The National Anti-Vaccination League (NAVL) was a British anti-vaccination organization that was formed in 1896 from earlier smaller organizations. Historically, the League had opposed compulsory vaccination, particularly against smallpox . It was part of a wider anti-vaccinationist movement, arguing that vaccination did more harm than good.
127-531: The National Anti-Vaccination League grew from earlier smaller organizations in London, originally under the title Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League (ACVL) in response to the government making smallpox vaccination compulsory. The Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League was founded by Richard Butler Gibbs at Finsbury in 1866. Members included Richard's brother George Sleight Gibbs and his cousin John Gibbs, author of
254-494: A public health emergency of international concern, marking the second such declaration in the last two years due to the virus's transmission. The WHO's Constitution states that its objective "is the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health". The WHO fulfils this objective through its functions as defined in its Constitution: As of 2012 , the WHO has defined its role in public health as follows: Since
381-474: A causal connection but the idea was not taken up at that time. From 1770 to 1772 Jenner received advanced training in London at St. George's Hospital and as the private pupil of John Hunter , then returned to set up practice in Berkeley. Perhaps there was already an informal public understanding of some connection between disease resistance and working with cattle. The "beautiful milkmaid " seems to have been
508-502: A convention concerning the bubonic plague was signed by sixteen of the nineteen states attending the Venice conference. While Denmark , Sweden-Norway , and the US did not sign this convention, it was unanimously agreed that the work of the prior conferences should be codified for implementation. Subsequent conferences, from 1902 until the final one in 1938, widened the diseases of concern for
635-463: A farmer of Yetminster in Dorset , observing that the two milkmaids living with his family were immune to smallpox, inoculated his family with cowpox to protect them from smallpox. He attracted a certain amount of local criticism and ridicule at the time then interest waned. Attention was later drawn to Jesty, and he was brought to London in 1802 by critics jealous of Jenner's prominence at a time when he
762-778: A forum for scientific or policy discussions related to health. Its official publication, the World Health Report , provides assessments of worldwide health topics. The WHO has played a leading role in several public health achievements, most notably the eradication of smallpox , the eradication of polio , and the development of an Ebola vaccine . Its current priorities include communicable diseases , such as HIV/AIDS , Ebola , malaria and tuberculosis ; non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and cancer ; healthy diet , nutrition, and food security ; occupational health ; and substance abuse . The agency advocates for universal health care coverage, engagement with
889-580: A frequent image in the art and literature of this period. But it is known for certain that in the years following 1770, at least six people in England and Germany (Sevel, Jensen, Jesty 1774, Rendall, Plett 1791) tested successfully the possibility of using the cowpox vaccine as an immunization for smallpox in humans. Jenner sent a paper reporting his observations to the Royal Society in April 1797. It
1016-880: A further act in 1907 allowed exemption by a statutory declaration which could not be refused. Although theoretically still compulsory, the Vaccination Act 1907 ( 7 Edw. 7 . c. 31) effectively marked the end of compulsory infant vaccination in England. In the United States vaccination was regulated by individual states, the first to impose compulsory vaccination being Massachusetts in 1809. There then followed sequences of compulsion, opposition and repeal in various states. By 1930 Arizona, Utah, North Dakota and Minnesota prohibited compulsory vaccination, 35 states allowed regulation by local authorities, or had no legislation affecting vaccination, whilst in ten states, including Washington, D.C. and Massachusetts, infant vaccination
1143-587: A mild case [of smallpox], recover, and thereafter be immune. —Dr. Peter Kennedy Stimulated by a severe epidemic, variolation was first employed in North America in 1721. The procedure had been known in Boston since 1706, when preacher Cotton Mather learned it from Onesimus , a man he held as a slave, who – like many of his peers – had been inoculated in Africa before they were kidnapped. This practice
1270-537: A more rapid immune response while still causing lesser side effects. MVA-BN (also known as: Imvanex in the European Union; Imvamune in Canada; and Jynneos ) is a vaccine manufactured by Bavarian Nordic by growing MVA in cell culture. Unlike replicating vaccines, MVA-BN is administered by injection via the subcutaneous route and does not result in a vaccine "take." A "take" or "major cutaneous reaction"
1397-427: A replicating vaccine to reduce the side effects, or an alternative vaccine that could be safely given to people at high risk from a replicating vaccine. Japan evaluated MVA and rejected it due to its low immunogenicity, deciding to develop its own attenuated vaccine instead. In the 2000s, MVA was tested in animal models at much higher dosages. When MVA is given to monkeys at 40 times the dosage of Dryvax, it stimulates
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#17327824058231524-540: A resolution on disability prevention and rehabilitation , with a focus on community-driven care. 1977 and 1978: The first list of essential medicines was drawn up, and a year later the ambitious goal of " Health For All " was declared. 1986: The WHO began its global programme on HIV/AIDS . Two years later preventing discrimination against patients was attended to and in 1996 the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)
1651-429: A resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss , the secretary general of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organization. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for an international conference on health. The use of the word "world", rather than "international", emphasized the truly global nature of what the organization was seeking to achieve. The constitution of
1778-508: A series of conferences that took place until 1938, about 87 years. The first conference, in Paris, was almost solely concerned with cholera , which would remain the disease of major concern for the ISC for most of the 19th century. With the cause , origin, and communicability of many epidemic diseases still uncertain and a matter of scientific argument, international agreement on appropriate measures
1905-458: A small percentage of recipients, including death in 1–10 people per million vaccinations. Third-generation vaccines are much safer due to the milder side effects of the attenuated vaccinia strains. Second and third-generation vaccines are still being produced, with manufacturing capacity being built up in the 2000s due to fears of bioterrorism and biological warfare. The first-generation vaccines are manufactured by growing live vaccinia virus in
2032-450: Is a pustular lesion or an area of definite induration or congestion surrounding a central lesion, which can be a scab or an ulcer. MVA-BN can also be administered intradermally to increase the number of available doses. It is safer for immunocompromised patients and those who are at risk from a vaccinia infection. MVA-BN has been approved in the European Union, Canada, and the United States. Clinical trials have found that MVA-BN
2159-575: Is a replication-incompetent variant of vaccinia that was developed in West Germany through serial passage . The original Ankara strain of vaccinia was maintained at the vaccine institute in Ankara, Turkey on donkeys and cows. The Ankara strain was taken to West Germany in 1953, where Herrlich and Mayr grew it on chorioallantoic membrane at the University of Munich . After 572 serial passages,
2286-489: Is administered by multiple puncture of the skin (scarification) with a bifurcated needle that holds vaccine solution in the fork. The skin should be cleaned with water rather than alcohol, as the alcohol could inactivate the vaccinia virus. If alcohol is used, it must be allowed to evaporate completely before the vaccine is administered. Vaccination results in a skin lesion that fills with pus and eventually crusts over. This manifestation of localized vaccinia infection
2413-410: Is known as a vaccine "take" and demonstrates immunity to smallpox. After 2–3 weeks, the scab will fall off and leave behind a vaccine scar. First generation vaccines consist of live, unattenuated vaccinia virus. One-third of first-time vaccinees develop side effects significant enough to miss school, work, or other activities, or have difficulty sleeping. 15–20% of children receiving the vaccine for
2540-557: Is now on the verge of extinction, thanks to a Global Vaccination Drive. The World Health Organization (WHO) stated the eradication programme has saved millions from deadly disease. Between 1990 and 2010, WHO's help has contributed to a 40% decline in the number of deaths from tuberculosis, and since 2005, over 46 million people have been treated and an estimated 7 million lives saved through practices advocated by WHO. These include engaging national governments and their financing, early diagnosis, standardising treatment, monitoring of
2667-548: Is one in which the pathogenicity has been decreased through serial passage ) have been proposed, but some researchers have questioned the possible effectiveness of such a vaccine. According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), "within 3 days of being exposed to the virus, the vaccine might protect you from getting the disease. If you still get the disease, you might get much less sick than an unvaccinated person would. Within 4 to 7 days of being exposed to
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#17327824058232794-459: Is ongoing to replace expired vaccine. ACAM2000 was approved for mpox prevention in the United States in August 2024. The third-generation vaccines are based on attenuated vaccinia viruses that are much less virulent and carry lesser side effects. The attenuated viruses may be replicating or non-replicating. Modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA, German : Modifiziertes Vakziniavirus Ankara )
2921-668: Is safer and just as immunogenic as ACAM2000. This vaccine has also been approved for use against mpox . LC16m8 is a replicating attenuated strain of vaccinia that is manufactured by Kaketsuken in Japan. Working at the Chiba Serum Institute in Japan, So Hashizume passaged the Lister strain 45 times in primary rabbit kidney cells, interrupting the process after passages 36, 42, and 45 to grow clones on chorioallantoic membrane and select for pock size. The resulting variant
3048-499: Is still being produced for research, and to guard against bioterrorism , biological warfare , and mpox . The term vaccine derives from the Latin word for cow, reflecting the origins of smallpox vaccination. Edward Jenner referred to cowpox as variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow). The origins of the smallpox vaccine became murky over time, especially after Louis Pasteur developed laboratory techniques for creating vaccines in
3175-534: Is the largest intergovernmental health organization at the international level. The WHO's purpose is to achieve the highest possible level of health for all the world's people, defining health as "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity." The main functions of the World Health Organization include: to promote the control of epidemic and endemic diseases; to provide and improve
3302-631: Is thought to have contaminated the cowpox matter – the vaccine – with smallpox matter and this essentially produced variolation. Other vaccine material was not reliably derived from cowpox, but from other skin eruptions of cattle. During the earlier days of empirical experimentation in 1758, American Calvinist Jonathan Edwards died from a smallpox inoculation. Some of the earliest statistical and epidemiological studies were performed by James Jurin in 1727 and Daniel Bernoulli in 1766. In 1768, Dr John Fewster reported that variolation induced no reaction in persons who had had cowpox. Edward Jenner
3429-485: The International Classification of Diseases (ICD). The agency's work began in earnest in 1951 after a significant infusion of financial and technical resources. The WHO's official mandate is to promote health and safety while helping the vulnerable worldwide. It provides technical assistance to countries, sets international health standards, collects data on global health issues, and serves as
3556-501: The Therapeutic Substances Act 1925 ( 15 & 16 Geo. 5 . c. 60) set an upper limit of 5,000 per gram, and rejected any batch of vaccine found to contain the causative organisms of erysipelas or wound infections. Unfortunately glycerolated vaccine lost its potency quickly at ambient temperatures which restricted its use in tropical climates. However, it remained in use into the 1970s when a satisfactory cold chain
3683-585: The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and smaller organizations. As of 2011 , it has been working to immunize young children and prevent the re-emergence of cases in countries declared "polio-free". In 2017, a study was conducted as to why Polio Vaccines may not be enough to eradicate the Virus & conduct new technology. Polio
3810-857: The USSR , called on the World Health Assembly to undertake a global initiative to eradicate smallpox, resulting in Resolution WHA11.54. 1965: The first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer . 1966: The WHO moved its headquarters from the Ariana wing at the Palace of Nations to a newly constructed headquarters elsewhere in Geneva. 1967: The WHO intensified
3937-1043: The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the World Bank . 1975: The WHO launched the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical diseases (the TDR). Co-sponsored by UNICEF , UNDP, and the World Bank, it was established in response to a 1974 request from the WHA for an intensive effort to develop improved control of tropical diseases. The TDR's goals are, firstly, to support and coordinate international research into diagnosis, treatment and control of tropical diseases; and, secondly, to strengthen research capabilities within endemic countries. 1976: The WHA enacted
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4064-572: The World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$ 5 million (then £1,250,000 ) for the 1949 year. G. Brock Chisholm was appointed director-general of the WHO, having served as executive secretary and a founding member during the planning stages, while Andrija Štampar was the assembly's first president. Its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria , tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections , and to improve maternal and child health , nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act
4191-402: The chorioallantoic membrane or cell culture . The second-generation vaccines are also administered through scarification with a bifurcated needle, and they carry the same side effects as the first-generation vaccinia strain that was cloned. However, the use of eggs or cell culture allows for vaccine production in a sterile environment, while first-generation vaccine contains skin bacteria from
4318-426: The vaccinia virus had lost over 14% of its genome and could no longer replicate in human cells. MVA was used in West Germany in 1977–1980, but the eradication of smallpox ended the vaccination campaign after only 120,000 doses. MVA stimulates the production of fewer antibodies than replicating vaccines. During the smallpox eradication campaign, MVA was considered to be a pre-vaccine that would be administered before
4445-726: The 1880s and early 1890s. They gained support from several members of the House of Commons of which the most prominent was Peter Alfred Taylor who was described as the "Mecca of antivaccination". The movement grew, and as the influence of the London Society overshadowed the Hume-Rotherys and it took the national lead, it was decided in February 1896 to re-form the Society as The National Anti-Vaccination League. Arthur Phelps
4572-539: The 1950s and donated it to the US government. Stockpiles of newer vaccines must be repurchased periodically since they carry expiration dates. The United States had received 269 million doses of ACAM2000 and 28 million doses of MVA-BN by 2019, but only 100 million doses of ACAM2000 and 65,000 doses of MVA-BN were still available from the stockpile at the start of the 2022 monkeypox outbreak . First-generation vaccines have no specified expiration date and remain viable indefinitely in deep freeze. The U.S. stockpile of WetVax
4699-531: The 1950s–1970s to eradicate smallpox. Second-generation vaccines were grown in chorioallantoic membrane or cell cultures for greater purity, and they were used in some areas during the smallpox eradication campaign. Third-generation vaccines are based on attenuated strains of vaccinia and saw limited use prior to the eradication of smallpox. All three generations of vaccine are available in stockpiles. First and second-generation vaccines contain live unattenuated vaccinia virus and can cause serious side effects in
4826-478: The 19th century. Allan Watt Downie demonstrated in 1939 that the modern smallpox vaccine was serologically distinct from cowpox, and vaccinia was subsequently recognized as a separate viral species. Whole-genome sequencing has revealed that vaccinia is most closely related to horsepox , and the cowpox strains found in Great Britain are the least closely related to vaccinia . As the oldest vaccine,
4953-703: The 4.8% of deaths it accounted for at the time of the French Revolution . The first state to introduce compulsory vaccinations was the Principality of Lucca and Piombino on 25 September 1806. On 26 August 1807, Bavaria introduced a similar measure. Baden followed in 1809, Prussia in 1815, Württemberg in 1818, Sweden in 1816, England in 1867 and the German Empire in 1874 through the Reichs Vaccination Act. In Lutheran Sweden,
5080-731: The Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae, a disease discovered in some of the western counties of England, particularly Gloucestershire and Known by the Name of Cow Pox. It was an analysis of 23 cases including several individuals who had resisted natural exposure after previous cowpox. It is not known how many Jenner vaccinated or challenged by inoculation with smallpox virus; e.g. Case 21 included 'several children and adults'. Crucially all of at least four whom Jenner deliberately inoculated with smallpox virus resisted it. These included
5207-866: The Chinese have practiced it "these hundred years". Variolation was also practiced throughout the latter half of the 17th century by physicians in Turkey , Persia , and Africa. In 1714 and 1716, two reports of the Ottoman Empire Turkish method of inoculation were made to the Royal Society in England, by Emmanuel Timoni , a doctor affiliated with the British Embassy in Constantinople , and Giacomo Pylarini . Source material tells us on Lady Mary Wortley Montagu; "When Lady Mary
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5334-682: The Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Dr. Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of the East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers . According to Voltaire (1742), the Turks derived their use of inoculation from neighbouring Circassia . Voltaire does not speculate on where the Circassians derived their technique from, though he reports that
5461-620: The Health Organization of the League of Nations. After World War II , the United Nations absorbed all the other health organizations, to form the WHO. During the 1945 United Nations Conference on International Organization, Szeming Sze , a delegate from China, conferred with Norwegian and Brazilian delegates on creating an international health organization under the auspices of the new United Nations. After failing to get
5588-686: The ISC, and included discussions of responses to yellow fever , brucellosis , leprosy , tuberculosis , and typhoid . In part as a result of the successes of the Conferences, the Pan-American Sanitary Bureau (1902), and the Office International d'Hygiène Publique or " International office of Public Hygiene " in english(1907) were soon founded. When the League of Nations was formed in 1920, it established
5715-485: The Inquiry and the subsequent energetic promulgation by Jenner of the idea of vaccination with a virus other than variola virus constituted a watershed in the control of smallpox for which he, more than anyone else deserves the credit. As vaccination spread, some European countries made it compulsory. Concern about its safety led to opposition and then repeal of legislation in some instances. Compulsory infant vaccination
5842-492: The Lister strain in the 2000s: Elstree-BN (Bavarian Nordic) and VV Lister CEP (Chicken Embryo Primary, Sanofi Pasteur). Lister/Elstree-RIVM was stockpiled in the Netherlands, and Elstree-BN was sold to some European countries for stockpiles. However, Sanofi dropped its own vaccine after it acquired Acambis in 2008. ACAM2000 is a vaccine developed by Acambis , which was acquired by Sanofi Pasteur in 2008, before selling
5969-490: The Philippines and on to Canton and Macao on the Chinese coast. He returned to Spain in 1806. The vaccine was not carried in the form of flasks, but in the form of 22 orphaned boys, who were 'carriers' of the live cowpox virus. After arrival, "other Spanish governors and doctors used enslaved girls to move the virus between islands, using lymph fluid harvested from them to inoculate their local populations". Napoleon
6096-604: The Protestant clergy played a pioneering role in voluntary smallpox vaccination as early as 1800. The first vaccination was carried out in Liechtenstein in 1801, and from 1812 it was mandatory to vaccinate. The question of who first tried cowpox inoculation/vaccination cannot be answered with certainty. Most, but still limited, information is available for Benjamin Jesty , Peter Plett and John Fewster . In 1774 Jesty,
6223-623: The Smallpox Eradication Unit from 1967 to 1977 wrote; "Copeman and Collier made an enormous contribution for which neither, in my opinion ever received due credit". World Health Organization The World Health Organization ( WHO ) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for global public health . It is headquartered in Geneva , Switzerland, and has six regional offices and 150 field offices worldwide. Only sovereign States can participate, and it
6350-588: The United Nations together with the exchange of letters related thereto, and taking into account the respective co-ordinating responsibilities of both organizations, it is recognized by the World Health Organization that the International Atomic Energy Agency has the primary responsibility for encouraging, assisting and co-ordinating research and development and practical application of atomic energy for peaceful uses throughout
6477-472: The United States in 1959. Egg-based vaccine was also used widely in Brazil, New Zealand, and Sweden, and on a smaller scale in many other countries. Concerns about temperature stability and avian sarcoma leukosis virus prevented it from being used more widely during the eradication campaign, although no increase in leukemia was seen in Brazil and Sweden despite the presence of ASLV in the chickens. Vaccinia
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#17327824058236604-504: The United States was administered in 1799. The physician Valentine Seaman gave his children a smallpox vaccination using a serum acquired from Jenner. By 1800, Jenner's work had been published in all the major European languages and had reached Benjamin Waterhouse in the United States – an indication of rapid spread and deep interest. Despite some concern about the safety of vaccination the mortality using carefully selected vaccine
6731-483: The WHO over the organization's unwillingness to share the penicillin recipe. They would not return until 1956. 1950: A mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine gets under way. 1955: The malaria eradication programme was launched, although objectives were later modified. (In most areas, the programme goals became control instead of eradication.) 1958: Viktor Zhdanov , Deputy Minister of Health for
6858-604: The WHO was to report as to whether RTS,S /AS01, were a viable malaria vaccine . For the time being, insecticide -treated mosquito nets and insecticide sprays are used to prevent the spread of malaria, as are antimalarial drugs – particularly to vulnerable people such as pregnant women and young children. In 1988, WHO launched the Global Polio Eradication Initiative to eradicate polio . It has also been successful in helping to reduce cases by 99% since WHO partnered with Rotary International ,
6985-425: The WHO's role and priorities in public health, ranging from narrowing its mandate to strengthening its independence and authority. During the 1970s, WHO had dropped its commitment to a global malaria eradication campaign as too ambitious, it retained a strong commitment to malaria control. WHO's Global Malaria Programme works to keep track of malaria cases, and future problems in malaria control schemes. As of 2012,
7112-503: The World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations, and by 10 other countries, on 22 July 1946. It thus became the first specialized agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, when it was ratified by the 26th member state. The WHO formally began its work in September 1, 1948. The first meeting of
7239-401: The animal that the vaccine was grown on. Ernest William Goodpasture , Alice Miles Woodruff , and G. John Buddingh grew vaccinia virus on the chorioallantoic membrane of chicken embryos in 1932. The Texas Department of Health began producing egg-based vaccine in 1939 and started using it in vaccination campaigns in 1948. Lederle Laboratories began selling its Avianized smallpox vaccine in
7366-577: The basis for global prevention, treatment, and support the plan to fight the AIDS pandemic . 2006: The WHO launches the Global action plan for influenza vaccines 2016: The Global action plan for influenza vaccines ends with a report which concludes that while substantial progress has been made over the 10 years of the Plan, the world is still not ready to respond to an influenza pandemic. 2016: Following
7493-424: The budget and activities. The WHO is funded primarily by contributions from member states (both assessed and voluntary), followed by private donors. Its total approved budget for 2020–2021 is over $ 7.2 billion, while the approved budget for 2022–2023 is over $ 6.2 billion. The budget is $ 6.83 billion for 2024–2025. The International Sanitary Conferences (ISC), the first of which was held on 23 June 1851, were
7620-627: The continuing effects of nuclear disasters in Chernobyl and Fukushima . They believe WHO must regain what they see as independence. Independent WHO held a weekly vigil from 2007 to 2017 in front of WHO headquarters. However, as pointed out by Foreman in clause 2 it states: In particular, and in accordance with the Constitution of the World Health Organization and the Statute of the International Atomic Energy Agency and its agreement with
7747-443: The crude starting material, scraped from the skin of infected calves, was always heavily contaminated and no vaccine was totally free from bacteria. A survey of vaccines in 1900 found wide variations in bacterial contamination. Vaccine issued by the Government Vaccine Establishment contained 5,000 bacteria per gram, while commercial vaccines contained up to 100,000 per gram. The level of bacterial contamination remained unregulated until
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#17327824058237874-399: The deadly smallpox virus. Cowpox served as a natural vaccine until the modern smallpox vaccine emerged in the 20th century. From 1958 to 1977, the World Health Organization (WHO) conducted a global vaccination campaign that eradicated smallpox , making it the only human disease to be eradicated. Although routine smallpox vaccination is no longer performed on the general public, the vaccine
8001-403: The disease, but 99% of the stockpile was destroyed in the late 1980s when smallpox failed to return. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, many governments began building up vaccine stockpiles again for fear of bioterrorism. Several companies sold off their stockpiles of vaccines manufactured in the 1970s, and production of smallpox vaccines resumed. Aventis Pasteur discovered a stockpile from
8128-455: The experiment since I intend to try it on my dear little son. I am patriot enough to take pains to bring this useful invention into fashion in England, and I should not fail to write to some of our doctors very particularly about it if I knew any one of them that I thought had virtue enough to destroy such a considerable branch of their revenue for the good of mankind, but that distemper is too beneficial to them not to expose to all their resentment
8255-471: The fiftieth anniversary of WHO's founding. He, did, however, accept that more had to be done to assist maternal health and that progress in this area had been slow. 2000: The Stop TB Partnership was created along with the UN's formulation of the Millennium Development Goals . 2001: The measles initiative was formed, and credited with reducing global deaths from the disease by 68% by 2007. 2002: The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria
8382-442: The first and last patients in a series of arm-to-arm transfers. He concluded that cowpox inoculation was a safe alternative to smallpox inoculation, but rashly claimed that the protective effect was lifelong. This last proved to be incorrect. Jenner also tried to distinguish between 'True' cowpox which produced the desired result and 'Spurious' cowpox which was ineffective and/or produced severe reaction. Modern research suggests Jenner
8509-492: The first anti-vaccination pamphlet. The Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League had 103 branch leagues and claimed 10,000 members in 1871. In June 1867, the publication "Human Nature" campaigned against "The Vaccination Humbug". It reported that many petitions had been presented to Parliament against Compulsory Vaccination, and many from parents who alleged that their children had died through the operation, and complained that these petitions had not been made public. The journal reported
8636-399: The first time develop fevers of over 102 °F (39 °C). The vaccinia lesion can transmit the virus to other people. Rare side effects include postvaccinal encephalitis and myopericarditis. Many countries have stockpiled first generation smallpox vaccines. In a 2006 predictive analysis of casualties if there were a mass vaccination of the populations of Germany and the Netherlands, it
8763-421: The five-year-old son of the British ambassador to the Turkish court under orders from the ambassador's wife Lady Mary Wortley Montagu , who four years later introduced the practice to England. An account from letter by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu to Sarah Chiswell, dated 1 April 1717, from the Turkish Embassy describes this treatment: The small-pox so fatal and so general amongst us is here entirely harmless by
8890-404: The formation of the Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League "To overthrow this huge piece of physiological absurdity and medical tyranny, and quoted Richard Gibbs, who ran the Free Hospital at the same address as stating "I believe we have hundreds of cases here, from being poisoned with vaccination, I deem incurable. One member of a family dating syphilitic symptoms from the time of vaccination, when all
9017-449: The global smallpox eradication campaign by contributing $ 2.4 million annually to the effort and adopted a new disease surveillance method, at a time when 2 million people were dying from smallpox per year. The initial problem the WHO team faced was inadequate reporting of smallpox cases. WHO established a network of consultants who assisted countries in setting up surveillance and containment activities. The WHO also helped contain
9144-504: The hardy wight that should undertake to put an end to it. Perhaps if I live to return I may, however, have courage to war with them. In the early empirical days of vaccination, before Louis Pasteur 's work on establishing the germ theory and Joseph Lister 's on antisepsis and asepsis, there was considerable cross-infection. William Woodville , one of the early vaccinators and director of the London Smallpox Hospital
9271-560: The high rate of serious adverse effects, the vaccine will only be made available to the CDC for the Strategic National Stockpile . ACAM2000 was approved for medical use in the United States in August 2007. Since smallpox has been eradicated, the public is not routinely vaccinated against the disease. The World Health Organization maintained a stockpile of 200 million doses in 1980, to guard against reemergence of
9398-402: The invention of ingrafting (which is the term they give it). There is a set of old women who make it their business to perform the operation. Every autumn in the month of September, when the great heat is abated, people send to one another to know if any of their family has a mind to have the small-pox. They make parties for this purpose, and when they are met (commonly fifteen or sixteen together)
9525-536: The last European outbreak in Yugoslavia in 1972 . After over two decades of fighting smallpox, a Global Commission declared in 1979 that the disease had been eradicated – the first disease in history to be eliminated by human effort. 1974: The Expanded Programme on Immunization and the control programme of onchocerciasis was started, an important partnership between the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
9652-495: The late 1940s and early 1950s, Leslie Collier , an English microbiologist working at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine , developed a method for producing a heat-stable freeze-dried vaccine in powdered form. Collier added 0.5% phenol to the vaccine to reduce the number of bacterial contaminants but the key stage was to add 5% peptone to the liquid vaccine before it was dispensed into ampoules. This protected
9779-453: The late 20th century, the rise of new actors engaged in global health—such as the World Bank , the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief ( PEPFAR ) and dozens of public-private partnerships for global health—have weakened the WHO's role as a coordinator and policy leader in the field; subsequently, there are various proposals to reform or reorient
9906-420: The league in 1958. The league's journal ceased to create new issues in 1972. Smallpox vaccine The smallpox vaccine is used to prevent smallpox infection caused by the variola virus. It is the first vaccine to have been developed against a contagious disease. In 1796, British physician Edward Jenner demonstrated that an infection with the relatively mild cowpox virus conferred immunity against
10033-477: The monitoring of public health risks, coordinating responses to health emergencies, and promoting health and well-being generally. The WHO is governed by the World Health Assembly (WHA), which is composed of its 194 member states. The WHA elects and advises an executive board made up of 34 health specialists; selects the WHO's chief administrator, the director-general (currently Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus of Ethiopia ); sets goals and priorities; and approves
10160-489: The old woman comes with a nutshell full of the matter of the best sort of small-pox and asks what veins you please to have opened. She immediately rips open that you offer to her with a large needle (which gives you no more pain than a common scratch) and puts into the vein as much venom as can lye upon the head of her needle, and after binds up the little wound with a hollow bit of shell, and in this manner opens four or five veins. … The children or young patients play together all
10287-542: The other members of the family have been clear. We strongly advise parents to go to prison, rather than submit to have their helpless offspring inoculated with scrofula, syphilis, and mania." Notable members of the Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League were James Burns , George Dornbusch and Charles Thomas Pearce . After the death of Richard B. Gibbs in 1871, the Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League underwent various changes until 1876 when it
10414-474: The other organization has or may have a substantial interest, the first party shall consult the other with a view to adjusting the matter by mutual agreement. The nature of this statement has led some groups and activists including Women in Europe for a Common Future to claim that the WHO is restricted in its ability to investigate the effects on human health of radiation caused by the use of nuclear power and
10541-564: The perceived failure of the response to the West Africa Ebola outbreak , the World Health Emergencies programme was formed, changing the WHO from just being a "normative" agency to one that responds operationally to health emergencies. 2020: the World Health Organization announced that it had classified the novel coronavirus outbreak as a public health emergency of international concern. The novel coronavirus
10668-614: The public good. Louis T. Wright, an African-American Harvard Medical School graduate (1915), introduced, while serving in the Army during World War I , intradermal, smallpox vaccination for the soldiers. Until the end of the 19th century, vaccination was performed either directly with vaccine produced on the skin of calves or, particularly in England, with vaccine obtained from the calf but then maintained by arm-to-arm transfer; initially in both cases vaccine could be dried on ivory points for short-term storage or transport but increasing use
10795-527: The reign era of the Longqing Emperor (r. 1567–1572) during the Ming Dynasty . In China, powdered smallpox scabs were blown up the noses of the healthy. The patients would then develop a mild case of the disease and from then on were immune to it. The technique did have a 0.5–2.0% mortality rate, but that was considerably less than the 20–30% mortality rate of the disease itself. Two reports on
10922-410: The rest of the day and are in perfect health till the eighth. Then the fever begins to seize them and they keep their beds two days, very seldom three. They have very rarely above twenty or thirty in their faces, which never mark, and in eight days time they are as well as before the illness. … There is no example of any one that has died in it, and you may believe I am very well satisfied of the safety of
11049-452: The same time that Jenner vaccinated Phipps. However, Fewster, who had a flourishing variolation practice, may have considered this option but used smallpox instead. He thought vaccination offered no advantage over variolation, but maintained friendly contact with Jenner and certainly made no claim of priority for vaccination when critics attacked Jenner's reputation. It seems clear that the idea of using cowpox instead of smallpox for inoculation
11176-402: The skin of live animals. Most first-generation vaccines are calf lymph vaccines that were grown on the skin of cows, but other animals were also used, including sheep. The development of freeze-dried vaccine in the 1950s made it possible to preserve vaccinia virus for long periods of time without refrigeration, leading to the availability of freeze-dried vaccines such as Dryvax. The vaccine
11303-429: The smallpox vaccine has gone through several generations of medical technology. From 1796 to the 1880s, the vaccine was transmitted from one person to another through arm-to-arm vaccination. Smallpox vaccine was successfully maintained in cattle starting in the 1840s, and calf lymph vaccine became the leading smallpox vaccine in the 1880s. First-generation vaccines grown on the skin of live animals were widely distributed in
11430-747: The smallpox vaccine to Emergent Biosolutions in 2017. Six strains of vaccinia were isolated from 3,000 doses of Dryvax and found to exhibit significant variation in virulence. The strain with the most similar virulence to the overall Dryvax mixture was selected and grown in MRC-5 cells to make the ACAM1000 vaccine. After a successful phase I trial of ACAM1000, the virus was passaged three times in Vero cells to develop ACAM2000, which entered mass production at Baxter . The United States ordered over 200 million doses of ACAM2000 in 1999–2001 for its stockpile, and production
11557-541: The teaching and training in public health, the medical treatment of disease and related matters; and to promote the establishment of international standards for biological products. The WHO was established on April 7, 1948, and formally began its work on September 1, 1948. It incorporated the assets, personnel, and duties of the League of Nations ' Health Organization and the Paris-based Office International d'Hygiène Publique , including
11684-404: The virus during the freeze drying process. After drying, the ampoules were sealed under nitrogen. Like other vaccines, once reconstituted it became ineffective after 1–2 days at ambient temperatures. However, the dried vaccine was 100% effective when reconstituted after 6 months storage at 37 °C (99 °F) allowing it to be transported to, and stored in, remote tropical areas. Collier's method
11811-600: The virus, the vaccine likely gives you some protection from the disease. If you still get the disease, you might not get as sick as an unvaccinated person would." In May 2007, the Vaccines and Related Biological Products Advisory Committee (VRBPAC) of the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) voted unanimously that a new live virus vaccine produced by Acambis , ACAM2000 , is both safe and effective for use in persons at high risk of exposure to smallpox virus. However, due to
11938-488: The world without prejudice to the right of the World Health Organization to concern itself with promoting, developing, assisting and co-ordinating international health work, including research, in all its aspects. The key text is highlighted in bold, the agreement in clause 2 states that the WHO is free to perform any health-related work. 1947: The WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex . 1949: The Soviet Union and its constituent republics quit
12065-443: Was a cause of syphilis. Smallpox vaccine was the only vaccine available during this period, and so the determined opposition to it initiated a number of vaccine controversies that spread to other vaccines and into the 21st century. Sydney Arthur Monckton Copeman , an English Government bacteriologist interested in smallpox vaccine investigated the effects on the bacteria in it of various treatments, including glycerine . Glycerine
12192-513: Was a new strain of coronavirus that had never been detected in humans before. The WHO named this new coronavirus " COVID-19 " or "2019-nCov". 2022: The WHO suggests formation of a Global Health Emergency Council, with a new global health emergency workforce, and recommends revision of the International Health Regulations. 2024: WHO has declared the spread of mpox (formerly monkeypox) in several African countries
12319-575: Was adopted as the official organ of the Society. A series of fourteen "Vaccination Tracts" was begun by Young in 1877 and completed by Garth Wilkinson in 1879. William White was the first editor of the Vaccination Inquirer and after his death in 1885, he was succeeded by Alfred Milnes. Frances Hoggan and her husband authored an article for the Vaccination Inquirer in September 1883 which argued against compulsory vaccination. The London Society focused on lobbying parliamentary support in
12446-542: Was an early proponent of smallpox vaccination and ordered that army recruits be given the vaccine. Additionally a vaccination program was created for the French Army and his Imperial Guard . In 1811 he had his son, Napoleon II , vaccinated after his birth. By 1815 about half of French children were vaccinated and by the end of the Napoleonic Empire smallpox deaths accounted for 1.8% of deaths, as opposed to
12573-589: Was applying to Parliament for financial reward. During 1790–92 Peter Plett, a teacher from Holstein , reported limited results of cowpox inoculation to the Medical Faculty of the University of Kiel . However, the Faculty favoured variolation and took no action. John Fewster, a surgeon friend of Jenner's from nearby Thornbury, discussed the possibility of cowpox inoculation at meetings as early as 1765. He may have done some cowpox inoculations in 1796 at about
12700-555: Was approved in Japan in 1975 after testing in over 50,000 children. Vaccination with LC16m8 results in a vaccine "take", but safety is similar to MVA. Vaccinia is infectious, which improves its effectiveness, but causes serious complications for people with impaired immune systems (for example chemotherapy and AIDS patients) or history of eczema, and is not considered safe for pregnant women. A woman planning on conceiving should not receive smallpox immunization. Vaccines that only contain attenuated vaccinia viruses (an attenuated virus
12827-447: Was available. Animals continued to be widely used by vaccine producers during the smallpox eradication campaign. A WHO survey of 59 producers, some of whom used more than one source of vaccine, found that 39 used calves, 12 used sheep and 6 used water buffalo, whilst only 3 made vaccine in cell culture and 3 in embryonated hens' eggs. English vaccine was occasionally made in sheep during World War I but from 1946 only sheep were used. In
12954-608: Was born in Berkeley , England. As a young child, Jenner was variolated with the other schoolboys through parish funds, but nearly died due to the seriousness of his infection. Fed purgative medicine and going through the bloodletting process, Jenner was put in one of the variolation stables until he recovered. At the age of 13, he was apprenticed to apothecary Daniel Ludlow and later surgeon George Hardwick in nearby Sodbury . He observed that people who caught cowpox while working with cattle were known not to catch smallpox. Jenner assumed
13081-634: Was close to zero, and it was soon in use all over Europe and the United States. In 1804 the Balmis Expedition , an official Spanish mission commanded by Francisco Javier de Balmis , sailed to spread the vaccine throughout the Spanish Empire, first to the Canary Islands and on to Spanish Central America. While his deputy, José Salvany, took vaccine to the west and east coasts of Spanish South America, Balmis sailed to Manila in
13208-457: Was compulsory. Compulsory infant vaccination was regulated by only allowing access to school for those who had been vaccinated. Those seeking to enforce compulsory vaccination argued that the public good overrode personal freedom, a view supported by the U.S. Supreme Court in Jacobson v. Massachusetts in 1905, a landmark ruling which set a precedent for cases dealing with personal freedom and
13335-543: Was concerning the compilation of accurate statistics on the spread and morbidity of disease. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing. In 1959, the WHO signed Agreement WHA 12–40 with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which says: whenever either organization proposes to initiate a programme or activity on a subject in which
13462-490: Was considered, and actually tried in the late 18th century, and not just by the medical profession. Therefore, Jenner was not the first to try cowpox inoculation. However, he was the first to publish his evidence and distribute vaccine freely, provide information on selection of suitable material, and maintain it by arm-to-arm transfer. The authors of the official World Health Organization (WHO) account Smallpox and its Eradication assessing Jenner's role wrote: Publication of
13589-513: Was criticised at the time but vaccines derived from horsepox were soon introduced and later contributed to the complicated problem of the origin of vaccinia virus , the virus in present-day vaccine. The introduction of the vaccine to the New World took place in Trinity, Newfoundland , in 1798 by Dr. John Clinch , boyhood friend and medical colleague of Jenner. The first smallpox vaccine in
13716-517: Was designated LC16m8 (Lister clone 16, medium pocks, clone 8). Unlike the severely-damaged MVA, LC16m8 contains every gene that is present in the ancestral vaccinia . However, a single-nucleotide deletion truncates membrane protein B5R from a residue length of 317 to 92. Although the truncated protein decreases production of extracellular enveloped virus, animal models have shown that antibodies against other membrane proteins are sufficient for immunity. LC16m8
13843-475: Was difficult to reach. Seven of these international conferences, spanning 41 years, were convened before any resulted in a multi-state international agreement. The seventh conference, in Venice in 1892, finally resulted in a convention. It was concerned only with the sanitary control of shipping traversing the Suez Canal , and was an effort to guard against importation of cholera. Five years later, in 1897,
13970-416: Was drawn up to improve the resources available. 2005: The WHO revises International Health Regulations (IHR) in light of emerging health threats and the experience of the 2002/3 SARS epidemic , authorizing WHO, among other things, to declare a health threat a Public Health Emergency of International Concern . 2006: The WHO endorsed the world's first official HIV/AIDS Toolkit for Zimbabwe, which formed
14097-487: Was elected as president. In 1898, the league took on a school leaver named Lily Loat . By 1909 she was elected as the league's Secretary. In 1906, George Bernard Shaw wrote a supportive letter to the National Anti-Vaccination League, equating methods of vaccination with "rubbing the contents of the dustpan into the wound". Lily Loat devoted her life to the cause and died still working for
14224-555: Was estimated that a total of 9.8 people in the Netherlands and 46.2 people in Germany would die from uncontrolled vaccinia infection after being vaccinated with the New York City Board of Health strain. More deaths were predicted for vaccines based other strains: Lister (55.1 Netherlands, 268.5 Germany) and Bern (303.5 Netherlands, 1,381 Germany). The second-generation vaccines consist of live vaccinia virus grown in
14351-612: Was first grown in cell culture in 1931 by Thomas Milton Rivers . The WHO funded work in the 1960s at the Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) on growing the Lister/Elstree strain in rabbit kidney cells and tested it in 45,443 Indonesian children in 1973, with comparable results to the same strain of calf lymph vaccine. Two other cell culture vaccines were developed from
14478-705: Was formed. 1988: The Global Polio Eradication Initiative was established. 1995: The WHO established an independent International Commission for the Certification of Dracunculiasis Eradication (Guinea worm disease eradication; ICCDE). The ICCDE recommends to the WHO which countries fulfil requirements for certification. It also has role in advising on progress made towards elimination of transmission and processes for verification. 1998: The WHO's director-general highlighted gains in child survival, reduced infant mortality , increased life expectancy and reduced rates of "scourges" such as smallpox and polio on
14605-644: Was in the Ottoman Empire, she discovered the local practice of inoculation against smallpox called variolation." In 1718 she had her son, aged five variolated. He recovered quickly. She returned to London and had her daughter variolated in 1721 by Charles Maitland , during an epidemic of smallpox. This encouraged the British Royal Family to take an interest and a trial of variolation was carried out on prisoners in Newgate Prison . This
14732-503: Was increasingly used and, with minor modifications, became the standard for vaccine production adopted by the WHO Smallpox Eradication Unit when it initiated its global smallpox eradication campaign in 1967, at which time 23 of 59 manufacturers were using the Lister strain. In a letter about landmarks in the history of smallpox vaccine, written to and quoted from by Derrick Baxby , Donald Henderson , chief of
14859-459: Was introduced in England by the Vaccination Act 1853 ( 16 & 17 Vict. c. 100). By 1871, parents could be fined for non-compliance, and then imprisoned for non-payment. This intensified opposition, and the Vaccination Act 1898 ( 61 & 62 Vict. c. 49) introduced a conscience clause. This allowed exemption on production of a certificate of conscientious objection signed by two magistrates. Such certificates were not always easily obtained and
14986-580: Was made of glass capillary tubes for this purpose towards the end of the century. During this period there were no adequate methods for assessing the safety of the vaccine and there were instances of contaminated vaccine transmitting infections such as erysipelas, tetanus, septicaemia and tuberculosis. In the case of arm-to-arm transfer there was also the risk of transmitting syphilis. Although this did occur occasionally, estimated as 750 cases in 100 million vaccinations, some critics of vaccination e.g. Charles Creighton believed that uncontaminated vaccine itself
15113-502: Was manufactured in 1956–1957 and maintained since then at −4 °F (−20 °C), and it was still effective when tested in 2004. Replicating vaccines also remain effective even at 1:10 dilution, so a limited number of doses can be stretched to cover a much larger population. The mortality of the severe form of smallpox – variola major – was very high without vaccination, up to 35% in some outbreaks. A method of inducing immunity known as inoculation, insufflation or " variolation "
15240-433: Was not submitted formally and there is no mention of it in the Society's records. Jenner had sent the paper informally to Sir Joseph Banks , the Society's president, who asked Everard Home for his views. Reviews of his rejected report, published for the first time in 1999, were skeptical and called for further vaccinations. Additional vaccinations were performed and in 1798 Jenner published his work entitled An Inquiry into
15367-595: Was practiced before the development of a modern vaccine and likely occurred in Africa and China well before the practice arrived in Europe. It may also have occurred in India, but this is disputed; other investigators contend the ancient Sanskrit medical texts of India do not describe these techniques. The first clear reference to smallpox inoculation was made by the Chinese author Wan Quan (1499–1582) in his Douzhen xinfa (痘疹心法) published in 1549. Inoculation for smallpox does not appear to have been widespread in China until
15494-755: Was revived under the leadership of Mary Hume-Rothery and the Rev. W. Hume-Rothery. The Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League published the Occasional Circular which later merged into the National Anti-Compulsory Vaccination Reporter . In 1880, William Tebb enlarged and reorganized the League with the formation of the London Society for the Abolition of Compulsory Vaccination, with William Young as secretary. The Vaccination Inquirer , established by Tebb in 1879,
15621-458: Was sometimes used simply as a diluent by some continental vaccine producers. However, Copeman found that vaccine suspended in 50% chemically pure glycerine and stored under controlled conditions contained very few "extraneous" bacteria and produced satisfactory vaccinations. He later reported that glycerine killed the causative organisms of erysipelas and tuberculosis when they were added to the vaccine in "considerable quantity", and that his method
15748-551: Was successful and in 1722 Caroline of Ansbach , the Princess of Wales, allowed Maitland to vaccinate her children. The success of these variolations assured the British people that the procedure was safe. ...scarred the wrists, legs, and forehead of the patient, placed a fresh and kindly pock in each incision and bound it there for eight or ten days, after this time the patient was credibly informed. The patient would then develop
15875-479: Was trying to distinguish between effects caused by what would now be recognised as non-infectious vaccine, a different virus (e.g. paravaccinia /milker's nodes), or contaminating bacterial pathogens. This caused confusion at the time, but would become important criteria in vaccine development. A further source of confusion was Jenner's belief that fully effective vaccine obtained from cows originated in an equine disease, which he mistakenly referred to as grease . This
16002-441: Was widely criticized at first. However, a limited trial showed six deaths occurred out of 244 who were variolated (2.5%), while 844 out of 5980 died of natural disease (14%), and the process was widely adopted throughout the colonies. The inoculation technique was documented as having a mortality rate of only one in a thousand. Two years after Kennedy's description appeared, March 1718, Dr. Charles Maitland successfully inoculated
16129-708: Was widely used on the continent. In 1896, Copeman was asked to supply "extra good calf vaccine" to vaccinate the future Edward VIII . Vaccine produced by Copeman's method was the only type issued free to public vaccinators by the British Government Vaccine Establishment from 1899. At the same time the Vaccination Act 1898 ( 61 & 62 Vict. c. 49) banned arm-to-arm vaccination, thus preventing transmission of syphilis by this vaccine. However, private practitioners had to purchase vaccine from commercial producers. Although proper use of glycerine reduced bacterial contamination considerably
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