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66-515: According to E. H. Palmer (1881), the name means "the horn" or "the trumpet". This name rises from a misconception on the part of the Arab-speaking inhabitants, as the name, [..] Tyre means in Arabic a horn or trumpet; therefore Ras Sur (the headland or ladder of Tyre') is rendered by Nakura, the synonym for Sur. The word is also connected with [..] to peck or perforate." In 1875, during

132-581: A car in An-Naqoura. UN peacekeepers accused Israel of a "deliberate and direct" attack on their positions in Lebanon, following multiple incursions, including one incident in Ras an-Naqoura where Israeli military vehicles reportedly damaged a fence and concrete structure. The IDF acknowledged that Hezbollah rockets had hit UNIFIL’s An-Naqoura headquarters, lightly wounding eight Austrian soldiers. The EU condemned

198-835: A migration out of northwestern India beginning about 600 years earlier. The Roma migrated throughout Europe and Iberian Calé or Caló. The first Roma to come to the United States arrived in Virginia, Georgia , New Jersey and Louisiana during the 1500s. Romani slaves were first shipped to the Americas with Columbus in 1498. Spain sent Romani slaves to their Louisiana colony between 1762 and 1800. An Afro-Romani community exists in St. Martin Parish due to intermarriage of freed African American and Romani slaves. The Romani population in

264-399: A number of ancient isoglosses with central Indo-Aryan languages in relation to realization of some sounds of Old Indo-Aryan . This is lent further credence by its sharing exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers. The overall morphology suggests that Romani participated in some of

330-603: A self-description for the entire ethnic group. Sometimes, rom and romani are spelled with a double r , i.e., rrom and rromani . In this case rr is used to represent the phoneme /ʀ/ (also written as ř and rh ), which in some Romani dialects has remained different from the one written with a single r . The rr spelling is common in certain institutions (such as the INALCO Institute in Paris), or used in certain countries, e.g., Romania, to distinguish from

396-512: A series of meetings in the UN headquarters in An-Naqoura to negotiate an Israeli withdrawal. In the autumn of 1986 Lahad ’s South Lebanon Army constructed a small port in An-Naqoura from which a ferry connected to Jounieh , north of Beirut. On 3 September 1991 a Swedish soldier serving with UNIFIL , was killed when he was caught in a shootout between Palestinians and SLA gunmen in An-Naqoura. Twelve days later, 15 September, another Swedish soldier

462-586: A significant genetic mark on the Y-DNA of the Roma there, creating a higher frequency of Haplogroups J and E3b in Romani populations from the region. A full genome autosomal DNA study on 186 Roma samples from Europe in 2019 found that modern Romani people are characterized by a common south Asian origin and a complex admixture from Balkan , Middle East, and Caucasus -derived ancestries. The autosomal genetic data links

528-432: A small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group". The same study found that "a single lineage... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males". A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romani population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago". Haplogroup H-M82

594-523: Is Rom . Even when subgroups do not use the name, they all acknowledge a common origin and a dichotomy between themselves and Gadjo (non-Roma). For instance, while the main group of Roma in German-speaking countries refer to themselves as Sinti , their name for their original language is Romanes . Subgroups have been described as, in part, a result of the castes and subcastes in India, which

660-1098: Is a major lineage cluster in the Balkan Romani group, accounting for approximately 60% of the total. Haplogroup H is uncommon in Europe but present in the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka . A study of 444 people representing three ethnic groups in North Macedonia found mtDNA haplogroups M5a1 and H7a1a were dominant in Romanies (13.7% and 10.3%, respectively). Y-DNA composition of Muslim Roma from Šuto Orizari Municipality in North Macedonia , based on 57 samples: Y-DNA Haplogroup H1a occurs in Roma at frequencies 7–70%. Unlike ethnic Hungarians, among Hungarian and Slovakian Roma subpopulations Haplogroup E-M78 and I1 usually occur above 10% and sometimes over 20%, while among Slovakian and Tiszavasvari Roma,

726-484: Is an Indo-Aryan language with strong Balkan and Greek influence. It is divided into several dialects , which together are estimated to have over 2 million speakers. Because the language has traditionally been oral, many Roma are native speakers of the dominant language in their country of residence, or else of mixed languages that combine the dominant language with a dialect of Romani in varieties sometimes called para-Romani . Rom literally means husband in

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792-526: Is an accepted version of this page The Romani people ( / ˈ r oʊ m ə n i / ROH -mə-nee or / ˈ r ɒ m ə n i / ROM -ə-nee ), also known as the Roma ( sg. : Rom ), are an ethnic group of Indo-Aryan origin who traditionally lived a nomadic , itinerant lifestyle. Linguistic and genetic evidence suggests that the Roma originated in the Indian subcontinent , in particular

858-535: Is from Sanskrit डोम doma (member of a low caste of travelling musicians and dancers). Despite their presence in the country and neighboring nations, the word is not related in any way to the name of Romania. Romani is the feminine adjective, while Romano is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as an ethnic name, while others (such as the Sinti, or the Romanichal) do not use this term as

924-489: Is now believed to have occurred beginning in about 500 CE. It has also been suggested that emigration from India may have taken place in the context of the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni . As these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire . The author Ralph Lilley Turner theorised a central Indian origin of Romani followed by a migration to northwest India as it shares

990-534: Is that the demonyms of the Roma, Lom and Dom , share the same origin. The English exonym Gypsy (or Gipsy ) originates from the Middle English gypcian , short for Egipcien . The Spanish term Gitano and French Gitan have similar etymologies. They are ultimately derived from the Greek Αιγύπτιοι ( Aigyptioi ), meaning "Egyptian", via Latin . This designation owes its existence to

1056-459: The Council of Europe and other organizations consider that Roma is the correct term referring to all related groups, regardless of their country of origin, and recommend that Romani be restricted to the language and culture: Romani language , Romani culture . The British government uses the term "Roma" as a sub-group of " White " in its ethnic classification system. The standard assumption

1122-594: The Romani language , with the plural Roma . The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni/Romli/Romnije or Romlije . However, in most other languages Rom is now used for individuals regardless of gender. It has the variants dom and lom , which may be related to the Sanskrit words dam-pati (lord of the house, husband), dama (to subdue), lom (hair), lomaka (hairy), loman , roman (hairy), romaça (man with beard and long hair). Another possible origin

1188-625: The central zone ( Hindustani ) group of languages. The Dom and the Rom, therefore, likely descend from two migration waves from India separated by several centuries. In phonology , the Romani language shares several isoglosses with the Central branch of Indo-Aryan languages, especially in the realization of some sounds of the Old Indo-Aryan. However, it also preserves several dental clusters. In regards to verb morphology, Romani follows exactly

1254-539: The endonym / homonym for Romanians ( sg. român, pl. români ). In Norway, Romani is used exclusively for an older Northern Romani -speaking population (which arrived in the 16th century) while Rom/Romanes is used to describe Vlax Romani -speaking groups that migrated since the 19th century. In the English language (according to the Oxford English Dictionary ), Rom is both a noun (with

1320-643: The exonym Gypsies or Gipsies , which many Roma consider a racial slur . The attendees of the first World Romani Congress in 1971 unanimously voted to reject the use of all exonyms for the Roma, including "Gypsy". However, it is not considered a slur in the UK and Romani people in the United Kingdom commonly refer to themselves as "Gypsies". The first Roma to come to the United States arrived in Virginia , Georgia , New Jersey and Louisiana during

1386-681: The infant Jesus . In his book The Zincali: an account of the Gypsies of Spain , George Borrow notes that when they first appeared in Germany, it was under the character of Egyptians doing penance for their having refused hospitality to Mary and her son. As described in Victor Hugo 's novel The Hunchback of Notre-Dame , the medieval French referred to the Romanies as Égyptiens . These exonyms are sometimes written with capital letter, to show that they designate an ethnic group . However,

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1452-497: The medieval migration from India. The Roma have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations", while a number of common Mendelian disorders among Roma from all over Europe indicates "a common origin and founder effect ". A 2020 whole-genome study confirmed the northwest Indian origins, and also confirmed substantial Balkan and Middle Eastern ancestry. A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with

1518-527: The 1600s. Romani slaves were first shipped to the Americas with Columbus in 1498. Spain sent Romani slaves to their Louisiana colony between 1762 and 1800. An Afro-Romani community exists in St. Martin Parish due to intermarriage between freed African American and Romani slaves. The Romani population in the United States is estimated at more than one million. There are between 800,000 and 1   million Roma in Brazil , most of whose ancestors emigrated in

1584-711: The 19th century from Eastern Europe. Brazilian Roma are mostly descended from German/Italian Sinti (in the South/Southeast regions), and Roma and Calon people. Brazil also includes a notable Romani community descended from Sinti and Roma deportees from the Portuguese Empire during the Portuguese Inquisition . Since the late 19th century, Roma have also migrated to other countries in South America and Canada. The Romani language

1650-535: The Balkans about 900 years ago and then spread throughout Europe. The team also found that the Roma displayed genetic isolation, as well as "differential gene flow in time and space with non-Romani Europeans". Genetic research published in the European Journal of Human Genetics "has revealed that over 70% of males belong to a single lineage that appears unique to the Roma". Genetic evidence supports

1716-813: The English bar in 1874. Early in 1882, Palmer was asked by the government to go to the East and assist the Egyptian expedition by his influence over the Arabs of the El-Tih desert (for definition see here ). He was instructed, apparently, to prevent the Arab sheikhs from joining the Egyptian rebels and to secure their non-interference with the Suez Canal . He went to Gaza without an escort; made his way safely through

1782-664: The Indian subcontinent. In addition, they theorized of a possible low- caste ( Dalit ) origin for the Proto-Roma, since they were genetically closer to the Punjabi cluster that lacks a common marker characteristic of high castes, which is West Euroasian admixing. The Roma may have emerged from what is the modern Indian state of Rajasthan , migrating to the northwest (the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent ) around 250 BCE. Their subsequent westward migration, possibly in waves,

1848-522: The Middle East and the Americas. The Roma may identify as distinct ethnicities based in part on territorial, cultural and dialectal differences, and self-designation. Like the Roma in general, many different ethnonyms are given to subgroups of Roma. Sometimes a subgroup uses more than one endonym , is commonly known by an exonym or erroneously by the endonym of another subgroup. The only name approaching an all-encompassing self-description

1914-438: The Roma has led to many of the cultural practices being extinguished, hidden or modified to survive in a country that has excluded them ethnically and culturally. The very common carnivals throughout Brazil are one of the few spaces in which the Roma can still express their cultural traditions, including the so-called "carnival wedding" in which a boy is disguised as a bride and the famous "Romaní dance", picturesquely simulated with

1980-480: The Roma have genetic, cultural and linguistic links—has come to imply "dark-skinned" in some Indian languages. Hence, names such as kale and calé may have originated as an exonym or a euphemism for Roma . Other endonyms for Roma include, for example: The Romani people have a number of distinct populations, the largest being the Roma, who reached Anatolia and the Balkans about the early 12th century from

2046-476: The Roma originated in northwestern India and migrated as a group. According to the study, the ancestors of present scheduled caste and scheduled tribe populations of northern India , traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma , are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma. In December 2012, additional findings appeared to confirm that the "Roma came from a single group that left northwestern India about 1,500 years ago". They reached

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2112-554: The Romani dispersal, there were an estimated 10 million in Europe (as of 2019), although some Romani organizations have given earlier estimates as high as 14 million. Significant Romani populations are found in the Balkans , in some central European states, in Spain, France, Russia and Ukraine. In the European Union , there are an estimated 6 million Roma. Outside Europe there may be several million more Roma, in particular in

2178-604: The United States is estimated at more than one million. In Brazil, the Roma are mainly called ciganos by non-Romani Brazilians. Most of them belong to the ethnic subgroup Calés (Kale) of the Iberian peninsula. Juscelino Kubitschek , Brazil's president from 1956 to 1961, was 50% Czech Romani by his mother's bloodline, and Washington Luís , the last president of the First Brazilian Republic (1926–1930), had Portuguese Kale ancestry. Persecution against

2244-670: The acquaintance of Sir Richard Burton , then consul there, he returned to England in 1870 by way of Constantinople and Vienna . At Vienna he met Arminius Vambéry . The results of this expedition appeared in the Desert of the Exodus (1871); in a report published in the journal of the Palestine Exploration Fund (1871); and in an article on the "Secret Sects of Syria " in the Quarterly Review (1873). In

2310-591: The belief, common in the Middle Ages, that the Roma, or some related group (such as the Indian Dom people ), were itinerant Egyptians . This belief appears to be derived from verses in the biblical Book of Ezekiel (29: 6 and 12–13) which refer to the Egyptians being scattered among the nations by an angry God. According to one narrative, they were exiled from Egypt as punishment for allegedly harbouring

2376-405: The carriers might be of Romani origin. Among non-Roma-speaking Europeans, it occurs at 2% among Slovaks , 2% among Croats , 1% among Macedonians from Skopje, 3% among Macedonian Albanians , 1% among Serbs from Belgrade , 3% among Bulgarians from Sofia, 1% among Austrians and Swiss, 3% among Romanians from Ploiești , and 1% among Turks . The Ottoman occupation of the Balkans also left

2442-459: The close of the year 1871 he became Lord Almoner's Professor of Arabic at Cambridge University , married, and settled down to teaching. His salary was small, and his affairs were further complicated by his wife's long illness, who died in 1878. In 1881, two years after his second marriage, he left Cambridge and joined the staff of the Standard to write on non-political subjects. He was called to

2508-676: The desert to Suez, an exploit of singular boldness; and was highly successful in his negotiations with the Bedouin. He was appointed interpreter-in-chief to the force in Egypt, and from Suez he was again sent into the desert with Captain William Gill and Flag-Lieutenant Harold Charrington to procure camels and gain the allegiance of the sheikhs by considerable presents of money. On this journey he and his companions were led into an ambush and murdered (August 1882). Their remains, recovered after

2574-506: The dominant haplogroup is H1a; among Tokaj Roma it is Haplogroup J2a (23%); and among Taktaharkány Roma, it is Haplogroup I2a (21%). Five rather consistent founder lineages throughout the subpopulations were found among Roma – J-M67 and J-M92 (J2), H-M52 (H1a1), and I-P259 (I1). Haplogroup I-P259 as H is not found at frequencies of over 3% among host populations, while haplogroups E and I are absent in south Asia. The lineages E-V13, I-P37 (I2a) and R-M17 (R1a) may represent gene flow from

2640-552: The double r spelling (e.g., Rroma , Rromani ) mentioned above is also encountered in English texts. The term Roma is increasingly encountered as a generic term for the Roma. Because not all Roma use the word Romani as an adjective, the term became a noun for the entire ethnic group. Today, the term Romani is used by some organizations, including the United Nations and the US Library of Congress. However,

2706-656: The east. Two springs with plentiful supply of water." In 1978 UNIFIL established its headquarters around the former toll station beside An-Naqoura. Some of the buildings marked the end of the Lebanese section of the Beirut-Haifa railway which had been closed since Jewish forces blew up the tunnel into Palestine in 1948. Following the 1982 invasion An-Naqoura became part of the Israeli Security Zone . In November 1983 Israeli and Lebanese officials began

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2772-571: The end of his reign (421–439) that the poor could not afford to enjoy music, and so he asked the king of India to send him ten thousand luris , lute-playing experts. When the luris arrived, Bahrām gave each one an ox, a donkey, and a donkey-load of wheat so they could live on agriculture and play music for free for the poor. However, the luris ate the oxen and the wheat and came back a year later with their cheeks hollowed by hunger. The king, angered with their having wasted what he had given them, ordered them to pack up their bags and go wandering around

2838-530: The founding population of Rom almost certainly experienced in their south Asian urheimat . Many groups use names derived from the Romani word kalo or calo , meaning "black" or "absorbing all light". This closely resembles words for "black" or "dark" in Indo-Aryan languages (e.g., Sanskrit काल kāla : "black", "of a dark colour"). Likewise, the name of the Dom or Domba people of north India—with whom

2904-488: The host populations. Bulgarian, Romanian and Greek Roma are dominated by Haplogroup H-M82 (H1a1), while among Spanish Roma J2 is prevalent. In Serbia among Kosovo and Belgrade Roma Haplogroup H prevails, while among Vojvodina Roma, H drops to 7 percent and E-V13 rises to a prevailing level. Among non-Roma Europeans, Haplogroup H is extremely rare, peaking at 7% among Albanians from Tirana and 11% among Bulgarian Turks . It occurs at 5% among Hungarians , although

2970-441: The language participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages . The following table presents the numerals in the Romani , Domari and Lomavren languages, with the corresponding terms in Sanskrit , Hindi , Odia , and Sinhala to demonstrate the similarities. Note that the Romani numerals 7 through 9 have been borrowed from Greek . Genetic findings in 2012 suggest

3036-491: The late Ottoman era, Victor Guérin described it: "The village stands upon a hill, on the south of which is a deep way, through which flows a spring called 'Ain Nakurah, which waters plantations of fig-trees and olives mixed with palms. The village contains 400 Metawileh . The houses are modern, but some of the materials appear ancient by their regularity and dimensions. There must, therefore, have been an older village here,

3102-517: The name of which was probably similar, if not identical." According to Guérin, the place is associated with the historic Ladder of the Tyrians (Scala Tyriorum). In 1881, the PEF 's Survey of Western Palestine (SWP) described it: "A village, built of stone, containing about 250 Moslems, situated on low hills by sea-coast. Gardens of olives, palms, pomegranates, figs, and arable land ; brushwood to

3168-646: The origin of this word is Athinganoi , the name of a Christian sect with whom the Roma (or some related group) could have become associated in the past. There is no official or reliable count of the Romani populations worldwide. Many Roma refuse to register their ethnic identity in official censuses for a variety of reasons, such as fear of discrimination. Others are descendants of intermarriage with local populations, some who no longer identify only as Romani and some who do not identify as Romani at all. Then, too, some countries do not collect data by ethnicity. Despite these challenges to getting an accurate picture of

3234-478: The past tense, the neutralisation of gender marking in the plural, and the use of the oblique case as an accusative. This has prompted much discussion about the relationships between these two languages. Domari was once thought to be a "sister language" of Romani, the two languages having split after the departure from the Indian subcontinent—but later research suggests that the differences between them are significant enough to treat them as two separate languages within

3300-416: The plural Roma or Roms ) and an adjective. Similarly, Romani ( Romany ) is both a noun (with the plural Romani , the Romani , Romanies , or Romanis ) and an adjective. Both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy . Romani was sometimes spelled Rommany , but more often Romany , while today Romani is the most popular spelling. Occasionally,

3366-439: The proto-Roma to groups in northwest India (specifically Punjabi and Gujarati samples), as well as, Dravidian-speaking groups in southeastern India (specifically Irula ). The paternal lineages of Roma are most common in southern and central India among Dravidian-speaking populations. The authors argue that this may point to a founder effect among the early Roma during their ethnogenesis or shortly after they migrated out of

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3432-500: The region of Rajasthan . Their first wave of westward migration is believed to have occurred sometime between the 5th and 11th centuries. They are thought to have arrived in Europe around the 13th to 14th century. Although they are widely dispersed , their most concentrated populations are believed to be in Bulgaria , Hungary , Romania , Serbia and Slovakia . In the English language, Romani people have long been known by

3498-424: The same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers, lending credence to the theory of their Central Indian origin and a subsequent migration to northwestern India. Though the retention of dental clusters suggests a break from central languages during the transition from Old to Middle Indo-Aryan, the overall morphology suggests that

3564-400: The significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages , thus indicating that the proto-Roma did not leave the Indian subcontinent until late in the second half of the first millennium. The first Romani people are believed to have arrived in Europe via the Balkans in the 13th or 14th century. Romani people began migrating to other parts of the continent during

3630-468: The society of foreigners wherever he could find it. In 1859 he returned to Cambridge, almost dying of tuberculosis . He made a miraculous recovery, and in 1860, while he was thinking of a new start in life, fell in with Sayyid Abdallah, teacher of Hindustani at Cambridge, under whose influence he began his Oriental studies. He matriculated at St John's College, Cambridge in November 1863, and in 1867

3696-597: The survey of Sinai Peninsula undertaken by the Palestine Exploration Fund . He followed up this work in the next year by exploring the desert of El-Tih in company with Charles Francis Tyrwhitt-Drake . They completed this journey on foot and without escort, making friends among the Bedouin , to whom Palmer was known as Abdallah Effendi. After a visit to the Lebanon and to Damascus , where he made

3762-435: The violence, urging protection for UN personnel and the continuation of UNIFIL’s peacekeeping mission. In 2014 Muslims made up 98,98% of registered voters in An-Naqoura. 88,54% of the voters were Shiite Muslims and 10,43% were Sunni Muslims . Edward Henry Palmer Edward Henry Palmer (7 August 1840 – 10 August 1882), known as E. H. Palmer , was an English orientalist and explorer. Palmer

3828-674: The war by the efforts of Sir Charles (then Colonel) Warren , now lie in St Paul's Cathedral . According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition , "Palmer's highest qualities appeared in his travels, especially in the heroic adventures of his last journeys. His brilliant scholarship is displayed rather in the works he wrote in Persian and other Eastern languages than in his English books, which were generally written under pressure. His scholarship

3894-580: The women of the town parading in their traditional attire. Genetic findings show an Indian origin for Roma. Because Romani groups did not keep chronicles of their history or have oral accounts of it, most hypotheses about early Romani migration are based on linguistic theory. According to a legend reported in the Persian epic poem, the Shahnameh , the Sasanian king Bahrām V Gōr learned towards

3960-419: The word Gypsy is most commonly used as a reference to Romani ethnicity, though lifestyle and fashion are at times also referenced by using this word. Another designation of the Roma is Cingane (alternatively Çingene, Tsinganoi, Zigar, Zigeuner, Tschingaren), likely deriving from the Persian word چنگانه ( chingane ), derived from the Turkic word çıgañ , meaning poor person. It is also possible that

4026-477: The word is often considered derogatory because of its negative and stereotypical associations. The Council of Europe consider that "Gypsy" or equivalent terms, as well as administrative terms such as "Gens du Voyage" are not in line with European recommendations. In Britain, many Roma proudly identify as "Gypsies", and, as part of the Gypsy, Roma and Traveller grouping, this is the name used to describe all para-Romani groups in official contexts. In North America,

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4092-416: The world on their donkeys. Linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that the roots of the Romani language lie in India: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indian languages and shares with them a large part of the basic lexicon. Romani and Domari share some similarities: agglutination of postpositions of the second layer (or case-marking clitics) to the nominal stem, concord markers for

4158-490: Was born in Green Street, Cambridge , the son of a private schoolmaster. He was orphaned at an early age and brought up by an aunt. He was educated at The Perse School , and as a schoolboy showed the characteristic bent of his mind by picking up the Romani language and a great familiarity with the life of the Romani people . From school he was sent to London as a clerk in the city. Palmer disliked this life, and varied it by learning French and Italian , mainly by frequenting

4224-419: Was elected a fellow on account of his attainments as an orientalist, especially in Persian and Hindustani. During his residence at St John's he catalogued the Persian, Arabic and Turkish manuscripts in the university library and the libraries of King's and Trinity . In 1867 he published a treatise on Oriental mysticism based on the Maqsad-i-aqsa of Aziz ad-Din Nasafi . He was engaged in 1869 to join

4290-432: Was killed and five Swedish and French soldiers were wounded when Palestinian gunmen intending to carry out an attack on the Israeli city of Nahariya en route to their target by boat mistakenly landed in An-Naqoura and confronted UNIFIL troops. One of the gunmen was also killed and another injured. During the 2024 Israel-Hezbollah conflict , Lebanese Health Ministry officials reported two deaths from an Israeli airstrike on

4356-556: Was wholly Eastern in character, and lacked the critical qualities of the modern school of Oriental learning in Europe. All his works show a great linguistic range and very versatile talent; but he left no permanent literary monument worthy of his powers." His chief writings are He was also an editor of Name Lists of the Palestine Exploration . Several articles in the Encyclopædia Britannica , 9th edition (1875–89) and 10th edition (1902–03), including on Firdowsi , Hafiz , Ibn Khaldun and Legerdemain . Romani people This

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