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128-536: The Hawker Siddeley Harrier is a British jet-powered attack aircraft designed and produced by the British aerospace company Hawker Siddeley . It was the first operational ground attack and reconnaissance aircraft with vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) capabilities and the only truly successful V/STOL design of its era. It was the first of the Harrier series of aircraft, being developed directly from

256-533: A high accident rate , though Nordeen notes that several conventional single-engine strike aircraft like the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk and LTV A-7 Corsair II had worse accident rates. The Los Angeles Times reported in 2003 that the Harrier "...has amassed the highest major accident rate of any military plane now in service. Forty-five Marines have died in 148 noncombat accidents". Colonel Lee Buland of

384-603: A 102mm anti-ship cannon, The BK 7,5 was unsurpassed as an aircraft-fitted gun until 1971, when the four-engine Lockheed AC-130 E Spectre; equipped with a 105 mm M102 howitzer , entered service with the US Air Force.) In the immediate post war era the piston-engined ground-attack aircraft remained useful since all of the early jets lacked endurance due to the fuel consumption rates of the jet engines. The higher powered piston engine types that had been too late for World War II were still capable of holding their own against

512-450: A battlefield, their slower speeds made them extremely vulnerable to ground fire, as did the lighter construction of fighters. The survivability of attack aircraft was guaranteed by their speed/power, protection (i.e. armor panels) and strength of construction; Germany was the first country to produce dedicated ground-attack aircraft (designated CL-class and J-class ). They were put into use in autumn 1917, during World War I. Most notable

640-605: A class of Schlacht ("battle") aircraft, such as the Henschel Hs 123 . Moreover, the experiences of German Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War , against an enemy with few fighter aircraft, changed ideas about ground attack. Though equipped with generally unsuitable designs such as the Henschel Hs 123 and cannon -armed versions of the Heinkel He 112 , their armament and pilots proved that aircraft were

768-526: A conventional deterrent and potential strike weapon against Soviet aggression; from camouflaged rough bases the Harrier was expected to launch attacks on advancing armour columns from East Germany . Harriers were also deployed to bases in Norway and Belize , a former British colony. No. 1 Squadron was specifically earmarked for Norwegian operations in the event of war, operating as part of Allied Forces Northern Europe . The Harrier's capabilities were necessary in

896-648: A direct jet thrust, the P.1127 had an innovative vectored thrust turbofan engine , the Pegasus . The Pegasus I was rated at 9,000 pounds (40 kN) of thrust and first ran in September 1959. A contract for two development prototypes was signed in June 1960 and the first flight followed in October 1960. Of the six prototypes built, three crashed, including one during an air display at the 1963 Paris Air Show . In 1961,

1024-486: A formal joint US–UK Pegasus Support Program operated for many years and spent a £3-million annual budget to develop engine improvements. Several variants have been released; the latest is the Pegasus 11–61 ( Mk 107), which provides 23,800 lbf (106 kN) thrust, more than any previous engine. The Harrier has been described by pilots as "unforgiving". The aircraft is capable of both forward flight (where it behaves in

1152-418: A ground attack aircraft, though its manoeuvrability also allows it to effectively engage other aircraft at short ranges. The Harrier is powered by a single Pegasus turbofan engine mounted in the fuselage. The engine is fitted with two air intakes and four vectoring nozzles for directing the thrust generated: two for the bypass flow and two for the jet exhaust. Several small reaction nozzles are also fitted, in

1280-617: A high accident rate and for a time-consuming maintenance process. In the 1970s, the British Aerospace Sea Harrier was developed from the Harrier for use by the Royal Navy (RN) on Invincible -class aircraft carriers . Both the Sea Harrier and the Harrier fought in the 1982 Falklands War , in which the aircraft proved to be crucial and versatile. The RN Sea Harriers provided fixed-wing air defence while

1408-604: A high altitude bomber escort, but gradually found that role filled by the North American P-51 Mustang (because of its much longer range and greater maneuverability). The P-47 was also heavier and more robust than the P-51 and regarded therefore, as an " energy fighter ": ideal for high-speed dive-and-climb tactics, including strafing attacks. Its armament of eight 0.50 caliber machine guns was effective against Axis infantry and light vehicles in both Europe and

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1536-404: A lack of Air Force enthusiasm for the ground-attack role, developed the dedicated attack helicopter . On 17 January 1991, Task Force Normandy began its attack on two Iraqi anti-aircraft missile sites. TF Normandy, under the command of LTC Richard A. "Dick" Cody , consisted of nine AH-64 Apaches , one UH-60 Black Hawk and four Air Force MH-53J Pave Low helicopters. The purpose of this mission

1664-675: A light aircraft mixing all the roles that required extensive communication with land forces: reconnaissance, liaison, artillery spotting , aerial supply, and, last but not least, occasional strikes on the battlefield. The concept was similar to front-line aircraft used in the World War I, which was called the CL class in the German Empire. Eventually the RAF's experience showed types such as Westland Lysander to be unacceptably vulnerable and it

1792-722: A light attack aircraft. The Soviets' similar Sukhoi Su-25 ( Frogfoot ) found success in the "flying artillery" role with many air forces. The UK has completely retired the BAE Harrier II in 2011, and the Panavia Tornado dedicated attack-reconnaissance aircraft in 2019. It obtained the F-35 in 2018 and it retains its fleet of Eurofighter Typhoon multirole fighters. [REDACTED] Media related to Attack aircraft at Wikimedia Commons Gordon Lewis (engineer) Gordon Manns Lewis (24 June 1924 – 4 October 2010)

1920-476: A more modern V/STOL jet aircraft. Like the next generation AV-8Bs, nevertheless, the AV-8A/C Harriers suffered many accidents, with around 40 aircraft lost and some 30 pilots killed during the 1970s and 1980s. Due to the Harrier's unique characteristics it attracted a large amount of interest from other nations, often as attempts to make their own V/STOL jets were unsuccessful, such as in the cases of

2048-537: A nose-mounted laser tracker, the integration of electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems and a further upgraded Pegasus Mk 103. The USMC upgraded their AV-8As to the AV-8C configuration; this programme involved the installation of ECM equipment and adding a new inertial navigation system to the aircraft's avionics. Substantial changes were the Lift Improvement Devices, to increase VTOL performance; at

2176-438: A purchase. The last first-generation Harriers were retired by Thailand in 2006. Attack aircraft Fighter aircraft often carry out the attack role, although they would not be considered attack aircraft per se ; fighter-bomber conversions of those same aircraft would be considered part of the class. Strike fighters , which have effectively replaced the fighter-bomber and light bomber concepts, also differ little from

2304-410: A separate attack aircraft category was greatly diminished by the introduction of precision-guided munitions which allowed almost any aircraft to carry out this role while remaining safe at high altitude. Attack helicopters also have overtaken many remaining roles that could only be carried out at lower altitudes. Since the 1960s, only two dedicated attack aircraft designs have been widely introduced,

2432-740: A significant interest in the aircraft around the time the first RAF Harrier squadron was established in 1969, and this motivated Hawker Siddeley to further develop the aircraft to encourage a purchase. Although there were concerns in Congress about multiple coinciding projects in the close air support role, the Marine Corps were enthusiastic about the Harrier and managed to overcome efforts to obstruct its procurement. The Marine Corps accepted its first AV-8A on 6 January 1971, at Dunsfold Aerodrome, England and began testing it at Naval Air Station Patuxent River on 26 January. The AV-8A entered service with

2560-639: A task of converted trainers, like the BAE Systems Hawk or Aero L-39 Albatros , and many trainers are built with this task in mind, like the CASA C-101 or the Aermacchi MB-339 . Such counter-insurgency aircraft are popular with air forces which cannot afford to purchase more expensive multirole aircraft, or do not wish to risk the few such aircraft they have on light ground attack missions. A proliferation of low intensity conflicts in

2688-483: A very effective weapon, even without bombs. This led to some support within the Luftwaffe for the creation of an aircraft dedicated to this role, resulting in tenders for a new "attack aircraft". This led to the introduction (in 1942) of a unique single-seat, twin-engine attack aircraft, the slow-moving but heavily armored and formidably armed Henschel Hs 129 Panzerknacker ("Safecracker" /"Tank Cracker"). In Japan,

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2816-609: Is a dog-fighting tactic, allowing for more sudden braking and higher turn rates. Braking could cause a chasing aircraft to overshoot and present itself as a target for the Harrier it was chasing, a combat technique formally developed by the USMC for the Harrier in the early 1970s. The two largest users of the Harrier were the Royal Air Force and the United States Marine Corps (USMC). The exported model of

2944-459: Is achieved by manipulating the control stick and is similar in action to the cyclic control of a helicopter. While irrelevant during forward flight mode, these controls are essential during VTOL and STOL manoeuvres. The wind direction is a critical factor in VTOL manoeuvres. The procedure for vertical takeoff involves facing the aircraft into the wind. The thrust vector is set to 90° and the throttle

3072-411: Is brought up to maximum, at which point the aircraft leaves the ground. The throttle is trimmed until a hover state is achieved at the desired altitude. The short-takeoff procedure involves proceeding with normal takeoff and then applying a thrust vector (less than 90°) at a runway speed below normal takeoff speed; usually the point of application is around 65 knots (120 km/h). For lower takeoff speeds

3200-426: Is considered an attack mission . In United States Navy vocabulary, the alternative designation for the same activity is a strike mission . Attack missions are principally divided into two categories: air interdiction and close air support . In the last several decades, the rise of the ubiquitous multi-role fighter has created some confusion about the difference between attack and fighter aircraft. According to

3328-704: The Daily Mail Transatlantic Air Race in May 1969, flying between St Pancras railway station , London and central Manhattan with the use of aerial refuelling. The Harrier completed the journey in 6 hours 11 minutes. Two Harrier squadrons were established in 1970 at the RAF's air base in Wildenrath to be part of its air force in Germany ; another squadron was formed there two years later. In 1977, these three squadrons were moved forward to

3456-639: The Belize deployment , as it was the only RAF combat aircraft capable of safely operating from the airport's short runway; British forces had been stationed in Belize for several years due to tensions over a Guatemalan claim to Belizean territory; the forces were withdrawn in 1993, two years after Guatemala recognized the independence of Belize. In the Falklands War ( Spanish : Guerra de las Malvinas ) in 1982, 10 Harrier GR.3s of No. 1 Squadron operated from

3584-710: The F-111 "Aardvark" was designated F despite having only minimal air-to-air capabilities. Only a single aircraft in the USAF's current inventory bears a simple, unmixed "A" designation: the A-10 Thunderbolt II. British designations have included FB for fighter-bomber and more recently "G" for "Ground-attack" as in Harrier GR1 (meaning "Ground-attack/Reconnaissance, Mark 1"). Imperial Japanese Navy designation use "B" to designate carrier attack bomber such as

3712-803: The Hawker Siddeley Kestrel prototype aircraft following the cancellation of a more advanced supersonic aircraft, the Hawker Siddeley P.1154 . In the mid 1960s, the Harrier GR.1 and GR.3 variants were ordered by the British government for the Royal Air Force (RAF). The Harrier GR.1 made its first flight on 28 December 1967, and entered RAF service in April 1969. During the 1970s, the United States opted to procure

3840-442: The Henschel Hs 123 ). Although not a synonymous class with ground-attack aircraft, fighter-bombers were usually used for the role, and proved to excel at it, even when they were only lightly armored. The Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces relegated obsolescent fighters to this role, while cutting-edge fighters would serve as interceptors and establish air superiority . The United States Navy , in distinction to

3968-619: The House Appropriations Committee held that it would be cheaper to produce the AV-8A on the pre-existing production lines in the United Kingdom—hence all AV-8A Harriers were purchased from Hawker Siddeley. Improved Harrier versions with better sensors and more powerful engines were developed in later years. The USMC received 102 AV-8A and 8 TAV-8A Harriers between 1971 and 1976. The Harrier was typically used as

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4096-835: The Imperial Japanese Navy had developed the Aichi D3A dive bomber (based on the Heinkel He 70 ) and the Mitsubishi B5M light attack bomber. Both, like their US counterparts, were lightly armored types, and were critically reliant on surprise attacks and the absence of significant fighter or AA opposition. During the Winter War , the Soviet Air Forces used the Polikarpov R-5 SSS, and Polikarpov R-Z Sh, as attack aircraft. Perhaps

4224-791: The Junkers Ju 87 Stuka greatly outnumbered the Hs 129, while the Petlyakov Pe-2 was used for this role in spite of not being specifically designed for it. In the latter part of World War II, the fighter-bomber began to take over many attack roles, a transition that continued in the post-war era. Jet -powered examples were relatively rare but not unknown, such as the Blackburn Buccaneer . The U.S. Navy continued to introduce new aircraft in their A - series , but these were mostly similar to light and medium bombers . The need for

4352-1017: The Nakajima B5N Type-97 bomber although these aircraft are mostly used for torpedo attack and level bombing. They also use "D" to specifically designate carrier dive bomber like the Yokosuka D4Y Suisei . However by the end of the world war II, the IJN introduced the Aichi B7A Ryusei which could performed both torpedo bombing and dive bombing rendering the "D" designation redundant. The NATO reporting names for Soviet/Russian ground-attack aircraft at first started with "B" categorizing them as bombers, as in case of Il-10 'Beast'. But later they were usually classified as fighters ("F")—possibly because (since Sukhoi Su-7 ) they were similar in size and visual appearance to Soviet fighters, or were simply derivatives of such. In

4480-608: The North American B-25G Mitchell and de Havilland Mosquito Tsetse . In Germany and the USSR , where they were known as Schlachtflugzeug ("battle aircraft") or sturmovik ("storm trooper") respectively, this role was carried out by purpose-designed and heavily armored aircraft such as the Henschel Hs 129 and Ilyushin Il-2 . The Germans and Soviets also used light bombers in this role: cannon-armed versions of

4608-667: The PLAAF , ground-attack aircraft are given the designation "Q". So far this has only been given to the Nanchang Q-5 . The attack aircraft as a role was defined by its use during World War I , in support of ground forces on battlefields. Battlefield support is generally divided into close air support and battlefield air interdiction, the first requiring strict and the latter only general cooperation with friendly surface forces. Such aircraft also attacked targets in rear areas. Such missions required flying where light anti-aircraft fire

4736-721: The Pacific . While machine guns and cannon were initially sufficient, the evolution of well-armored tanks required heavier weapons. To augment bombs, high explosive rockets were introduced, although these unguided projectiles were still "barely adequate" because of their inaccuracy. For the British RP3 , one hit per sortie was considered acceptable. However, even a near miss with rockets could cause damage or injuries to "soft targets," and patrols by Allied rocket-armed aircraft over Normandy disrupted or even completely paralyzed German road traffic. They also affected morale, because even

4864-783: The Theseus engine . In 1946 he was entrusted with the design of the Olympus engine , which performed flawlessly on its very first test bed run, largely as a result of the discipline that Gordon Lewis brought to its design. [See Pegasus The Heart of the Harrier, by Andrew Dow.] The Olympus was later developed to power the Avro Vulcan , TSR-2 and Concorde . He was given responsibility for compressor design generally, and among other projects worked on transonic compressors, this being well ahead of equivalent work in America. He also examined

4992-543: The United States occupation of Haiti and Nicaragua . The United States Army Air Corps was notable for its creation of a separate "A-" designation for attack types, distinct from and alongside "B-" for bomber types and "P-" for pursuit (later replaced by "F-" for fighter) aircraft. The first designated attack type to be operational with the USAAC was the Curtiss A-2 Falcon . Nevertheless, such aircraft, including

5120-564: The carrier-based nuclear strike Douglas A-3 Skywarrior and North American A-5 Vigilante , while the Grumman A-6 Intruder , F-105 Thunderchief , F-111 , F-117 Nighthawk , LTV A-7 Corsair II , Sukhoi Su-25 , A-10 Thunderbolt II , Panavia Tornado , AMX , Dassault Étendard , Super Étendard and others were designed specifically for ground-attack, strike , close support and anti-armor work, with little or no air-to-air capability. Ground attack has increasingly become

5248-558: The interdiction and tactical bombing roles. Today it remains the only dedicated fixed-wing ground-attack aircraft in any U.S. military service. Overall U.S. experience in the Gulf War , Kosovo War , Afghanistan War , and Iraq War has resulted in renewed interest in such aircraft. The U.S. Air Force is currently researching a replacement for the A-10 and started the OA-X program to procure

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5376-481: The " Night Witches " utilised an obsolescent, wooden light trainer biplane type, the Polikarpov Po-2 and small anti-personnel bombs in "harassment bombing" attacks that proved difficult to counter. Wartime experience showed that poorly armored and/or lightly built, pre-war types were unacceptably vulnerable, especially to fighters. Nevertheless, skilled crews could be highly successful in those types, such as

5504-591: The 1,420 maritime strike variants of the North American B-25 Mitchell G/H, which mounted either a M4 cannon , or light-weight T13E1 or M5 versions of the same gun. These weapons, however, were hand-loaded, had shorter barrels and/or a lower muzzle velocity than the BK 7,5 and, therefore, poorer armor penetration, accuracy and rate of fire. (Except for versions of the Piaggio P.108 armed with

5632-588: The A-2's replacement, the Curtiss A-12 Shrike , were unarmored and highly vulnerable to AA fire. The British Royal Air Force focused primarily on strategic bombing, rather than ground attack. However, like most air arms of the period it did operate attack aircraft, named Army Cooperation in RAF parlance, which included the Hawker Hector , Westland Lysander and others. Aviation played a role in

5760-441: The AV-8A's suitability for operating from various amphibious assault ships and aircraft carriers, including a deployment of 14 Harriers aboard USS  Franklin D. Roosevelt for six months in 1976. The tests showed, amongst other things, that the Harrier was capable of performing in weather where conventional carrier aircraft could not. In support of naval operations, the USMC devised and studied several methods to further integrate

5888-658: The AV-8As had been delivered with the more powerful Pegasus engine used in the GR.3 instead of the one used in the earlier GR.1. Two-seat Harriers were operated for training purposes; the body was stretched and a taller tail fin added. The RAF trained in the T.2 and T.4 versions, while T.4N and T.8 were training versions the Navy's Sea Harrier, with appropriate fittings. The US and Spain flew the TAV-8A and TAV-8S, respectively. All RAF GR.1s and

6016-461: The American Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II and the Soviet/Russian Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot. A variety of light attack aircraft has also been introduced in the post-World War II era, usually based on adapted trainers or other light fixed-wing aircraft. These have been used in counter-insurgency operations. U.S. attack aircraft are currently identified by the prefix A- , as in " A-6 Intruder " and " A-10 Thunderbolt II ". However, until

6144-443: The American XV-4 Hummingbird and the German VFW VAK 191B . Operations by the USMC aboard USS  Nassau in 1981 and by British Harriers and Sea Harriers in the Falklands War proved that the aircraft was highly effective in combat. These operations also demonstrated that "Harrier Carriers" provided a powerful presence at sea without the expense of big deck carriers. Following the display of Harrier operations from small carriers,

6272-432: The Brazilian Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932 , although both sides had few aircraft. The federal government had approximately 58 aircraft divided between the Navy and the Army , as the Air Force at this time did not constitute an independent branch. In contrast, the rebels had only two Potez 25 planes and two Waco CSO , plus a small number of private aircraft. During the 1930s, Nazi Germany had begun to field

6400-399: The British military. Hawker sought to quickly move on to a new project and became interested in Vertical Take Off/Landing (VTOL) aircraft, which did not need runways. According to Air Chief Marshal Sir Patrick Hine this interest may have been stimulated by the presence of Air Staff Requirement 345, which sought a V/STOL ground attack fighter for the Royal Air Force. Design work on the P.1127

6528-593: The FEBA. The close proximity of forward bases allowed for a far greater sortie rate and reduced fuel consumption. The AV-8A's abilities in air-to-air combat were tested by the Marine Corps by conducting mock dogfights with McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs; these exercises trained pilots to use the vectoring-in-forward-flight (VIFF) capability to outmanoeuvre their opponents and showed that the Harriers could act as effective air-to-air fighters at close range. The success of Harrier operations countered scepticism of V/STOL aircraft, which had been judged to be expensive failures in

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6656-426: The Falklands War, the greatest threats to the Harriers were deemed to be surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) and small arms fire from the ground. In total, four Harrier GR.3s and six Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire, accidents, or mechanical failure. More than 2,000 Harrier sorties were conducted during the conflict—equivalent to six sorties per day per aircraft. Following the Falklands War, British Aerospace explored

6784-413: The German Focke-Wulf Fw 190 , the British Hawker Typhoon and the US Republic P-47 Thunderbolt . The Typhoon, which was disappointing as a fighter, due to poor high altitude performance, was very fast at low altitudes and thus became the RAF's premier ground attack fighter. It was armed with four 20mm cannon , augmented first with bombs, then rockets. Likewise the P-47 was designed and intended for use as

6912-411: The Harrier II, designated as the AV-8B, which was introduced into service in 1985. The performance of the Harrier in USMC service led to calls for the United States Air Force to procure Harrier IIs in addition to the USMC's own plans, but these never resulted in Air Force orders. Since the late 1990s, the AV-8B has been slated to be replaced by the F-35B variant of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II ,

7040-412: The Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectoring nozzles. It is viewed by senior RAF officers as a significant design success, that to enable and control the aircraft's vertical flight required only a single lever added in the cockpit. For horizontal flight, the nozzles are directed rearwards by shifting the lever to the forward position; for short or vertical takeoffs and landings,

7168-408: The Harrier. One result was Arapaho , a stand-by system to rapidly convert civilian cargo ships into seagoing platforms for operating and maintaining a handful of Harriers, to be used to augment the number of available ships to deploy upon. When the reactivation of the Iowa -class battleships was under consideration, a radical design for a battleship-carrier hybrid emerged that would have replaced

7296-426: The Harriers in a land-based expeditionary role focused on aggressive speed. Harrier forward bases and light maintenance facilities were to be set up in under 24 hours on any prospective battle area. The forward bases, containing one to four aircraft, were to be located 20 miles (32 km) from the forward edge of battle (FEBA), while a more established permanent airbase would be located around 50 miles (80 km) from

7424-528: The Hawker Siddeley P.1154, to meet a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) requirement issued for such an aircraft. The design used a single Bristol Siddeley BS100 engine with four swivelling nozzles, in a fashion similar to the P.1127, and required the use of plenum chamber burning (PCB) to achieve supersonic speeds. The P.1154 won the competition to meet the requirement against strong competition from other aircraft manufacturers such as Dassault Aviation 's Mirage IIIV . The French government did not accept

7552-465: The Kestrel's airframe was redesigned for the Harrier. The Harrier was powered by the more powerful Pegasus 6 engine; new air intakes with auxiliary blow-in doors were added to produce the required airflow at low speed. Its wing was modified to increase area and the landing gear was strengthened. Several hardpoints were installed, two under each wing and one underneath the fuselage; two 30 mm (1.2 in) ADEN cannon gun pods could also be fitted to

7680-412: The Marine Corps in 1971, replacing other aircraft in the Marines' attack squadrons. The service became interested in performing ship-borne operations with the Harrier. Admiral Elmo Zumwalt promoted the concept of a Sea Control Ship , a 15,000-ton light carrier equipped with Harriers and helicopters, to supplement the larger aircraft carriers of the US Navy . An amphibious assault ship, USS  Guam ,

7808-447: The P.1127 then the Harrier, was designed specifically for V/STOL manoeuvring. Bristol Siddeley developed it from their earlier conventional Orpheus turbofan engine as the core with Olympus compressor blades for the fan. The engine's thrust is directed through the four rotatable nozzles. The engine is equipped for water injection to increase thrust and takeoff performance in hot and high altitude conditions; in normal V/STOL operations

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7936-399: The RAF Harriers focused on ground-attack missions in support of the advancing British land force. The Harrier was also extensively redesigned as the AV-8B Harrier II and British Aerospace Harrier II by the team of McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace . During the late 1980s and 1990s, the first-generation aircraft were gradually replaced by the newer Harrier IIs. The Harrier's design

8064-452: The RAF, USMC and FAA. In the 1970s the United Kingdom considered two options for replacing their existing Harriers: joining McDonnell Douglas (MDC) in developing the BAE Harrier II , or the independent development of a "Big Wing" Harrier. This proposal would have increased the wing area from 200 to 250 square feet (19 to 23 m), allowing for significant increases in weapons load and internal fuel reserves. The option of cooperation with MDC

8192-526: The Russian Typhoon class , but the system attracted no interest. The first generation of Harriers did not see further combat with the RAF after the Falklands War, although they continued to serve for years afterwards. As a deterrent against further Argentine invasion attempts, No. 1453 Flight RAF was deployed to the Falkland Islands from August 1983 to June 1985. However the second generation Harrier IIs saw action in Bosnia, Iraq, and Afghanistan. The first generation Hawker Siddeley airframes were replaced by

8320-494: The Sea Harriers had been lost, the GR.3s would have replaced them in air patrol duties, even though the Harrier GR.3 was not designed for air defence operations; as such the GR.3s quickly had their outboard weapons pylons modified to take air-to-air Sidewinder missiles. From 10 to 24 May 1982, prior to British forces landing in the Falklands, a detachment of three GR.3s provided air defence for Ascension Island until three F-4 Phantom IIs arrived to take on this responsibility. During

8448-466: The Skyhook, a new technique to operate Harriers from smaller ships. Skyhook would have allowed the launching and landing of Harriers from smaller ships by holding the aircraft in midair by a crane; secondary cranes were to hold weapons for rapid re-arming. This would potentially have saved fuel and allowed for operations in rougher seas. The system was marketed to foreign customers, and it was speculated that Skyhook could be applied to large submarines such as

8576-454: The U.S. Marine Corps has noted similar problems. In the late 1960s the United States Air Force requested a dedicated close air support (CAS) plane that became the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II . The A-10 was originally conceived as an anti-armor weapon (the A-X program requirements specifically called for an aircraft mounting a large rotary cannon to destroy massed Warsaw Pact armored forces) with limited secondary capability in

8704-409: The USAAF, preferred the older term "Scout-Bomber", under a "SB-" designation, such as the Curtiss SB2C Helldiver . The Junkers Ju 87s of the German Luftwaffe became virtually synonymous with close air support during the early months of World War II. The British Commonwealth's Desert Air Force , led by Arthur Tedder, became the first Allied tactical formation to emphasize the attack role, usually in

8832-630: The USAAF. It was not until 1946, when the US Navy and US Marine Corps started using the "attack" (A) designation, when it renamed BT2D Skyraider and BTM Mauler to, respectively, AD Skyraider and AM Mauler. As with many aircraft classifications, the definition of attack aircraft is somewhat vague and has tended to change over time. Current U.S. military doctrine defines it as an aircraft which most likely performs an attack mission , more than any other kind of mission. Attack mission means, in turn, specifically tactical air-to-ground action—in other words, neither air-to-air action nor strategic bombing

8960-433: The USMC declared the maintenance of a Harrier to be a "challenge"; the need to remove the wings before performing most work upon the engine, including engine replacements, meant the Harrier required considerable man-hours in maintenance, more than most aircraft. Buland noted however that the maintenance difficulties were unavoidable in order to create a V/STOL aircraft. The Pegasus turbofan jet engine, developed in tandem with

9088-476: The United Kingdom, the United States and West Germany jointly agreed to purchase nine aircraft developed from the P.1127, for the evaluation of the performance and potential of V/STOL aircraft. These aircraft were built by Hawker Siddeley and were designated Kestrel FGA.1 by the UK. The Kestrel was strictly an evaluation aircraft and to save money the Pegasus 5 engine was not fully developed as intended, only having 15,000 pounds (67 kN) of thrust instead of

9216-519: The United States, assigned the US designation XV-6A Kestrel , and underwent further testing. The two remaining British-based Kestrels were assigned to further trials and experimentation at RAE Bedford with one being modified to use the uprated Pegasus 6 engine. At the time of the development of the P.1127 Hawker and Bristol had also undertaken considerable development work on a supersonic version,

9344-464: The air base at Gütersloh , closer to the prospective front line in the event of an outbreak of a European war. One of the squadrons was disbanded and its aircraft distributed between the other two. In RAF service, the Harrier was used in close air support (CAS), reconnaissance, and other ground-attack roles. The flexibility of the Harrier led to a long-term heavy deployment in West Germany as

9472-670: The air wing deployed on the new light aircraft carrier HTMS  Chakri Naruebet . The Thai Navy had from the start significant logistical problems keeping the Harriers operational due to a shortage of funds for spare parts and equipment, leaving only a few Harriers serviceable at a time. In 1999, two years after being delivered, only one airframe was in airworthy condition. Around 2003, Thailand considered acquiring former Royal Navy Sea Harriers, which were more suitable for maritime operations and better equipped for air defence, to replace their AV-8S Harriers; this investigation did not progress to

9600-1011: The aircraft as the AV-8A ; it was operated by the US Marine Corps (USMC). Introduced to service amid the Cold War , the RAF positioned the bulk of their Harriers across West Germany to defend against a potential invasion of Western Europe by the Warsaw Pact forces; the unique abilities of the Harrier allowed the RAF to disperse their forces away from vulnerable airbases. The USMC used their Harriers primarily for close air support , operating from amphibious assault ships , and, if needed, forward operating bases . Harrier squadrons saw several deployments overseas. Its ability to operate with minimal ground facilities and very short runways allowed it to be used at locations unavailable to other fixed-wing aircraft. The Harrier received criticism for having

9728-535: The aircraft carrier HMS  Hermes . As the RAF Harrier GR.3 had not been designed for naval service, the 10 aircraft had to be rapidly modified prior to the departure of the task force. Special sealants against corrosion were applied and a new deck-based inertial guidance aid was devised to allow the RAF Harrier to land on a carrier as easily as the Sea Harrier. Transponders to guide aircraft back to

9856-538: The aircraft operated by the USMC was designated the AV-8A Harrier, which was broadly similar to the RAF's Harrier GR.1. Changes included the removal of all magnesium components, which corroded quickly at sea, and the integration of American radios and Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) systems; furthermore the outer pylons, unlike the RAF aircraft, were designed from delivery to be equipped with self-defence AIM-9 Sidewinder heat-seeking air-to-air missiles. Most of

9984-563: The aircraft to carry more ordnance. I still don't believe the Harrier. Think of the millions that have been spent on VTO in America and Russia, and quite a bit in Europe, and yet the only vertical take-off aircraft which you can call a success is the Harrier. When I saw the Harrier hovering and flying backwards under control, I reckoned I'd seen everything. And it's not difficult to fly. The Harrier, while serving for many decades in various forms, has been criticised on multiple issues; in particular

10112-407: The broad concept of an attack aircraft. The dedicated attack aircraft as a separate class existed primarily during and after World War II . The precise implementation varied from country to country, and was handled by a wide variety of designs. In the United States and Britain , attack aircraft were generally light bombers or medium bombers , sometimes carrying heavier forward-firing weapons like

10240-476: The carriers during night-time operations were also installed, along with flares and chaff dispensers. As there was little space on the carriers, two requisitioned merchant container ships, Atlantic Conveyor and Atlantic Causeway , were modified with temporary flight decks and used to carry Harriers and helicopters to the South Atlantic. The Harrier GR.3s focused on providing close air support to

10368-407: The collapse of the P.1154's development the RAF began considering a simple upgrade of the existing subsonic Kestrel and issued Requirement ASR 384 for a V/STOL ground attack jet. Hawker Siddeley received an order for six pre-production aircraft in 1965, designated P.1127 (RAF) , of which the first made its maiden flight on 31 August 1966. An order for 60 production aircraft, designated as Harrier GR.1,

10496-666: The current U.S. designation system, an attack aircraft ( A ) is designed primarily for air-to-surface (Attack: Aircraft designed to find, attack, and destroy land or sea targets) missions (also known as "attack missions"), while a fighter category F incorporates not only aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat , but additionally multipurpose aircraft designed also for ground-attack missions. "F" - Fighter Aircraft were designed to intercept and destroy other aircraft or missiles. This includes multipurpose aircraft also designed for ground support missions such as interdiction and close air support. Just to mention one example amongst many,

10624-550: The decision and withdrew; the NATO requirement was cancelled shortly after in 1965. The Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy planned to develop and introduce the supersonic P.1154 independently of the cancelled NATO requirement. This ambition was complicated by the conflicting requirements between the two services—while the RAF wanted a low-level supersonic strike aircraft, the Navy sought a twin-engine air defence fighter. Following

10752-648: The election of the Labour Government of 1964 the P.1154 was cancelled, as the Royal Navy had already begun procurement of the McDonnell Douglas Phantom II and the RAF placed a greater importance on the BAC TSR-2 's ongoing development. Work continued on elements of the project, such as a supersonic PCB-equipped Pegasus engine, with the intention of developing a future Harrier variant for the decades following cancellation. Following

10880-458: The end of World War II the A- designation was shared between attack planes and light bombers for USAAF aircraft (as opposed to B- prefix for medium or heavy bombers). The US Navy used a separate designation system and at the time preferred to call similar aircraft scout bombers (SB) or torpedo bombers (TB or BT). For example, Douglas SBD Dauntless scout bomber was designated A-24 when used by

11008-614: The form of single-engine Hawker Hurricane and Curtiss P-40 fighter-bombers or specialized "tank-busters", such as the Hurricane Mk IID, armed with two 40 mm Vickers S guns (notably No. 6 Squadron RAF ). At around the same time, a massive invasion by Axis forces had forced the Soviet air forces to quickly expand their army support capacity, such as the Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik. The women pilots known as

11136-482: The ground forces on the Falklands and attacking Argentine positions; suppressing enemy artillery was often a high priority. Sea Harriers were also used in the war, primarily conducting fleet air defence and combat air patrols against the threat of attacking Argentine fighters. However, both Sea Harriers and Harrier GR.3s were used in ground-attack missions against the main airfield and runway at Stanley . If most of

11264-535: The improved Harrier II, which had been developed jointly between McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace. "In my mind the AV-8A Harrier was like the helicopter in Korea. [It] had limited capability, but that's how the first-generation automobile, boat, or other major systems evolved... it brought us into the world of flexible basing and the Marine Corps into the concept of vertical development" Major General Joe Anderson . The United States Marine Corps began showing

11392-666: The initial AV-8As were fitted with the Ferranti FE541 inertial navigation/attack suite, but these were replaced in the USMC Harriers by a simpler Interface/Weapon Aiming Computer to aid quick turnaround between missions. The Martin-Baker ejection seats were also replaced by the Stencel SEU-3A in the American aircraft. The RAF had their GR.1 aircraft upgraded to the GR.3 standard, which featured improved sensors,

11520-602: The jets as they were able to both out accelerate and out maneuver the jets. The Royal Navy Hawker Sea Fury fighters and the U.S. Vought F4U Corsair and Douglas A-1 Skyraider were operated during the Korean War while the latter continued to be used throughout the Vietnam War . Many post-World War II era air forces have been reluctant to adopt fixed-wing jet aircraft developed specifically for ground attack. Although close air support and interdiction remain crucial to

11648-487: The leading Stuka ace, Hans-Ulrich Rudel , who claimed 500 tanks, a battleship, a cruiser, and two destroyers in 2,300 combat missions. The Bristol Beaufighter , based on an obsolescent RAF bomber, became a versatile twin-engine attack aircraft and served in almost every theatre of the war, in the maritime strike and ground attack roles as well as that of night fighter. Conversely, some mid-war attack types emerged as adaptations of fighters, including several versions of

11776-454: The lever is pulled back to point the nozzles downwards. The Harrier has two control elements not found in conventional fixed-wing aircraft: the thrust vector and the reaction control system . The thrust vector refers to the slant of the four engine nozzles and can be set between 0° (horizontal, pointing directly backwards) and 98° (pointing down and slightly forwards). The 90° vector is normally deployed for VTOL manoeuvring. The reaction control

11904-517: The manner of a typical fixed-wing aircraft above its stall speed), as well as VTOL and STOL manoeuvres (where the traditional lift and control surfaces are useless) requiring skills and technical knowledge usually associated with helicopters. Most services demand great aptitude and extensive training for Harrier pilots, as well as experience in piloting both types of aircraft. Trainee pilots are often drawn from highly experienced and skilled helicopter pilots. In addition to normal flight controls,

12032-462: The modern battlefield, attack aircraft are less glamorous than fighters, while air force pilots and military planners have a certain well-cultivated contempt for "mud-movers". More practically, the cost of operating a specialized ground-attack aircraft is harder to justify when compared with multirole combat aircraft . Jet attack aircraft were designed and employed during the Cold War era, such as

12160-470: The more advanced Blue Vixen radar for longer range air-to-air combat, as well as Sea Eagle missiles for conducting anti-ship missions. The McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II is the latest Harrier variant, a second-generation series to replace the first generation of Harrier jets already in service; all the above variants of the Harrier have mainly been retired with the Harrier II taking their place in

12288-574: The most notable attack type to emerge during the late 1930s was the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik , which became the most-produced military aircraft type in history. As World War II approached, the concept of an attack aircraft was not well defined, and various air services used many different names for widely differing types, all performing similar roles (sometimes in tandem with non-attack roles of bombers, fighters, reconnaissance and other roles. The British concept of

12416-546: The navies of Spain and later Thailand bought the Harrier for use as their main carrier-based fixed-wing aircraft. Spain's purchase of Harriers was complicated by long-standing political friction between the British and Spanish governments of the era; even though the Harriers were manufactured in the UK they were sold to Spain with the US acting as an intermediary. During tests in November 1972, the British pilot John Farley showed that

12544-407: The nose, tail and wingtips, for the purpose of balancing during vertical flight. It has two landing gear units on the fuselage and two outrigger landing gear units, one near each wing tip. The Harrier is equipped with four wing and three fuselage pylons for carrying a variety of weapons and external fuel tanks. The Kestrel and the Harrier were similar in appearance, though approximately 90 per cent of

12672-404: The past. Marine Corps officers became convinced of the military advantages of the Harrier and pursued extensive development of the aircraft. Starting in 1979, the USMC began upgrading their AV-8As to the AV-8C configuration—the work focused mainly on extending useful service lives and improving VTOL performance. The AV-8C and the remaining AV-8A Harriers were retired by 1987. These were replaced by

12800-518: The post-World War II era has also expanded need for these types of aircraft to conduct counter-insurgency and light ground attack operations. A primary distinction of post-World War II aviation between the U.S. Army and the U.S. Air Force was that latter had generally been allocated all fixed-wing aircraft , while helicopters were under control of the former; this was governed by the 1948 Key West Agreement . The Army, wishing to have its own resources to support its troops in combat and faced with

12928-426: The projected 18,200 pounds (81 kN). The Tripartite Evaluation Squadron numbered ten pilots; four each from the UK and US and two from West Germany. The Kestrel's first flight took place on 7 March 1964. A total of 960 sorties had been made during the trials, including 1,366 takeoffs and landings, by the end of evaluations in November 1965. One aircraft was destroyed in an accident and six others were transferred to

13056-512: The prospect of a rocket attack was unnerving. The ultimate development of the cannon-armed light attack aircraft was the small production run in 1944 of the Henschel Hs 129 B-3, armed with a modified PAK 40 75 mm anti-tank gun. This weapon, the Bordkanone BK 7,5 , was the most powerful forward-firing weapon fitted to a production military aircraft during World War II. The only other aircraft to be factory-equipped with similar guns were

13184-444: The same time several airframe components were restored or replaced to extend the life of the aircraft. Spain's Harriers, designated AV-8S or VA.1 Matador for the single-seater and TAV-8S or VAE.1 for the two-seater, were almost identical to USMC Harriers differing only in the radios fitted. The Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm (FAA) operated a substantially modified variant of the Harrier, the British Aerospace Sea Harrier . The Sea Harrier

13312-414: The ship's rear turret with a flight deck, complete with a hangar and two ski jumps, for operating several Harriers. However, the USMC considered the need for naval gunfire support to be a greater priority than additional platforms for carrier operations, while the cost and delay associated with such elaborate conversions was significant, and the concept was dropped. The Marines Corps' concept for deploying

13440-509: The specification was dropped before an aircraft went into production. In some air services, dive bombers did not equip ground-attack units, but were treated as a separate class. In Nazi Germany, the Luftwaffe distinguished between the Stuka ( Sturzkampf- , "dive bombing") units, equipped with Junkers Ju 87 from Schlacht ("battle") units, using strafing/low-level bombing types such as

13568-515: The system would be used in landing vertically with a heavy weapons load. The water injection function had originally been added following the input of US Air Force Colonel Bill Chapman, who worked for the Mutual Weapons Development Team. Water injection was necessary in order to generate maximum thrust, if only for a limited time, and was typically used during landing, especially in high ambient temperatures. The aircraft

13696-427: The thrust vector is greater. The reaction control system involves a thrusters at key points in the aircraft's fuselage and nose, also the wingtips. Thrust from the engine can be temporarily syphoned to control and correct the aircraft's pitch and roll during vertical flight. Rotating the vectored thrust nozzles into a forward-facing position during normal flight is called vectoring in forward flight , or "VIFFing". This

13824-528: The underside of the fuselage. The Harrier was outfitted with updated avionics to replace the basic systems used in the Kestrel; a navigational-attack system incorporating an inertial navigation system , originally for the P.1154, was installed and information was presented to the pilot by a head-up display and a moving map display. The Harrier's VTOL abilities allowed it to be deployed from very small prepared clearings or helipads as well as normal airfields. It

13952-423: The virtues of two-spool engines with contra-rotating spools, and hypersonic designs. In 1956 he was asked to comment upon the proposal made by Michel Wibault for a Vertical takeoff fighter powered by an engine of Wibault's conception, using vectored thrust . Gordon Lewis simplified and lightened the design, incorporating axial compressors and pairs of rotatable nozzles for the cold and hot gas streams. This

14080-731: The wooden deck of their aircraft carrier Dédalo was able to withstand the temperature of the gases generated by the Harrier. Since 1976, the Spanish Navy operated the AV-8S Matador from their aircraft carrier Dédalo ; the aircraft provided both air defence and strike capabilities for the Spanish fleet. Spain later purchased five Harriers directly from the British government mainly to replace losses. Spain sold seven single-seat and two twin-seat Harriers to Thailand in 1998. The Royal Thai Navy's AV-8S Matadors were delivered as part of

14208-690: Was a British aeronautical engineer who made significant contributions to the arts and sciences of turbine engine design. He was born in Cheltenham in 1924, the son of a clerk on the Great Western Railway . He won a scholarship to Pembroke College, Oxford and graduated in Engineering Science in 1944. He joined the Bristol Aeroplane Company in 1944 and was put to work on stress calculations of

14336-621: Was a part of the Allied armies' strength in holding German attacks and supporting Allied counter-attacks and offensives. Admittedly, the cost to the Allies was high, with the Royal Flying Corps sustaining a loss rate approaching 30% among ground-attack aircraft. After World War I, it was widely believed that using aircraft against tactical targets was of little use other than in harassing and undermining enemy morale; attacking combatants

14464-499: Was an armored twin-engine triplane for ground strafing with eight machine guns and about a ton of armor plate, and the 1922 Aeromarine PG-1 was a combined pursuit (fighter) and ground attack design with a 37mm gun. The United States Marine Corps Aviation applied close air support tactics in the Banana Wars . While they did not pioneer dive bombing tactics, Marine aviators were the first to include it in their doctrine during

14592-430: Was believed that, in a high-intensity conflict, air bases would be vulnerable and likely to be quickly knocked out. The capability to scatter Harrier squadrons to dozens of small "alert pads" on the front lines was highly prized by military strategists and the USMC procured the aircraft because of this ability. Hawker Siddeley noted that STOL operation provided additional benefits over VTOL operation, saving fuel and allowing

14720-486: Was chosen in 1982 over the more risky isolated approach. The original Harrier served as the basis for the British Aerospace Sea Harrier as it was required to fill the fighter role. The first RAF squadron to be equipped with the Harrier GR.1, No. 1 Squadron , started to convert to the aircraft at RAF Wittering in April 1969. An early demonstration of the Harrier's capabilities was the participation of two aircraft in

14848-554: Was converted into the Interim Sea Control Ship and operated as such between 1971 and 1973 with the purpose of studying the limits and possible obstacles for operating such a vessel. Since then the Sea Control Ship concept has been subject to periodic re-examinations and studies, often in the light of budget cuts and questions over the use of supercarriers . Other exercises were performed to demonstrate

14976-635: Was derived from the Hawker P.1127 . Prior to developing the P.1127, Hawker Aircraft had been working on a replacement for the Hawker Hunter , the Hawker P.1121 . The P.1121 was cancelled after the release of the British Government's 1957 Defence White Paper , which advocated a policy shift away from manned aircraft and towards missiles. This policy resulted in the termination of the majority of aircraft development projects then underway for

15104-590: Was evolved into the BE53/2, later named the Pegasus . The master patents for this engine were in the names of Michel Wibault and Gordon Lewis. The Pegasus powered, successively, the Hawker P.1127 , Kestrel, Harrier and Harrier II . It remains in service with the US Marine Corps. Gordon Lewis spent some years as Managing Director of Turbo-Union , which developed the Turbo-Union RB199 engine for

15232-475: Was expected and operating at low altitudes to precisely identify targets. Other roles, including those of light bombers , medium bombers , dive bombers , reconnaissance , fighters , fighter-bombers , could and did perform air strikes on battlefields. All these types could significantly damage ground targets from a low level flight, either by bombing, machine guns, or both. Attack aircraft came to diverge from bombers and fighters. While bombers could be used on

15360-477: Was extensively trialled at RNAS Yeovilton from 1977. Following these tests ski-jumps were added to the flight decks of all RN carriers from 1979 onwards, in preparation for the new variant for the navy, the Sea Harrier. In the late 1960s the British and American governments held talks on producing Harriers in the United States. Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas formed a partnership in 1969 in preparation for American production, but Congressman Mendel Rivers and

15488-545: Was formally started in 1957 by Sir Sydney Camm , Ralph Hooper of Hawker Aircraft, and Stanley Hooker (later Sir Stanley Hooker) of the Bristol Engine Company . The close cooperation between Hawker, the airframe company, and Bristol, the engine company, was viewed by project engineer Gordon Lewis as one of the key factors that allowed the development of the Harrier to continue in spite of technical obstacles and political setbacks. Rather than using rotors or

15616-641: Was generally much more dangerous to aircrews than their targets, a problem that was continually becoming more acute with the ongoing refinement of anti-aircraft weapons . Within the range of types serving attack roles, dive bombers were increasingly being seen as more effective than aircraft designed for strafing with machine guns or cannons . Nevertheless, during the 1920s, the US military, in particular, procured specialized "Attack" aircraft and formed dedicated units, that were trained primarily for that role. The US Army Engineering Division became involved in designing ground attack aircraft. The 1920 Boeing GA-1

15744-434: Was initially powered by the Pegasus 6 engine which was replaced by the more powerful Pegasus 11 during the Harrier GR.1 to GR.3 upgrade process. The primary focus throughout the engine's development was on achieving high performance with as little weight as possible, tempered by the amount of funding that was available. Following the Harrier's entry to service the focus switched to improving reliability and extending engine life;

15872-440: Was intended for multiple naval roles and was equipped with radar and Sidewinder missiles for air combat duties as part of fleet air defence . The Sea Harrier was also fitted with navigational aids for carrier landings, modifications to reduce corrosion by seawater and a raised bubble-canopy covered cockpit for better visibility. The aircraft were later equipped to use AIM-120 AMRAAM beyond-visual-range anti-aircraft missiles and

16000-534: Was received in early 1967. The aircraft was named after the Harrier , a small bird of prey. The Harrier GR.1 made its first flight on 28 December 1967, and it officially entered service with the RAF on 1 April 1969. The aircraft was built in two factories—one in Kingston upon Thames , southwest London, and the other at Dunsfold Aerodrome , Surrey—and underwent initial testing at Dunsfold. The ski-jump technique for launching Harriers from Royal Navy aircraft carriers

16128-530: Was replaced by faster fighter types for photo-reconnaissance, and light aircraft for artillery spotting. During the inter-war period, the British flew the Fairey Battle , a light bomber which originated in a 1932 specification. Designs in 1938 for a replacement were adapted as a target tug. The last British specification issued for a light bomber was B.20/40 described as a "Close Army Support Bomber" capable of dive bombing and photo-reconnaissance. However,

16256-780: Was the Junkers J.I , which pioneered the idea of an armored "bathtub", that was both fuselage structure and protection for engine and crew. The British experimented with the Sopwith TF series (termed "trench fighters"), although these did not see combat. The last battles of 1918 on the Western Front demonstrated that ground-attacking aircraft were a valuable component of all-arms tactics. Close support ground strafing ( machine-gunning ) and tactical bombing of infantry (especially when moving between trenches and along roads), machine gun posts , artillery , and supply formations

16384-852: Was to create a safe corridor through the Iraqi air defense system. The attack was a huge success and cleared the way for the beginning of the Allied bombing campaign of Operation Desert Storm . One concern involving the Apache arose when a unit of these helicopters was very slow to deploy during U.S. military involvement in Kosovo. According to the Army Times , the Army is shifting its doctrine to favor ground-attack aircraft over attack helicopters for deep strike attack missions because ground-attack helicopters have proved to be highly vulnerable to small-arms fire;

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