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72-709: The Ambalavasis are broadly divided into two groups, being those who wear the sacred thread and those who do not. Though all Ampalavāsis have to do service in temples, they have sufficiently distinct functions to perform. Pushpakans and Nambeesans are teachers in the Pathasalas or Mutts and suppliers of flowers to temple. Chakyar stages dramas called Kooth and Koodiyattam . Marars are temple musicians. Variar and Poduval performed managerial and executive functions of temple committees and served as storekeepers and watchmen. Their ritual rank in Hinduism lies between that of

144-556: A Brahmin and Nair . Ambalavasis were known as Antharala Jathikal. Kazhakams or Ambalakkazhakams refer to associations of Ambalavasi peoples in a temple to perform specific duties in the temple. Traditionally, Ambalavasis are associated with various types of temple arts. Earlier, each of these temple arts were performed only by specific Ambalavasi castes. Now there is no community or caste barrier. Sacred thread Upanayana ( Sanskrit : उपनयन , romanized :  upanayana , lit.   'initiation')

216-552: A 2005 translation of Manusmriti published by the Oxford University Press, states the concerns in postmodern scholarship about the presumed authenticity and reliability of Manusmriti manuscripts. He writes (abridged), The MDh [Manusmriti] was the first Indian legal text introduced to the western world through the translation of Sir William Jones in 1794. ... All the editions of the MDh , except for Jolly's, reproduce

288-497: A cord of threads, or a garment, or a rope of kusa grass", and it is its methods of wearing and the significance that matters. The proper manner of wearing the upper garment or thread, state the ancient texts, is from over the left shoulder and under the right arm. yajñopavīta contrasts with Pracinavīta method of wearing the upper garment, the latter a reverse and mirror image of former, and suggested to signify rituals for elders/ancestors (for example, funeral). The idea of wearing

360-684: A disciple in the Guru–shishya tradition of Hinduism. Gayatri Mantra marks as an individual's entrance to a school of Hinduism. This ceremony ends after the boy goes for his first alms round to relatives and leave for the guru's ashram. Traditionally, these boys were sent to learn in a gurukula system of education but in modern times, this act is only done symbolically. (arranged by year) Manusmriti Divisions Sama vedic Yajur vedic Atharva vedic Vaishnava puranas Shaiva puranas Shakta puranas The Manusmṛti ( Sanskrit : मनुस्मृति ), also known as

432-534: A girl, before her wedding, is described in multiple texts such as the Gobhila Gṛhya Sūtra (verse 2.1.19) and some Dharmasutras. The sacred thread or the yajnopavita has become one of the most important parts of contemporary Upanayana ceremonies. There are accordingly a number of rules related to it. The thread is composed of three cotton strands of nine strands each. The strands symbolise different things in their regions. For example, among Tamils, each strand

504-460: A girl, she should obey and seek protection of her father, as a young woman her husband, and as a widow her son; and that a woman should always worship her husband as a god and a man should consider his wife an embodiment of goddess. In verses 3.55–3.56, Manusmriti also declares that women must be honored, and "[w]here women are revered, there the gods rejoice; but where they are not, no rite bears any fruit". Elsewhere, in verse 5.148, states Olivelle,

576-490: A later era. The closing verses of Manusmriti declares, एवं यः सर्वभूतेषु पश्यत्यात्मानमात्मना । स सर्वसमतामेत्य ब्रह्माभ्येति परं पदम् ॥ He who thus recognizes in his individual soul (Self, Atman ), the universal soul that exists in all beings, becomes equal-minded towards all, and enters the highest state, Brahman . The structure and contents of the Manusmriti suggest it to be a document predominantly targeted at

648-840: A long period. Olivelle states that the various ancient and medieval Indian texts claim revisions and editions were derived from the original text with 100,000 verses and 1,080 chapters. However, the text version in modern use, according to Olivelle, is likely the work of a single author or a chairman with research assistants. Manusmriti, Olivelle states, was not a new document - it drew on other texts, and reflects "a crystallization of an accumulated knowledge" in ancient India. The root of theoretical models within Manusmriti rely on at least two shastras that pre-date it: artha (statecraft and legal process) and dharma (an ancient Indian concept that includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and others discussed in various Dharmasutras , older than Manusmriti). Its contents can be traced to Kalpasutras of

720-668: A particular community. Indologically, the ritual is present in the Gṛhyasūtras and Dharmasūtras and Dharmaśāstras , as well as a couple of times in the Saṃhitās . Educational courses or training has been referred to in the Chandogya Upaniṣad and in the Yājñavalkya Smṛti ; Gharpure (1956) writes that during the Smṛti period , Upanayana may have attained a permanent fixture if

792-527: A particular mode of wearing the upper garment, and it is not necessary to have the yajñopavīta at all times". There is no mention of any rule or custom, states Patrick Olivelle , that "required Brāhmaṇas to wear a sacred string at all times", in the Brāhmaṇya literature (Vedic and ancient post-Vedic). Yajñopavīta, textual evidence suggests, is a medieval and modern tradition. However, the term yajnopavita appears in ancient Hindu literature, and therein it means

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864-544: A thread grew out of convenience and manageability, becoming more popular than alternatives such as a kusa rope. The ancient Saṁskṛta texts offer a diverse view while describing the yajñopavītam or upavita. The term upavita was originally meant to be any upper garment, as stated in Apastamba Dharmasūtra (verse 2.2.4.22–2.2.4.23) or, if the wearer does not want to wear a top, a thread would suffice. The ancient Indian scholar Haradatta states, " yajñopavītam means

936-458: A thread or upper garment over their left shoulder. Those girls who chose not to go to a gurukula were called Sadyovadhu (literally, one who marries straight). However, the Sadyovadhu , too, underwent a step during the wedding rituals, where she would complete Upanayana, and thereafter wear her upper garment (saree) over her left shoulder. This interim symbolic Upanayana rite of passage for

1008-402: A way of wearing the upper garment during a ritual or rites of passage. The custom of wearing a string is a late development in Hinduism, was optional in the medieval era, and the ancient Indian texts do not mention this ritual for any class or for Upanayana . The Gobhila Gṛhya Sutra (verse 1.2.1) similarly states in its discussion on Upanayana, that "the student understands the yajnopavita as

1080-461: Is a Hindu educational sacrament, one of the traditional saṃskāras or rites of passage that marked the acceptance of a student by a preceptor , such as a guru or acharya , and an individual's initiation into a school in Hinduism . Some traditions consider the ceremony as a spiritual rebirth for the child or future dvija , twice born. It signifies the acquisition of the knowledge of and

1152-497: Is a noun formed from the root √ nī meaning 'leading to'. The prefix upa means 'near'. With the prefix the full literal meaning becomes 'leading near (to)'. The initiation or rite of passage ceremony in which the sacred thread is given symbolizes the child drawn towards a school, towards education, by the guru or teacher. The student was being taken to the Gods and a disciplined life. As explained by PV Kane , taking (the child) near

1224-400: Is arguably the most important rite for Brāhmaṇa , Kṣatriya , and Vaiśya males, ensuring his rights with responsibilities and signifying his advent into adulthood . The tradition is widely discussed in ancient Samskṛta texts of Hinduism and varies regionally. The sacred thread or yajñopavīta (also referred to as Janeu , Jandhyam , Pūṇūl, Muñja and Janivara Yonya ) has become one of

1296-399: Is derived from the terms yajña (sacrifice) and upavīta (worn) . The literal meaning would then become "something worn on the body for the sacrifice". Accoutrements offered along with the yajnopavita may include be a daṇḍa (staff) and a mekhala (girdle). The earliest form of this saṁskāra, whose name there are no records of, may have been to mark the acceptance of a person into

1368-671: Is false, and the various manuscripts of Manusmriti discovered in India are inconsistent with each other. The metrical text is in Sanskrit , is dated to the 1st to 3rd century CE, and presents itself as a discourse given by Manu (Svayambhuva) and Bhrigu on dharma topics such as duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and others. The text's influence had historically spread outside India. The text influenced Hindu kingdoms in Cambodia and Indonesia . In 1776, Manusmriti became one of

1440-530: Is for each of the Tridevī , the supreme trinity of the Hindu goddesses Sarasvatī , Lakṣmī , and Pārvatī . According to another tradition, each of the nine threads represents a male deity, such as Agni , Bhaga , and Chandra . The predecessor to the sacred thread was an upper garment (such as a dupatta or an uparane). However, as traditions developed, the upper garment began to be worn continuously. The usage of

1512-483: Is high likelihood of interpolation, insertion and corruption in dharma sutras and dharma sastra texts on the Upanayana-related rite of passage. Patrick Olivelle notes the doubts in postmodern scholarship about the presumed reliability of Manusmṛti manuscripts. He writes, "Manusmriti was the first Indian legal text introduced to the western world through the translation of Sir William Jones in 1794". This

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1584-442: Is no fault in eating meat, in drinking liquor, or in having sex; that is the natural activity of creatures. Abstaining from such activity, however, brings greatest rewards." Manusmriti offers an inconsistent and internally conflicting perspective on women's rights. The text, for example, declares that a marriage cannot be dissolved by a woman or a man, in verse 8.101–8.102. Yet, the text, in other sections, allows either to dissolve

1656-559: Is similar to the modern contrast between informal moral concerns to birth out of wedlock in the developed nations, along with simultaneous legal protection for children who are born out of wedlock. Personal behaviours covered by the text are extensive. For example, verses 2.51–2.56 recommend that a monk must go on his begging round, collect alms food and present it to his teacher first, then eat. One should revere whatever food one gets and eat it without disdain, states Manusmriti, but never overeat, as eating too much harms health. In verse 5.47,

1728-582: Is the (first) source of the sacred law, next the tradition and the virtuous conduct of those who know the (Veda further), also the customs of holy men, and (finally) self-satisfaction ( Atmana santushti ). Translation 2: The root of the dharma is the entire Veda, and (then) the tradition and customs of those who know (the Veda), and the conduct of virtuous people, and what is satisfactory to oneself. वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः । एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षाद् धर्मस्य लक्षणम् ॥ Translation 1: The Veda,

1800-421: Is very near on the whole to the original text." This is far from the truth. Indeed, one of the great surprises of my editorial work has been to discover how few of the over fifty manuscripts that I collated actually follow the vulgate in key readings. Other scholars point to the inconsistencies and have questioned the authenticity of verses, and the extent to which verses were changed, inserted or interpolated into

1872-571: The Manusmṛti written in the medieval period. Bhāruci is the oldest known commentator on the Manu Smṛti . Kane places him in the late 10th or early 11th century, Olivelle places him in the 8th century, and Derrett places him between 600 and 800 CE. From these three opinions we can place Bhāruci anywhere from the early 7th century CE to the early 11th century CE. Bhāruci's commentary, titled Manu-sastra-vivarana , has far fewer number of verses than

1944-623: The Mānava-Dharmaśāstra or the Laws of Manu , is one of the many legal texts and constitutions among the many Dharmaśāstras of Hinduism . Over fifty manuscripts of the Manusmriti are now known, but the earliest discovered, most translated and presumed authentic version since the 18th century has been the " Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) manuscript with Kulluka Bhatta commentary". Modern scholarship states this presumed authenticity

2016-633: The Brahmins (priestly class) and the Kshatriyas (king, administration and warrior class). The text dedicates 1,034 verses, the largest portion, on laws for and expected virtues of Brahmins, and 971 verses for Kshatriyas. The statement of rules for the Vaishyas (merchant class) and the Shudras (artisans and working class) in the text is extraordinarily brief. Olivelle suggests that this may be because

2088-561: The Kullūka-Calcutta vulgate version in circulation since the British colonial era, and it refers to more ancient texts that are believed to be lost. It is also called Raja-Vimala , and J. Duncan M. Derrett states Bharuci was "occasionally more faithful to his source's historical intention" than other commentators. Medhātithi 's commentary on Manu Smṛti has been widely studied. Scholars such as Buhler, Kane, and Lingat believe he

2160-605: The Vedas. Several texts such as Suśruta Sūtrasthāna , however, also include the fourth varna, the Śūdras , entering schools and the formal education process, stating that the Upanayana rite of passage was open to everyone. The large variation in age and changes to it over time was to accommodate for the diversity in society and between families. Vedic period texts such as the Baudhāyana Gṛhyasūtra encouraged

2232-508: The Vedic era, which led to the development of Smartasutras consisting of Grihyasutras and Dharmasutras . The foundational texts of Manusmriti include many of these sutras, all from an era preceding the common era. Most of these ancient texts are now lost, and only four have survived: the law codes of Apastamba , Gautama , Baudhayana and Vasishtha . The ancient version of the text has been subdivided into twelve Adhyayas (chapters), but

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2304-414: The acarya (for instruction), or alternately "introducing to studenthood". It is a ceremony in which a teacher accepts and draws a child towards knowledge and initiates the second birth that is of the young mind and spirit. A popular variation is Mauñjibandhana , derived from two words muñja , a type of grass, and bandhana which means to tie or bind. The munja grass is tied around the waist. This word

2376-609: The ancient texts. For example, in Satapatha Brahmana, the Upanayana rite of passage text appears in the middle of a dialogue about Agnihotra; after the Upanayana verse end, sage Saukeya abruptly returns to the Agnihotra and Uddalaka. Oldenberg states that the Upanayana discussion is likely an insertion into the older text. Kane, in his History of Dharmasastra reviews, as well as other scholars, state that there

2448-518: The child had entered into formal education. In the modern era, the Upanayana rite of passage is open to anyone at any age. The Upanayana follows the Vidyārambhaṃ , the previous rite of passage. Vidyārambhaṃ became an intermediary samskāra following the evolution in writing and language. Vidyārambhaṃ now marked the beginning of primary education or literacy while Upanayana went on to refer to spiritual education. The Upanayana can also take place at

2520-509: The colonial era created a legal fiction around Manusmriti's historic role as a scripture in matters relating to women in South Asia. Chapter 7 of the Manusmriti discusses the duties of a king, what virtues he must have, what vices he must avoid. In verses 7.54–7.76, the text identifies precepts to be followed in selecting ministers, ambassadors and officials, as well as the characteristics of well fortified capital. Manusmriti then lays out

2592-462: The details and restrictions in the Upanayana ceremony is likely to have been inserted into ancient texts in a more modern era. Hermann Oldenberg , for example, states that Upanayana — the solemn reception of the pupil by the teacher to teach him the Veda — is joined into texts of Vedic texts at places that simply do not make any contextual sense, do not match the style, and are likely to be a corruption of

2664-563: The end of the course. The Upanayana became a permanent feature around the Upaniṣad period. Attire includes a daṇḍa or staff and a mekhala or girdle. In Hindu traditions, a human being is born at least twice—once at physical birth and second at intellectual birth through teacher's care. The first is marked through the Jatakarman rite of passage; the second is marked through Upanayanam or Vidyārambha rites of passage. A sacred thread

2736-541: The first Sanskrit texts to be translated into English, by British philologist Sir William Jones . Manusmriti was used to construct the Hindu law code for the East India Company -administered enclaves. The title Manusmriti is a relatively modern term and a late innovation, probably coined because the text is in a verse form. The over-fifty manuscripts discovered of the text never use this title, but state

2808-719: The inclusion of goddess Sarasvatī or Sāvitrī, with the teacher becoming the enabler of the connection between this goddess and the student. The meaning was extended to include Vedāngas and vows among other things. The education of a student was not limited to ritual and philosophical speculations found in the Vedas and the Upaniṣads . It extended to many arts and crafts, which had their own, similar rites of passages. The Aitareya Brāhmaṇa , Āgamas , and Purāṇas genres of literature in Hinduism describe these as Śilpa Śāstras . They extend to all practical aspects of culture, such as

2880-437: The initiation ceremony for students of Āyurveda. The Upanayana rite of passage was also important to the teacher, as the student would therefrom begin to live in the gurukula (school). Upanayana became an elaborate ceremony, that includes rituals involving the family, the child and the teacher. A boy receives during this ceremony a sacred thread called the yajnopavita to be worn. The yajnopavita ceremony announces that

2952-403: The laws of just war, stating that first and foremost, war should be avoided by negotiations and reconciliations. If war becomes necessary, states Manusmriti, a soldier must never harm civilians, non-combatants or someone who has surrendered, that use of force should be proportionate, and other rules. Fair taxation guidelines are described in verses 7.127–7.137. Patrick Olivelle, credited with

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3024-491: The legal rights of the children so born. The text also provides for a situation when a married woman may become pregnant by a man other than her husband, and dedicates verses 8.31–8.56 to conclude that the child's custody belongs to the woman and her legal husband, and not to the biological father. Manusmriti provides a woman with property rights to six types of property in verses 9.192–9.200. These include those she received at her marriage, or as gift when she eloped or when she

3096-547: The life of students to be as compared to being optional before. In the Atharvaveda , and later in the Sutras period , the word Upanayana meant taking responsibility of a student, the beginning of an education, a student's initiation into "studentship" and the acceptance of the student by the teacher. Preceptors could include a guru , ācharya , upādhyāya , and ṛtvik. Gradually, new layers of meaning emerged, such as

3168-485: The marriage. For example, verses 9.72–9.81 allow the man or the woman to get out of a fraudulent or abusive marriage and remarry.The text also provides legal means for a woman to remarry when her husband has been missing or has abandoned her. While preaching chastity to widows such as in verses 5.158–5.160, and opposing a woman marrying someone outside her own social class in verses 3.13–3.14, in other verses, such as 2.67–2.69 and 5.148–5.155, Manusmriti preaches that as

3240-426: The most important identifiers of the Upanayana ceremony in contemporary times, however this was not always the case. Generally, this ceremony should be performed before the advent of adulthood. Upanayana literally means "the act of leading to or near, bringing", "introduction (into any science)" or "initiation" (as elucidated by Monier-Williams ). Upanayana is formed from the root √ nī meaning 'to lead'. Nayana

3312-402: The notes to this section, in both the presumed vulgate version and the critical edition. The verses 12.1, 12.2 and 12.82 are transitional verses. This section is in a different style than the rest of the text, raising questions whether this entire chapter was added later. While there is evidence that this chapter was extensively redacted over time, it is unclear whether the entire chapter is of

3384-460: The observed inconsistencies within Manusmriti as follows: I hold Manusmriti as part of Shastras. But that does not mean that I swear by every verse that is printed in the book described as Manusmriti. There are so many contradictions in the printed volume that, if you accept one part, you are bound to reject those parts that are wholly inconsistent with it. ... Nobody is in possession of the original text. There are numerous classical commentaries on

3456-467: The original text had no such division. The text covers different topics, and is unique among ancient Indian texts in using "transitional verses" to mark the end of one subject and the start of the next. The text can be broadly divided into four, each of different length. and each further divided into subsections: The text is composed in metric Shlokas (verses), in the form of a dialogue between an exalted teacher and disciples who are eager to learn about

3528-481: The original, at a later date. Sinha, for example, states that less than half, or only 1,214 of the 2,685 verses in Manusmriti, may be authentic. Further, the verses are internally inconsistent. Verses such as 3.55–3.62 of Manusmriti, for example, glorify the position of women, while verse such as 9.3 and 9.17 do the opposite. Other passages found in Manusmriti, such as those relating to Ganesha , are modern era insertions and forgeries. Robert E. Van Voorst states that

3600-459: The property of others. Similarly, in verse 4.204, states Olivelle, some manuscripts of Manusmriti list the recommended virtues to be, "compassion, forbearance, truthfulness, non-injury, self-control, not desiring, meditation, serenity, sweetness and honesty" as primary, and "purification, sacrifices, ascetic toil, gift giving, Vedic recitation, restraining the sexual organs, observances, fasts, silence and bathing" as secondary. A few manuscripts of

3672-680: The sacred tradition, the customs of virtuous men, and one's own pleasure, they declare to be the fourfold means of defining the sacred law. Translation 2: The Veda, tradition, the conduct of good people, and what is pleasing to oneself – they say that is four-fold mark of dharma. This section of Manusmriti, like other Hindu law texts, includes fourfold sources of Dharma , states Levinson, which include Atmana santushti (satisfaction of one's conscience), Sadachara (local norms of virtuous individuals), Smriti and Sruti . The verses 6.97, 9.325, 9.336 and 10.131 are transitional verses. Olivelle notes instances of likely interpolation and insertions in

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3744-433: The sculptor, the potter, the perfumer, the wheelwright, the painter, the weaver, the architect, the dancer, and the musician. The training of these began from childhood and included studies about dharma , culture, reading, writing, mathematics, geometry, colours, tools, as well as traditions and trade secrets. The rites of passage during apprentice education varied in the respective guilds. Suśruta and Charaka developed

3816-1584: The start of a new and disciplined life as a brahmāchārya . According to the given community and its regional language, it is also known by numerous terms such as mekhal in Kashmiri (मेखल), janeo in Punjabi (ਜਨੇਓ), jaanoi in Gujrati (જાનોઇ), janya in Sindhi (जन्य), janev in Bhojpuri (जनेव), munja in Marathi (मुंजा), munji in Konkani (मुंजी), poite in Bangla (পৈতৈ), brataghara in Odia (ବ୍ରତଘର), logun dioni in Assamese (লগুণ দিওনী), bratabandha in Nepali (ब्रतबन्ध), chewar in Newari (छेवार), upanayana in Kannada (ಉಪನಯನ), upanayanamu in Telugu (ఉపనయనము), upanayanam in Malayalam (ഉപനയനം), and upanayanam or poonool in Tamil (உபநயனம் or பூணூல்). The Upanayanam ceremony

3888-556: The student's home for those who are home-schooled. Ceremonial bhikṣa as one of the rituals during Upanayana became important, attaining sizeable proportions. The actual initiation occurred during the recitation of the Gāyatrī Mantra . The spiritual birth would take place four days after the initial Upanayana rituals. It was then that the last ritual was performed, the Medhajanana. The Samavartanam or convocation ritual marked

3960-489: The text as found in the [Calcutta] manuscript containing the commentary of Kulluka. I have called this as the " vulgate version". It was Kulluka's version that has been translated repeatedly: Jones (1794), Burnell (1884), Buhler (1886) and Doniger (1991). ... The belief in the authenticity of Kulluka's text was openly articulated by Burnell (1884, xxix): "There is then no doubt that the textus receptus, viz., that of Kulluka Bhatta, as adopted in India and by European scholars,

4032-434: The text contain a different verse 4.204, according to Olivelle, and list the recommended virtues to be, "not injuring anyone, speaking the truth, chastity, honesty and not stealing" as central and primary, while "not being angry, obedience to the teacher, purification, eating moderately and vigilance" to desirable and secondary. In other discovered manuscripts of Manusmriti , including the most translated Calcutta manuscript,

4104-564: The text declares in verse 4.204 that the ethical precepts under Yamas such as Ahimsa (non-violence) are paramount while Niyamas such as Ishvarapranidhana (contemplation of personal god) are minor, and those who do not practice the Yamas but obey the Niyamas alone become outcasts. Manusmriti has various verses on duties a person has towards himself and to others, thus including moral codes as well as legal codes. Olivelle states that this

4176-518: The text declares, "[a woman] must never seek to live independently". Simultaneously, states Olivelle, the text enumerates numerous practices such as marriages outside one's varna (see anuloma and pratiloma ), such as between a Brahmin man and a Shudra woman in verses 9.149–9.157, a widow becoming pregnant by a man she is not married to in verses 9.57–9.62, marriage where a woman elopes with her lover, and then grants legal rights in these cases such as property inheritance rights in verses 9.143–9.157, and

4248-466: The text states that work becomes without effort when a man contemplates, undertakes and does what he loves to do and when he does so without harming any creature. Numerous verses relate to the practice of meat eating, how it causes injury to living beings, why it is evil, and the morality of vegetarianism. Yet, the text balances its moral tone as an appeal to one's conscience, states Olivelle. For example, verse 5.56 as translated by Olivelle states, "there

4320-491: The text was composed to address the balance "between the political power and the priestly interests", and because of the rise in foreign invasions of India in the period it was composed. Manusmriti lists and recommends virtues in many verses. For example, verse 6.75 recommends non-violence towards everyone and temperance as key virtues, while verse 10.63 preaches that all four varnas must abstain from injuring any creature, abstain from falsehood and abstain from appropriating

4392-511: The text which must be later than the late Vedic texts such as the Upanishads , themselves dated a few centuries later, around 500 BCE. Later scholars shifted the chronology of the text to between the 1st or 2nd century CE. Olivelle adds that numismatic evidence and the mention of gold coins as a fine suggest the text may date to the 2nd or 3rd century CE. Most scholars consider the text a composite produced by many authors put together over

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4464-455: The three Varṇas of society to undergo the Upanayana. In some regions, in modern times, some girls undergo Upanayana rite of passage. In ancient and medieval eras, texts such as Harita Dharmasūtras, Aśvālayana Gṛhya Sutra and Yama smrṛti suggest women could begin Vedic studies after Upanayana. Girls who decided to become a student underwent the Upanayana rite of passage, at the age of 8, and thereafter were called Brahmavadinī . They wore

4536-403: The title as Manava Dharmashastra (Sanskrit: मानव धर्मशास्त्र) in their colophons at the end of each chapter. In modern scholarship, these two titles refer to the same text. Philologists Jones and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel , in the 18th century, dated Manusmriti to around 1250 BCE and 1000 BCE respectively, which, from later linguistic developments, is untenable due to the language of

4608-610: The upper garment or sacred thread, and its significance, extended to women. This is reflected in the traditional wearing of sari over the left shoulder, during formal occasions and the celebration of rites of passage such as Hindu weddings. It was also the norm if a girl undertakes the Upanayana ceremony and begins her Vedic studies as a Brahmavadinī . The sacred Yajnopavita is known by many names (varying by region and community), such as Bratabandha, Janivaara , Jaanva , Jandhyam , Poita , Pūṇūl , Janeu , Lagun , Yajnopavita , Yagyopavit , Yonya and Zunnar . Scholars state that

4680-568: The various aspects of dharma . The first 58 verses are attributed by the text to Manu , while the remaining more than two thousand verses are attributed to his student Bhrigu . Olivelle lists the subsections as follows: The Dharmasya Yonih (Sources of the Law) has twenty-four verses and one transition verse. These verses state what the text considers as the proper and just sources of law: वेदोऽखिलो धर्ममूलं स्मृतिशीले च तद्विदाम् । आचारश्चैव साधूनामात्मनस्तुष्टिरेव च ॥ Translation 1: The whole Veda

4752-618: The verses from 3.55–60 may be about respect given to a woman in her home, but within a strong patriarchal system. Nelson in 1887, in a legal brief before the Madras High Court of British India, had stated, "there are various contradictions and inconsistencies in the Manu Smriti itself, and that these contradictions would lead one to conclude that such a commentary did not lay down legal principles to be followed but were merely recommendatory in nature." Mahatma Gandhi remarked on

4824-401: The vulgate in key readings." In Nepal, a ceremony is held which combines choodakarma (tonsure, shave the head) and Upanayana saṃskāra locally known as Bratabandha ( Sanskrit vrata = promise, bandhana = bond). In Nepal , The one who wears the sacred thread are called as Tagadhari . This Sanskara involves the participation of entire family and a teacher who then accepts the boy as

4896-562: Was based on the Calcutta manuscript with the commentary of Kulluka, which has been assumed to be the reliable vulgate version, and translated repeatedly from Jones in 1794 to Doniger in 1991. The reliability of the Manusmṛti manuscript used since colonial times, states Olivelle, is "far from the truth. Indeed, one of the great surprises of my editorial work has been to discover how few of the over fifty manuscripts that I collated actually follow

4968-403: Was given by the teacher during the initiation to school ceremony and was a symbolic reminder to the student of his purpose at school as well as a social marker of the student as someone who was born a second time ( dvija , twice born). Many medieval era texts discuss Upanayana in the context of three of the four varnas (caste, class) — Brāhmaṇas , Kṣatriyas and Vaiśyas . The ceremony

5040-530: Was taken away, or as token of love before marriage, or as gifts from her biological family, or as received from her husband subsequent to marriage, and also from inheritance from deceased relatives. Flavia Agnes states that Manusmriti is a complex commentary from women's rights perspective, and the British colonial era codification of women's rights based on it for Hindus, and from Islamic texts for Muslims, picked and emphasised certain aspects while it ignored other sections. This construction of personal law during

5112-538: Was typically performed at age eight among the Brāhmaṇas , at age 11 among the Kṣatriyas , and age 12 among Vaiśyas. Apastamba Gryha Sutra (verse 1.1.1.27) places a maximum age limit of 24 for the Upanayana ceremony and start of formal education. However, Gautama Gṛyha Sūtra and other ancient texts state that there is no age restriction and anyone of any age can undertake Upanayanam when they initiate their formal studies of

5184-425: Was used by Manu . Another variation is vratabandha(na) meaning "binding to an observance". The word janeu is a condensed version of yagyopaveeta . The ceremony is also known as punal kalyanam (meaning auspicious thread ceremony) and Brahmopadeśa . The sacred thread or upper garment is called the yajñopavīta ( Sanskrit : यज्ञोपवीतम् , romanized :  yajñopavītam ), used as an adjective, which

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