The large flared headdresses and brilliantly decorated nose ornaments often found in connection with the Moche elite. Despite having no formal training in archaeology, Larco Hoyle was the first to truly attempt a systematic reconstruction of the Moche by drawing on information from excavations, art, iconography, Spanish documents, and modern traditions. The discovery of bronze and gold artifacts buried in

8658-714: The late Eastern Han period (100–200   CE), the Three Kingdoms period (220–280   CE), the Six Dynasties period (220–589   CE), and thereafter. China in particular has had a continuous history of large-scale production, with the Imperial factories usually producing the best work. The Tang dynasty (618 to 906   CE) is especially noted for grave goods figures of humans, animals and model houses, boats and other goods, excavated (usually illegally) from graves in large numbers. Some experts believe

8769-514: The local police, discovered the first intact Moche tomb at Sipán in northern Peru. Inside the tomb, which was carbon dated to about 300 AD, the archaeologists found the mummified remains of a high ranking male, the Lord of Sipán . Also in the tomb were the remains of six other individuals, several animals, and a large variety of ornamental and functional items, many of which were made of gold, silver, and other valuable materials. Continuing excavations of

8880-610: The material, the skills of the individual maker, attention to utility, and an absence of excessive decoration that was typical to the Victorian era. The word "ceramics" comes from the Greek keramikos (κεραμεικός), meaning "pottery", which in turn comes from keramos (κέραμος) meaning "potter's clay". Most traditional ceramic products were made from clay (or clay mixed with other materials), shaped and subjected to heat, and tableware and decorative ceramics are generally still made this way. In modern ceramic engineering usage, ceramics

8991-438: The materials are not found on the Moche coast. Lapis Lazuli was available only from modern Chile hundreds of miles to the south and Spondulus shells had to be acquired from modern Ecuador to the north. This makes it clear that the Moche must have had extensive trade networks, and likely contact with other cultures. Also notable in this context is the fact that many of the animals accurately depicted in Moche artwork are found only in

9102-399: The metal or the use of interlocking tabs and slits in the two parts, but soldering and edged-wielding were also used. Finishing touches could also be added with embossing, punching and chasing along with embedding other precious materials. Stones such as lapis lazuli , turquoise, spondylus shells, and others have all been found embedded in Moche metal works. It is worth noting that several of

9213-516: The modern Western cultures. There is evidence that pottery was independently invented in several regions of the world, including East Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Near East, and the Americas. Although pottery figurines are found from earlier periods in Europe, the oldest pottery vessels come from East Asia, with finds in China and Japan, then still linked by a land bridge, and some in what is now

9324-501: The most advanced in the world during the time of the Moche; restoration has proven difficult to many present-day metalworkers. Craftspeople perfected a wide variety of metalworking techniques. When they invaded in the sixteenth century, Spanish conquistadors took note of the highly skilled metalwork the Inca were able to produce. Unlike European metalworkers, the Inca blew through long tubes to heat coals, rather than using bellows to create

9435-599: The neighbouring Virú culture . Eventually, by 700 CE, they had established control over the Viru. In 1899 and 1900, Max Uhle was the first archaeologist to excavate a Moche site, Huaca de la Luna, which is where the architectural complex that is known as Huacas de Moche (Pyramids of Moche) is located in the Moche Valley. The name of this architectural complex is where the name of the Moche site and culture came from. Excavations in 1938 and 1939 by Rafael Larco Hoyle saw

9546-539: The old capital of Kyoto , the Raku family continued to produce the rough tea bowls that had so delighted connoisseurs. At Mino , potters continued to reconstruct the classic formulas of Momoyama-era Seto-type tea wares of Mino, such as Oribe ware . By the 1990s many master potters worked away from ancient kilns and made classic wares in all parts of Japan. Korean pottery has had a continuous tradition since simple earthenware from about 8000 BCE. Styles have generally been

9657-658: The pottery fragments had scorch marks, suggesting that the pottery was used for cooking. Many remarkable containers were made from stone before the invention of pottery in Western Asia (which occurred around 7,000 BC), and before the invention of agriculture . The Natufian culture created elegant stone mortars during the period between 12,000 and 9,500 BC. Around 8000 BC, several early settlements became experts in crafting beautiful and highly sophisticated containers from stone, using materials such as alabaster or granite , and employing sand to shape and polish. Artisans used

9768-547: The prehistoric period. Most of the pottery, however, dates to the pre-Angkorian period and consists mainly of pinkish terracotta pots which were either hand-made or thrown on a wheel, and then decorated with incised patterns. Glazed wares first appear in the archaeological record at the end of the 9th century at the Roluos temple group in the Angkor region, where green-glazed pot shards have been found. A brown glaze became popular at

9879-399: The process is the thickness of the sheet metal. Too thick and it will fail to capture the details of the mold and prove too difficult to shape, but too thin and the metal would winkle and tear. They found 0.4mm to be the ideal thickness although the repeated hammering thinned the sheet down to 0.25mm, in addition to hammering repeated annealing was also required. Analysis of the items found at

9990-437: The remaining Moche textiles. The Moche wove textiles, mostly using cotton and wool from vicuña and alpaca . The relative presence of these fabrics, as well as which patterns were used, varies chronologically throughout Moche culture. Too few relics exist from early Moche culture to draw conclusive findings. Textiles from around 450 AD uniquely include a male head cloth—which is not readily found elsewhere. Twill and gauze weaving

10101-569: The result of climatic changes, as factions fought for control over increasingly scarce resources. Chronologically, the Moche was an Early Intermediate Period culture, which was preceded by the Chavín horizon , as well as the Cupisnique, and succeeded by the Huari and Chimú . The Moche co-existed with the Ica-Nazca culture in the south. They are thought to have had some limited contact with

10212-460: The shapes of vessels is provided by scenes depicted on bas-reliefs at Khmer temples, which also offer insight into domestic and ritualistic uses of the wares. The wide range of utilitarian shapes suggest the Khmers used ceramics in their daily life for cooking, food preservation, carrying and storing liquids, as containers for medicinal herbs, perfumes and cosmetics. There is Chinese porcelain from

10323-669: The site have yielded thirteen additional tombs. In 2005, a mummified Moche woman known as the Lady of Cao was discovered at the Huaca Cao Viejo, part of the El Brujo archaeological site on the outskirts of present-day Trujillo, Peru . It is the best preserved Moche mummy found to date; the elaborate tomb that housed her had unprecedented decoration. Archaeologists believe that the tomb had been undisturbed since approximately 450 AD. The tomb contained military and ornamental artifacts, including war clubs and spear throwers. The remains of

10434-453: The skeletons of young men deliberately excarnated , perhaps for temple displays. The Moche may have also held and tortured the victims for several weeks before sacrificing them, with the intent of deliberately drawing blood. Verano believes that some parts of the victim may have been eaten as well in ritual cannibalism. The sacrifices may have been associated with rites of ancestral renewal and agricultural fertility. Moche iconography features

10545-529: The small, almost mosaic, brightly coloured zellige tiles of Morocco . With exceptions, notably the Porcelain Tower of Nanjing , tiles or glazed bricks do not feature largely in East Asian ceramics. Although pottery figurines are found from earlier periods in Europe, the oldest pottery vessels come from East Asia, with finds in China and Japan, then still linked by a land bridge, and some in what

10656-524: The term porcelain lacks a universal definition and has "been applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds which have only certain surface-qualities in common". Bone china is a type of soft-paste porcelain that is composed of bone ash , feldspathic material , and kaolin . It has been defined as ware with a translucent body containing a minimum of 30% of phosphate derived from animal bone and calculated calcium phosphate. Developed by English potter Josiah Spode , bone china

10767-400: The tombs of Sipan has found that the Moche were able to maintain an almost completely uniform thickness between 1 and about 0.1 millimeters depending on the object. When this was completed several other techniques could be used to finish the piece. Oftentimes other pieces were attached, sometimes with the intention of being moving parts of the work. More often than not this was done by crimping

10878-417: The town buildings of Victorian Birmingham , England. There is a long history of ceramic art in almost all developed cultures, and often ceramic objects are all the artistic evidence left from vanished cultures, like that of the Nok in Africa over 3,000 years ago. Cultures especially noted for ceramics include the Chinese , Cretan , Greek , Persian , Mayan , Japanese , and Korean cultures, as well as

10989-559: The tropical Amazon. Researchers of the Moche culture agree that the emergence of the Moche culture is related to the intensification of the production of corn, cotton, beans and squash, among other agricultural products, which allowed the development of a regional Moche political economy in the Valley of Moche from the north coast of Peru during the Early Intermediate Period (400 BC–600 AD). The northern region of Peru

11100-528: The two and true porcelain wares is not a clear one. Archaeological finds have pushed the dates to as early as the Han dynasty (206–BCE – 220   CE). The Imperial porcelain of the Song dynasty (960–1279), featuring very subtle decoration shallowly carved by knife in the clay, is regarded by many authorities as the peak of Chinese ceramics , though the large and more exuberantly painted ceramics of

11211-503: The veins in the material to maximize visual effect. Such object have been found in abundance on the upper Euphrates river , in what is today eastern Syria, especially at the site of Bouqras . These form the early stages of the development of the Art of Mesopotamia . Early pots were made by what is known as the "coiling" method, which worked the clay into a long string that wound to form a shape that later made smooth walls. The potter's wheel

11322-525: The walls entirely covered in porcelain. Surviving examples include ones at Capodimonte , Naples, the Royal Palace of Madrid and the nearby Royal Palace of Aranjuez . Elaborate cocklestoves were a feature of rooms of the middle and upper-classes in Northern Europe from the 17th to 19th centuries. There are several other types of traditional tiles that remain in manufacture, for example,

11433-491: Was a crescent-shaped metal knife used in sacrifices. While some scholars, such as Christopher B. Donnan and Izumi Shimada , argue that the sacrificial victims were the losers of ritual battles among local elites, others, such as John Verano and Richard Sutter , suggest that the sacrificial victims were warriors captured in territorial battles between the Moche and other nearby societies. Excavations in plazas near Moche huacas have found groups of people sacrificed together and

11544-468: Was almost exclusively an English product, with production being effectively localised in Stoke-on-Trent . Most major English firms made or still make it, including Mintons , Coalport , Spode , Royal Crown Derby , Royal Doulton , Wedgwood and Worcester . In the UK, references to "china" or "porcelain" can refer to bone china, and "English porcelain" has been used as a term for it, both in

11655-513: Was developed by the Islamic potters, the first examples found as blue-painted ware in Basra , dating from about the 8th century. The Islamic world had contact with China, and increasingly adapted many Chinese decorative motifs. Persian wares gradually relaxed Islamic restrictions on figurative ornament, and painted figuratives scenes became very important. Stoneware was also an important craft in Islamic pottery, produced throughout Iraq and Syria by

11766-465: Was for members of the elite, such as priests and priestesses, to use ceremonies to reinforce their standing (see the Religion section for more information on ceremonies). It may also be true that physical force was used. The Moche elite may have struggled to retain power at times, and inter-elite quarreling is speculated to have played into the culture's collapse. Excavated Moche burial sites constitute

11877-415: Was partly destroyed when Spanish Conquistadors looted its graves for gold in the 16th century. The nearby Huaca de la Luna is better preserved, with many of its interior walls still filled with many colorful murals and complex iconography. The site has been under professional archaeological excavation since the early 1990s. Other major Moche sites include Sipán , Loma Negra, Dos Cabezas, Pacatnamu ,

11988-554: Was possible within these broad categories, but inter-class switches between them were less feasible. Many pre-contact cultures share a divided structure comparable to the Moche—but each may have unique development. Although religion seems to have been a centripetal force for the Moche, members of the elite class likely used it to reinforce their status. Other ideological, economic, political, and social factors may have also been leveraged to similar ends. A common approach to maintaining power

12099-639: Was probably invented in Mesopotamia by the 4th millennium BCE, but spread across nearly all Eurasia and much of Africa, though it remained unknown in the New World until the arrival of Europeans. Decoration of the clay by incising and painting is found very widely, and was initially geometric, but often included figurative designs from very early on. So important is pottery to the archaeology of prehistoric cultures that many are known by names taken from their distinctive, and often very fine, pottery, such as

12210-529: Was the source of wealth and foundation of the empire, the Moche culture emphasized the importance of circulation and flow. Expanding upon this, Moche artwork frequently depicted the passage of fluids, particularly life fluids through vulnerable human orifices. There are countless images of defeated warriors losing life fluids through their nose, or helpless victims getting their eyes torn out by birds or captors. Images of captive sex-slaves with gaping orifices and leaking fluids portray extreme exposure, humiliation, and

12321-423: Was used as funerary jars, storage jars and kitchen pots up to the 17th century. Some of the kilns improved their methods and are known as the “Six Old Kilns”. From the 11th to the 16th century, Japan imported much porcelain from China and some from Korea. The Japanese overlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi 's attempts to conquer China in the 1590s were dubbed the "Ceramic Wars"; the emigration of Korean potters appeared to be

#590409