103-606: The Czech Realist Party officially Czech Progressive Party founded as Czech People's Party (also known as " Realists ") was founded in 1900 by Tomáš Masaryk , Karel Kramář and Josef Kaizl . It attempted to reform the Czech Government and establish a democracy in response to the Hilsner affair . Following the Hilsner affair, Masaryk became a key point of controversy and ultimately he felt that he needed to break from
206-572: A central government established usually through coercion (on the model of the Roman Empire ). An empire often includes self-governing regions, but these will possess autonomy only at the sufferance of the central government. On the other hand, a political entity that is an empire in name, may comprise several partly autonomous kingdoms organised together in a federation, with the empire being ruled over by an emperor or senior king ( great king , high king , king of kings ...). One example of this
309-404: A federal state ) is an entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a federal government ( federalism ). In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision, neither by
412-505: A stronger central government than the US in the wake of the Civil War of the latter, use the term "Confederation" to refer to the formation or joining, not the structure, of Canada. Legal reforms, court rulings, and political compromises have decentralized Canada in practice since its formation in 1867. An empire is a multi-ethnic state, multinational state , or a group of nations with
515-583: A Czech magazine. Hardships during the World War I took their toll, and she died in 1923. Their son, Jan , was a Czechoslovak ambassador in London, foreign minister in the Czechoslovak government-in-exile (1940–1945) and in the governments from 1945 to 1948. They had four other children: Herbert, Alice , Eleanor, and Olga. Born and raised a Catholic , Masaryk later became a Protestant ; first joining
618-647: A Czechoslovak state. With the fall of Austria-Hungary in late 1918, the First Czechoslovak Republic received recognition from the Allied powers and Masaryk was recognised as head of its provisional government. He was formally elected president in November, and was reelected three times subsequently. Masaryk presided over a period of stability as Czechoslovakia emerged as a strong democratic state. He resigned from office in 1935 due to old age, and
721-567: A July 1924 gathering of 120 global labour experts (of which 60 were from the United States ), organized with Masaryk Academy of Labour. After the rise of Adolf Hitler , Masaryk was one of the first political figures in Europe to voice concern. Masaryk resigned from office on 14 December 1935, because of old age and poor health, and was succeeded by Edvard Beneš . Masaryk (b. 07 March 1850) died less than two years after leaving office, at
824-633: A State (1927). Karel Čapek wrote a series of articles, Hovory s T.G.M. ("Conversations with T.G.M."), which were later collected as Masaryk's autobiography . Masaryk married Charlotte Garrigue in 1878, and took her family name as his middle name. They met in Leipzig , Germany, and became engaged in 1877. Garrigue was born in Brooklyn to a Protestant family with French Huguenots among their ancestors. She became fluent in Czech and published articles in
927-450: A broad definition of a basic federalism , there are two or more levels of government that exist within an established territory and govern through common institutions with overlapping or shared powers as prescribed by a constitution. The federal government is the government at the level of the sovereign state. Usual responsibilities of this level of government are maintaining national security and exercising international diplomacy, including
1030-536: A bust was erected in 2002 on Zakhysnykiv Ukrainy Square (former Druzhby Narodiv Square) in Uzhhorod , Ukraine. Avenida Presidente Masaryk (President Masaryk Avenue) is a main thoroughfare in the exclusive Polanco neighbourhood of Mexico City . In 1999 the city of Prague donated a statue of Masaryk to Mexico City, one of the two originals made when the statue for the Prague Castle was being prepared for
1133-616: A deputy of the Austrian Reichsrat , serving from 1891 to 1893 and from 1907 to 1914. He was an advocate of restructuring the Austro-Hungarian Empire into a federal state , but by the outbreak of the First World War , he had become a supporter of Czech and Slovak independence. He went into exile, and travelled around Europe to organise and promote the Czechoslovak cause. He played a pivotal role in
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#17327654921791236-426: A federation is Malaysia , in which Sarawak and Sabah agreed to form the federation on different terms and conditions from the states of Peninsular Malaysia . A federation often emerges from an initial agreement between several separate states. The purpose can be the will to solve mutual problems and to provide for mutual defense or to create a nation-state for an ethnicity spread over several states. The former
1339-475: A federation to be brought into being by agreement between a number of formally independent states, in a unitary state self-governing regions are often created through a process of devolution, where a formerly centralized state agrees to grant autonomy to a region that was previously entirely subordinate. Thus, federations are often established voluntarily from "below" whereas devolution grants self-government from "above". A confederation , in modern political terms,
1442-531: A figure of interest to sociology and philosophy, especially within Czechoslovakia, where his significance has been analysed in depth by philosophers such as Jan Patočka (1991 monograph), Milan Machovec (1968 monograph) and others. As the founding father of Czechoslovakia, Masaryk remains revered by Czechs and Slovaks. Masaryk University in Brno , founded in 1919 as Czechoslovakia's second university,
1545-470: A free, open democracy but also a unified republic state for Czechs and Slovaks. He worked alongside Edvard Beneš to establish the goal of a unified state, and would eventually go on to be the first president of Czechoslovakia. The Realist Party wanted equality in the workplace for women, as well as universal suffrage. It sought for the legitimate establishment of democracy as a political power in Czechoslovakia. The Young Czech Party, which eventually merged with
1648-542: A large area of territory (such as Russia , the United States , Canada , India , Brazil , Pakistan or Australia ), but neither is necessarily the case (such as Saint Kitts and Nevis or the Federated States of Micronesia ). About 40% of world population live in a federation. Several ancient chiefdoms and kingdoms, such as the 4th-century-BCE League of Corinth , Noricum in Central Europe , and
1751-688: A leading Russian historian and one of the leaders of the Kadet Party, to introduce him to various members of Russian high society. In early 1916, the Czechs and Slovaks in Russian service were reorganized as the First Czecho-Slovak Rifle Regiment. In a rare attempt to influence public opinion, Masaryk opened up an office on Piccadilly Circus in London whose exterior was covered with pro-Czechoslovak slogans and maps with
1854-575: A main thoroughfare in Ljubljana is named after Masaryk. Streets named Thomas Masaryk can be found in Geneva and Bucharest . Asteroid 1841 Masaryk , discovered by Luboš Kohoutek , is named after him. He received awards and decorations before and after World War I. Masaryk's motto was "Fear not, and steal not" ( Czech : Nebát se a nekrást ). A philosopher and an outspoken rationalist and humanist , he emphasised practical ethics reflecting
1957-512: A somewhat limited role; the framers of the constitution intended to create a parliamentary system in which the prime minister and cabinet held actual power. However, a complex system of proportional representation made it all but impossible for one party to win a majority. Usually, ten or more parties received the 2.6 per cent of votes needed for seats in the National Assembly. With so many parties represented, no party even approached
2060-773: A student in Leipzig, on 15 March 1878. They lived in Vienna until 1881, when they moved to Prague . Masaryk was appointed professor of philosophy at the Czech Charles-Ferdinand University, the Czech-language part of Charles University , in 1882. He founded Athenaeum , a magazine devoted to Czech culture and science, the following year. Athenaeum , edited by Jan Otto, was first published on 15 October 1883. Masaryk's students included Edward Benes and Emanuel Chalupny. Masaryk challenged
2163-576: A symbol of Czech nationalism. There were founded "The Masaryk Academy of Labour", for the scientific study of scientific management too, with the Masaryk's supporting in Prague in 1918 and Masaryk University in Brno . Masaryk visited France, Belgium, England, Egypt and the Mandate for Palestine in 1923 and 1927. With Herbert Hoover , he sponsored the first Prague International Management Congress,
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#17327654921792266-588: Is an important challenge. The inability to meet this challenge may lead to the secession of parts of a federation or to civil war, as occurred in the United States (southern states sought to protect the institution of slavery while northern states opposed it, with a catalysis occurring in the then– Kansas Territory ), in Nigeria and in Switzerland . In the case of Malaysia , Singapore was expelled from
2369-630: Is another nation-state that has switched between confederal, federal and unitary rules, since the German Confederation was founded in 1815. The North German Confederation , the succeeding German Empire and the Weimar Republic were federations. Founded in 1922, the Soviet Union was formally a federation of Soviet republics , autonomous republics and other federal subjects, though in practice highly centralized under
2472-820: Is commemorated by a number of statues, busts, plaques, coins and postage stamps. Although most are in or of the Czech Republic and Slovakia , Masaryk has a statue on Embassy Row in Washington, D.C. , and in the Midway Plaisance park in Chicago and is memorialized in San Francisco 's Golden Gate Park rose garden . A plaque with a portrait of Masaryk is on the wall of a hotel in Rakhiv, Ukraine , where he reportedly resided from 1917 to 1918, and
2575-651: Is divided into three traditional chiefdoms: Uvea , Sigave , and Alo . The chiefdoms are allowed to have their own legal system which have to be implemented along with French legal system . Under the terms of the Fomboni Accords, signed in December 2001 by the leaders of all three islands, the official name of the country was changed to the Union of the Comoros ; the new state was to be highly decentralised and
2678-425: Is more than a mere loose alliance of independent states. The component states of a federation usually possess no powers in relation to foreign policy and so enjoy no independent status under international law . However, German Länder have that power, which is beginning to be exercised on a European level. Some federations are called asymmetric because some states have more autonomy than others. An example of such
2781-407: Is sometimes one with only a single, centralized, national tier of government. However, unitary states often also include one or more self-governing regions. The difference between a federation and this kind of unitary state is that in a unitary state the autonomous status of self-governing regions exists by the sufferance of the central government, and may be unilaterally revoked. While it is common for
2884-542: Is suggested as one possible de facto federation as it grants more self-government to its autonomous communities than are retained by the constituent entities of most federations. For the Spanish parliament to revoke the autonomy of regions such as Galicia , Catalonia or the Basque Country would be a political near-impossibility, though nothing bars it legally. The Spanish parliament has, however, suspended
2987-454: Is therefore not a de jure federation, although some academic observers conclude that after 50 years of institutional evolution since the Treaties of Rome it is becoming one. The European Union possesses attributes of a federal state. However, its central government is far weaker than that of most federations and the individual members are sovereign states under international law, so it
3090-473: Is usually characterized as an unprecedented form of supra-national union. The EU has responsibility for important areas such as trade, monetary union, agriculture, and fisheries. Nonetheless, EU member states retain the right to act independently in matters of foreign policy and defense, and also enjoy a near-monopoly over other major policy areas such as criminal justice and taxation. Since the Treaty of Lisbon ,
3193-558: Is usually limited to a permanent union of sovereign states for common action in relation to other states. The closest entity in the world to a confederation at this time is the European Union . While the word confederation was officially used when the Canadian federal system was established in 1867, the term refers only to the process and not the resulting state since Canadian provinces are not sovereign and do not claim to be. In
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3296-773: The Crown Dependencies of the Isle of Man and the bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey in the Channel Islands and the United Kingdom is very similar to a federate relation: the Islands enjoy independence from the United Kingdom, which, via The Crown, takes care of their foreign relations and defense – although the UK Parliament does have overall power to legislate for the dependencies. However,
3399-769: The Institut d'études slaves of the Sorbonne on " Les Slaves parmi les nations " ("The Slavs Among the Nations"), receiving what was described as a "vigorous applause". During the war, Masaryk's intelligence network of Czech revolutionaries provided critical intelligence to the allies. His European network worked with an American counterespionage network of nearly 80 members, headed by Emanuel Viktor Voska (including G. W. Williams ). Voska and his network, who (as Habsburg subjects) were presumed to be German supporters, spied on German and Austrian diplomats. Among other achievements,
3502-649: The Iroquois Confederacy in pre-Columbian North America , could be described as federations or confederations . The Old Swiss Confederacy was an early example of formal non-unitary statehood. Several colonies and dominions in the New World consisted of autonomous provinces, transformed into federal states upon independence such as the United States , and various countries in Latin America (see Spanish American wars of independence ). Some of
3605-611: The Reformed Church in Austria and later the Evangelical Church of Czech Brethren in 1918 upon Czechoslovak independence, but he was mostly non-practising and rarely attended religious services. His conversion was influenced by the 1870 declaration of papal infallibility and by his wife Charlotte, who was raised as a Unitarian . Federal state List of forms of government A federation (also called
3708-605: The Russian Empire , the United States and Japan . Masaryk began organizing Czechs and Slovaks outside Austria-Hungary during his exile, establishing contacts which would be crucial to Czechoslovak independence. He delivered lectures and wrote several articles and memoranda supporting the Czechoslovak cause. Masaryk was pivotal in establishing the Czechoslovak Legion in Russia as an effective fighting force on
3811-486: The United States Constitution having become effective on 4 March 1789, the United States is the oldest surviving federation, while the newest federation is Nepal , after its constitution went into effect on 20 September 2015. The component states are in some sense sovereign, insofar as certain powers are reserved to them that may not be exercised by the central government. However, a federation
3914-818: The Young Czechs and the Old Czechs . This led to the creation of the Czech Realist Party. Tomáš Masaryk was a key figure in the creation of the Czech Realist Party. He believed in a liberal democracy and his beliefs got him voted into the Bohemian Diet and Reichsrat (Austrian Parliament) in 1891. However, his time in politics was short lived and he resigned in 1893 after martial law was imposed in Prague when protests broke out in 1893. Although he gained support through his time in office, his role in
4017-594: The government of the Soviet Union . The Russian Federation has inherited a similar system. India , Pakistan , Nigeria and Malaysia (then Federation of Malaya ) became federations on or shortly before becoming independent from the British Empire . In some recent cases, federations have been instituted as a measure to handle ethnic conflict within a state, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina , and Iraq since 2005 as well as Somalia since 2012 . With
4120-563: The "F" word in the EU context should feel free to refer to it as a quasi-federal or federal-like system. Nevertheless, for the purposes of the analysis here, the EU has the necessary attributes of a federal system. It is striking that while many scholars of the EU continue to resist analyzing it as a federation, most contemporary students of federalism view the EU as a federal system. ( See, for instance, Bednar, Filippov et al., McKay, Kelemen, Defigueido and Weingast ) A more nuanced view has been given by
4223-476: The "federal nature of Spain's government (a trend that almost no one denies)." Each autonomous community is governed by a Statute of Autonomy ( Estatuto de Autonomía ) under the Spanish Constitution of 1978 . Although South Africa bears some elements of a federal system, such as the allocation of certain powers to provinces, some nevertheless argue that it is functionally a unitary state. On
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4326-473: The 150th anniversary of his birth. The community of Masaryktown, Florida , founded by Slovaks and Czechs, is named after him. In Israel, Masaryk is considered an important figure and a national friend. A village was named after him - Kibbutz Kfar Masaryk near Haifa, which was largely founded by Jewish immigrants from Czechoslovakia. One of the main squares in Tel Aviv is Masaryk Square (he had visited
4429-436: The 151 seats needed for a majority; indeed, no party ever won more than 25 per cent of the vote. These factors resulted in frequent changes of government; Masaryk's tenure saw ten cabinets headed by nine statesmen. Under the circumstances, Masaryk's presence gave Czechoslovakia a large measure of stability. This stability, combined with his domestic and international prestige, gave Masaryk's presidency more power and influence than
4532-677: The 1970s. Moreover, although nominally called a federal state, the country's structure already has a number of confederational traits . At present, there is a growing movement to transform the existing federal state into a looser confederation with two or three constitutive states and/or two special regions. A confederation is most likely to feature three differences when contrasted with a federation: (1) No real direct powers: many confederal decisions are externalized by member-state legislation; (2) Decisions on day-to-day-matters are not taken by simple majority but by special majorities or even by consensus or unanimity (veto for every member); (3) Changes of
4635-552: The Allied side during World War I, when he held a Serbian passport. In 1915 he was one of the first staff members of the School of Slavonic and East European Studies (now part of University College London ), where the student society and senior common room are named after him. Masaryk became professor of Slavic Research at King's College London , lecturing on the problem of small nations. Supported by Norman Hapgood T. G. Masaryk wrote
4738-732: The Austrian empire. After the 1917 February Revolution he proceeded to Russia to help organize the Czechoslovak Legion , a group dedicated to Slavic resistance to the Austrians. Miliukov became the new Russian foreign minister in the Provisional government, and proved very sympathetic towards the idea of creating Czechoslovakia. After the Czechoslovak troops' performance in July 1917 at the Battle of Zborov (when they overran Austrian trenches),
4841-649: The Chicago meeting on 8 October 1918, Chicago industrialist Samuel Insull introduced him as the president of the future Czechoslovak Republic de facto and mentioned his legions. On 18 October 1918 he submitted to president Thomas Woodrow Wilson "Washington Declaration" ( Czechoslovak declaration of independence ) created with the help of Masaryk American friends ( Louis Brandeis , Ira Bennett, Gutzon Borglum , Franklin K. Lane , Edward House, Herbert Adolphus Miller , Charles W. Nichols , Robert M. Calfee , Frank E. J. Warrick , George W. Stearn and Czech Jaroslav Císař ) as
4944-803: The German Constitutional Court. Here the EU is defined as 'an association of sovereign national states ( Staatenverbund )'. With this view, the European Union resembles more of a confederation . Constitutionally, the power vested in the special administrative regions of the People's Republic is granted from the Central People's Government , through a decision by the National People's Congress . However, there have been certain largely informal grants of power to
5047-443: The Hilsner Affair had a much larger effect on his role in creating the Czech Realist Party. The Hilsner affair became a focal point of controversy in Czech history in 1899 and 1900, and this affair ultimately led to Masaryk’s creation of the Czech Realist Party. Leopold Hilsner, a Jewish vagrant, was accused of murdering Anežka Hrůzová, a Czech Catholic girl, even though there was little substantial evidence proving his guilt. Much of
5150-579: The Member States' right to leave the Union is codified, and the Union operates with more qualified majority voting (rather than unanimity) in many areas. By the signature of this Treaty, the participating Parties give proof of their determination to create the first supranational institution and that thus they are laying the true foundation of an organized Europe. This Europe remains open to all nations. We profoundly hope that other nations will join us in our common endeavor. Europe has charted its own brand of constitutional federalism. Those uncomfortable using
5253-461: The New World federations failed; the Federal Republic of Central America broke up into independent states less than 20 years after its founding. Others, such as Argentina , have shifted between federal, confederal , and unitary systems, before settling into federalism. Brazil became a federation only after the fall of the monarchy , and Venezuela became a federation after the Federal War . Australia and Canada are also federations. Germany
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#17327654921795356-539: The Realist Party, was founded in 1848 and as such it was founded on nationalist ideologies, which continued through in the Realist Party. This nationalist attitude is demonstrated through the movement for a unified Czech and Slovakian state. However, Masaryk has also been accused of showing slight totalitarian leanings, as he believed that one interpretation of history and vision of the future should be imposed. Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1 Masaryk Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk (7 March 1850 – 14 September 1937)
5459-477: The Russian High Command authorized the formation of a battalion recruited from Czechs and Slovaks in Russia. The unit went to the front in October 1914 and was attached to the Russian Third Army. From its start, Masaryk wanted to develop the legion from a battalion to a formidable military formation. To do so, however, he realized that he would need to recruit Czech and Slovak prisoners of war (POWs) in Russian camps. In late 1914, Russian military authorities permitted
5562-435: The Russian provisional government granted Masaryk and the Czechoslovak National Council permission to recruit and mobilize Czech and Slovak volunteers from the POW camps. Later that summer a fourth regiment was added to the brigade, which was renamed the First Division of the Czechoslovak Corps in Russia (Československý sbor na Rusi, also known as the Czechoslovak Legion – Československá legie). A second division of four regiments
5665-531: The Tenth Amendment contained in the Bill of Rights and the Eleventh Amendment. However, later amendments, particularly the Fourteenth Amendment, gave the federal government considerable authority over states. Federal government within this structure are the government ministries and departments and agencies to which the ministers of government are assigned. There are 26 federations in the world, with 6 each in Asia and Europe , 5 in Africa , 4 in North America , 3 in South America and 2 in Oceania . Some of
5768-445: The United Kingdom, because, in a devolved state, the central government can revoke the independence of the subunits (the Scottish Parliament , the Welsh Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly in the case of the United Kingdom) without changing the constitution. In some cases, such as the autonomous communities of Spain , devolution has led to federation in all but name, or "federation without federalism". The relation between
5871-439: The University of Chicago and introduced to the highest political circles (including Wilson). Except for president Wilson and the secretary of the state Robert Lansing this was Ray Stannard Baker , W. Phillips, Polk, Long, Lane, D. F. Houston, William Wiseman , Harry Pratt Judson and the French ambassador Jean Jules Jusserand . And Bernard Baruch , Vance McCormick, Edward N. Hurley , Samuel M. Vauclain, Colonel House too. At
5974-439: The Young Czechs and the Old Czechs which led to his break from them. Masaryk collaborated with Karel Kramář and a few others in creating the Czech Realist Party which relatively soon after its creation merged with members of the Radical Progressive Party. The party became known as the Radical Progressive Party in 1905 but its members were still viewed as realists. The Czech Realist Party was led by Thomas Masaryk who wanted not only
6077-418: The age of 87, in Lány on 14 September 1937. He was buried next to his wife in a plot at Lány cemetery, where later the remains of Jan Masaryk and Alice Masaryková were laid to rest. Masaryk did not live to see the Munich Agreement or the Nazi occupation of his country, and was known as the Grand (Great) Old Man of Europe. Masaryk's unique combination of intellectual and political authority has made him
6180-428: The autonomy of Catalonia in response to the Catalan declaration of independence , in the lead-up to the 2017 Catalan election . Additionally, some autonomies such as Navarre or the Basque Country have full control over taxation and spending, transferring a payment to the central government for the common services (military, foreign relations, macroeconomic policy). For example, scholar Enrique Guillén López discusses
6283-415: The autonomy of a self-governing region, it may be politically difficult for it to do so in practice. The self-governing regions of some unitary states also often enjoy greater autonomy than those of some federations. For these reasons, it is sometimes argued that some modern unitary states are de facto federations. De facto federations, or quasi-federations, are often termed " regional states ". Spain
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#17327654921796386-455: The basic document for the foundation of a new independent Czechoslovak state. Speaking on 26 October 1918 as head of the Mid-European Union in Philadelphia, Masaryk called for the independence of Czechoslovaks and the other oppressed peoples of central Europe. T.G. Masaryk's heroic defence of the Jewish defendant in the Hilsner Trial left a lasting mark on him and led to a deep interest in Jewish thought, Zionism and interreligious relations. At
6489-409: The case of Switzerland , while the country is still known officially as the Swiss Confederation, this is now a misnomer since the Swiss cantons lost their sovereign status in 1848. In Belgium, however, the opposite movement is underway. Belgium was founded as a centralized state, after the French model, but has gradually been reformed into a federal state by consecutive constitutional reforms since
6592-417: The central union government would devolve most powers to the new island governments, each led by a president. Certain forms of political and constitutional dispute are common to federations. One issue is that the exact division of power and responsibility between federal and regional governments is often a source of controversy. Often, as is the case with the United States , such conflicts are resolved through
6695-411: The city in 1927). In Haifa , one of the junctions in the city was named after him as well. Many cities in Israel named streets after his name, including Jerusalem , Petach Tikva , Netanya , Nahariya and others. A Masaryk forest was planted in the Western Galilee. Streets in Zagreb , Belgrade , Dubrovnik , Daruvar , Varaždin , Novi Sad , Smederevo and Split are named Masarykova ulica, and
6798-522: The component states nor the federal political body without constitutional amendment. Sovereign power is formally divided between a central authority and a number of constituent regions so that each region retains some degree of control over its internal affairs. Overriding powers of a central authority theoretically can include: the constitutional authority to suspend a constituent state's government by invoking gross mismanagement or civil unrest, or to adopt national legislation that overrides or infringes on
6901-496: The constituent states' powers by invoking the central government's constitutional authority to ensure "peace and good government" or to implement obligations contracted under an international treaty. The governmental or constitutional structure found in a federation is considered to be federalist , or to be an example of federalism . It can be considered in comparison with the unitary state . France and Japan , for example, have been unitary for many centuries. The Austrian Empire
7004-429: The constitution, usually a treaty, require unanimity. Over time these terms acquired distinct connotations leading to the present difference in definition. An example of this is the United States under the Articles of Confederation . The Articles established a national government under what today would be defined as a federal system (albeit with a comparatively weaker federal government). However, Canadians, designed with
7107-461: The entire jurisdiction is relatively homogeneous, and each constituent state resembles a miniature version of the whole; this is known as 'congruent federalism'. On the other hand, incongruent federalism exists where different states or regions possess distinct ethnic groups. The ability of a federal government to create national institutions that can mediate differences that arise because of linguistic, ethnic, religious, or other regional differences
7210-414: The establishment of the Czechoslovak Legion , which fought against the Central Powers during the war. In 1918, Masaryk, along with his protégés Edvard Beneš and Milan Rastislav Štefánik , travelled to the United States to obtain support from President Woodrow Wilson and Secretary of State Robert Lansing . Their negotiations resulted in the Washington Declaration , which proclaimed the independence of
7313-604: The estate, she met Masárik and they married on 15 August 1849. After grammar school in Brno and Vienna from 1865 to 1872, Masaryk attended the University of Vienna and was a student of Franz Brentano . He received his Ph.D. from the university in 1876 and completed his habilitation thesis, Der Selbstmord als soziale Massenerscheinung der modernen Civilisation ( Suicide as a Social Mass Phenomenon of Modern Civilization ), there in 1879. From 1876 to 1879, Masaryk studied in Leipzig with Wilhelm Wundt and Edmund Husserl . He married Charlotte Garrigue , whom he had met while
7416-542: The federal and the unitary state during its history. Some present-day states of the Brazilian federation retain borders set during the Portuguese colonization (before the very existence of the Brazilian state), whereas the latest state, Tocantins , was created by the 1988 Constitution for chiefly administrative reasons. Seven of the top eight largest countries by area are governed as federations. A unitary state
7519-802: The federation because of rising racial tension. In some cases, internal conflict may lead a federation to collapse entirely, as occurred the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland , the Gran Colombia , the United Provinces of Central America , and the West Indies Federation . The federal government is the common government of a national or supranational federation. A federal government may have distinct powers at various levels authorized or delegated to it by its member states. The structure of federal governments varies. Based on
7622-514: The first memorandum to president Wilson , concerning to independence of the Czechoslovak state, here in January 1917. During World War I and afterwards, Masaryk supported the unification of Kingdom of Serbia and Kingdom of Montenegro . Masaryk championed feminist causes, being influenced by his wife Charlotte Garrigue . Masaryk's progressive ideas strongly influenced Washington Declaration of Czechoslovak Independence. On 5 August 1914,
7725-570: The framers of the constitution intended. He used his authority in Czechoslovakia to create the Hrad (the Castle), an extensive, informal political network. Under Masaryk's watch, Czechoslovakia became the strongest democracy in Central Europe. Masaryk's status as a Protestant leading a mainly Catholic nation led to criticism, as did his promotion of the 15th-century proto-Protestant Jan Hus as
7828-602: The inaugural address at the newly opened School of Slavonic Studies at King's College London on "The Problem of Small Nations in the European Crisis", arguing that on both moral and practical grounds that the United Kingdom should support the independence efforts of "small" nations such as the Czechs. Shortly afterwards, Masaryk crossed the English Channel to go to Paris, where he delivered a speech in French at
7931-511: The influence of Anglo-Saxon philosophers, French philosophy and—in particular—the work of 18th-century German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder , who is considered the founder of nationalism. Masaryk was critical of German idealism and Marxism . He wrote several books in Czech, including The Czech Question (1895), The Problems of Small Nations in the European Crisis (1915), The New Europe (1917), and The World Revolution ( Svĕtová revoluce ; 1925) translated into English as The Making of
8034-663: The initiator of the European Community system, wrote that a transnational Community like the founding of the European Coal and Steel Community lay midway between an association of States where they retained complete independence and a federation leading to a fusion of States in a super-state . The Founding Fathers of the European Union wrote the Europe Declaration (Charter of the Community) at
8137-614: The intelligence from these networks was critical in uncovering the Hindu–German Conspiracy in San Francisco . Masaryk began teaching at London University in October 1915. He published "Racial Problems in Hungary", with ideas about Czechoslovak independence. In 1916, Masaryk went to France to convince the French government of the necessity of dismantling Austria-Hungary. He consulted with his friend professor Pavel Miliukov ,
8240-466: The intention of attracting the interest of those walking by. One of Masaryk's most important British friends was the journalist Wickham Steed who wrote articles in the newspapers urging British support for Czechoslovakia. Another important British contract for Masaryk was the historian Robert Seton-Watson , who also wrote widely in the British press urging British support for the "submerged" nations of
8343-793: The islands are neither an incorporated part of the United Kingdom nor are they considered to be independent or associated states. The islands do not have a monarch, per se ; rather in the Isle of Man the British Monarch is, ex officio , Lord of Mann , and in the Bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey, the British Monarch rules as the Duke of Normandy . Dependent territories , such as the British overseas territories , are vested with varying degrees of power; some enjoy considerable independence from
8446-403: The judicial system, which delimits the powers of federal and local governments. The relationship between federal and local courts varies from nation to nation and can be a controversial and complex issue in itself. Another common issue in federal systems is the conflict between regional and national interests, or between the interests and aspirations of different ethnic groups. In some federations
8549-634: The legion to enlist Czech and Slovak POWs from the Austro-Hungarian army; the order was rescinded in a few weeks, however, because of opposition from other areas of the Russian government. Despite continuing efforts to persuade the Russian authorities to change their minds, the Czechs and Slovaks were officially barred from recruiting POWs until the summer of 1917. Under these conditions, the Czechoslovak armed unit in Russia grew slowly from 1914 to 1917. Masaryk preferred to concentrate on elites rather than public opinion. On 19 October 1915, Masaryk gave
8652-581: The nationalist press began to portray the murder as a ritual killing in order to create anti-Semitic feeling throughout the country. Masaryk believed he should defend Hilsner so that he could demonstrate his own personal beliefs. His defense led Emperor Francis Joseph to change Hilsner’s sentence from execution to lifelong imprisonment. After Masaryk led to the lessening of Hilsner’s sentence, many Czech nationalists denounced Masaryk’s choice to defend Hilsner and his belief that ethics applied to both nationalism and personal behavior. Masaryk became more critical of both
8755-447: The other hand, if federation is defined as the constitutional entrenchment of the powers of subcentral units (provinces, etc.) that is not unilaterally changeable or revocable by the central authority, South Africa does qualify, formally, as a federal state. The European Union (EU) is a sui generis political union or confederation (the assemblage of societies or an association of two or more states into one state). Robert Schuman ,
8858-571: The provinces, to handle economic affairs and implement national policies, resulting in a system some have termed federalism " with Chinese characteristics ". Constitutionally a unitary state , the political system in Myanmar bears many elements of federalism. Each administrative division has its own cabinets and chief ministers, making it more like a federation rather than a unitary state. The French overseas collectivity Wallis and Futuna maintains some quasi-federation attributes. The territory
8961-674: The results of ignorance, and that provided that one undertook a proper "scientific" approach to studying the underlying causes it would be possible to devise the correct solutions. As such, Masaryk saw his role as an educator who would enlighten the public from its ignorance and apathy. Masaryk served in the Reichsrat from 1891 to 1893 with the Young Czech Party and from 1907 to 1914 in the Czech Progressive Party , which he had founded in 1900. At that time, he
9064-491: The right to sign binding treaties. Basically, a modern federal government, within the limits defined by its constitution, has the power to make laws for the whole country, unlike local governments. As originally written, the United States Constitution was created to limit the federal government from exerting power over the states by enumerating only specific powers. It was further limited by the addition of
9167-539: The same time, according to Czech historian Jan Láníček , Masaryk believed that Jews had a "great influence on newspapers in all the Allied countries", and helped the nascent state of Czechoslovakia during its struggle for independence. With the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, the Allies recognized Masaryk as head of the provisional Czechoslovak government. On 14 November of that year, he
9270-410: The sovereign state, which only takes care of their foreign relations and defense. However, they are neither considered to be part of it nor recognized as sovereign or associated states. The distinction between a federation and a unitary state is often quite ambiguous. A unitary state may closely resemble a federation in structure and, while a central government may possess the theoretical right to revoke
9373-531: The streets to welcome him; Chicago was the centre of Czechoslovak immigration to the United States, and the city's reception echoed his earlier visits to the city and his visiting professorship at the University of Chicago in 1902 (Masaryk had lectured at the university in 1902 and 1907). He also had strong links to the United States, with his marriage to an American citizen and his friendship with Chicago industrialist Charles R. Crane , who had Masaryk invited to
9476-607: The time of the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 18 April 1951 saying that Europe should be organized on a transnational foundation. They envisaged a structure quite different from a federation called the European Political Community . The EU is a three-pillar structure of the original supranational European Economic Community and the nuclear energy cooperation and non-proliferation treaty, Euratom , plus two largely intergovernmental pillars dealing with External Affairs and Justice and Home Affairs. The EU
9579-608: The validity of the epic poems Rukopisy královedvorský a zelenohorský , supposedly dating to the early Middle Ages and presenting a false, nationalistic Czech chauvinism to which he was strongly opposed. He also contested the Jewish blood libel during the 1899 Hilsner trial . Masaryk was greatly influenced by the 19th-century cult of science. The 19th century was an age of tremendous scientific and technological advances, and as such scientists enjoyed immense prestige. Masaryk believed that social problems and political conflicts were
9682-515: The village of Čejkovice , in South Moravia , before moving to Brno to study. His father, Jozef Masárik, was Slovak, born in Kopčany , Slovakia . Jozef Masárik was a carter and, later, the steward and coachman at the imperial estate in the nearby town of Hodonín. Tomáš's mother, Teresie Masaryková (née Kropáčková), was a Moravian of Slavic origin who received a German education. A cook at
9785-649: Was elected president of Czechoslovakia by the National Assembly in Prague while he was in New York. On 22 December, Masaryk publicly denounced the Germans in Czechoslovakia as settlers and colonists. Masaryk was re-elected three times: in May 1920 , 1927 , and 1934 . Normally, a president was limited to two consecutive terms by the 1920 constitution , but a one-time provision allowed the first president–Masaryk–to run for an unlimited number of terms. On paper, Masaryk had
9888-662: Was a Czechoslovak statesman, progressive political activist and philosopher who served as the first president of Czechoslovakia from 1918 to 1935. He is regarded as the founding father of Czechoslovakia . Born in Hodonín , Moravia (then part of the Austrian Empire ), Masaryk obtained a doctorate at the University of Vienna and was a professor of philosophy at the Czech Charles-Ferdinand University . He began his political career as
9991-574: Was a unitary state with crown lands , after the transformation into the Austria-Hungary monarchy the remaining crown lands of so-called Cisleithania became federated as Länder of the Republic of Austria through the implementation of its constitution . Germany , with its 16 states, or Länder , and Nigeria , with its 36 states and federal capital territory , are examples of federations. Federations are often multi-ethnic and cover
10094-506: Was added to the legion in October 1917, raising its strength to about 40,000 by 1918. Masaryk formed a good connection with Russian supreme commanders, Mikhail Alekseyev , Aleksei Brusilov , Nikolay Dukhonin and Mikhail Diterikhs , in Mogilev , from May 1917. Masaryk travelled to the United States in 1918, where he convinced President Woodrow Wilson of the righteousness of his cause. On 5 May 1918, over 150,000 Chicagoans filled
10197-547: Was named after him when it was founded; after 30 years as Univerzita Jana Evangelisty Purkyně v Brně, it was renamed for Masaryk in 1990. Commemorations of Masaryk have been held annually in the Lány cemetery on his birthday and day of death (7 March and 14 September) since 1989. The Czechoslovak, then Czech Order of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk , established in 1990, is an honour awarded to individuals who have made outstanding contributions to humanity, democracy and human rights. He
10300-740: Was not yet campaigning for Czech and Slovak independence from Austria-Hungary. Masaryk helped Hinko Hinković defend the Croat-Serb Coalition during their 1909 Vienna political trial ; its members were sentenced to a total of over 150 years in prison, with a number of death sentences. When the World War I broke out in 1914, Masaryk concluded that the best course was to seek independence for Czechs and Slovaks from Austria-Hungary. He went into exile in December 1914 with his daughter, Olga, staying in several places in Western Europe,
10403-519: Was succeeded by Beneš. He retired to the village of Lány and died two years later at the age of 87. Masaryk was born to a poor, working-class family in the predominantly Catholic city of Hodonín , Margraviate of Moravia , in Moravian Slovakia (in the present-day Czech Republic , then part of the Austrian Empire ). The nearby Slovak village of Kopčany , the home of his father Jozef, also claims to be his birthplace. Masaryk grew up in
10506-499: Was the German Empire (1871–1918). A federacy is a unitary state that incorporates one or more self-governing autonomous areas . It is distinguished from a federation in that the constitutional structure of the state is still unitary, but incorporates federalist principles. Some federacies, notably Åland , were established through international treaty . A federation differs from a devolved state , such as Indonesia and
10609-510: Was the case with the United States and Switzerland. However, as the histories of countries and nations vary, the federalist system of a state can be quite different from these models. Australia, for instance, is unique in that it came into existence as a nation by the democratic vote of the citizens of each state, who voted "yes" in referendums to adopt the Australian Constitution . Brazil, on the other hand, has experienced both
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