The Anti-Taurus Mountains (from Greek : Αντίταυρος ) or Aladaglar are a mountain range in southern and eastern Turkey , curving northeast from the Taurus Mountains .
107-457: At 12,851 feet (3,917 m), Mount Erciyes ( Turkish : Erciyes Dağı) is the highest peak not just in the range but in central Anatolia as a whole. It is a massive stratovolcano located in the northern part of the Anti-Taurus. The ancient Greek geographer and historian Strabo wrote that in his time the summit was never free of snow and that the few climbers who ascended it could see both
214-527: A halocline that stops at the Cold Intermediate Layer (CIL). This layer is composed of cool, salty surface waters, which are the result of localized atmospheric cooling and decreased fluvial input during the winter months. It is the remnant of the winter surface mixed layer. The base of the CIL is marked by a major pycnocline at about 100–200 metres (330–660 ft), and this density disparity
321-463: A parasitic vent , as the principal cone is heavily eroded. Erciyes Dagi volcano has manifested explosive eruptions preceding the formation of lava domes. Such eruptions may endanger the cities of Kayseri, Hacilar, and Talas. Melting of the remnant ice on the volcano may generate dangerous lahars ; in 1985 an eruption of Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Colombia claimed 20,000 fatalities after such
428-421: A broad shield, and dacitic domes and flows form the bulk of the volcano's exposed units, including the summit area, where several lava flows have been identified. Lava flows of Erciyes extend both from the summit and from lateral vents. A debris avalanche extending east-northeast from Erciyes was formed by the collapse of the summit, creating a 2-kilometre (1.2 mi) wide horseshoe-shaped scar that forms
535-597: A coastline on the sea, its drainage basin includes parts of 24 countries in Europe. The Black Sea, not including the Sea of Azov , covers 436,400 km (168,500 sq mi), has a maximum depth of 2,212 m (7,257 ft), and a volume of 547,000 km (131,000 cu mi). Most of its coasts ascend rapidly. These rises are the Pontic Mountains to the south, bar the southwest-facing peninsulas,
642-468: A distance of 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi). Additional basaltic vents are Abas Tepe , Karniyarik Tepe , Kefeli Dag , and Siharslan Tepe . From the more recent volcanic phases, Dikkartin Dağ and Perikartın lava domes lie on the southern and northern slope of Erciyes, respectively. Both domes are formed of rhyodacite and accompanied by pyroclastic deposits. Dikkartin Dağ covers
749-639: A height of 3,864 metres (12,677 ft), 3,918 metres (12,854 ft) or 3,917 metres (12,851 ft), making it the highest mountain and most voluminous volcano of Central Anatolia. It rises about 900 metres (3,000 ft) above the Sultansazlıği basin and 2,842 metres (9,324 ft) above the floor of the Erciyes pull-apart basin. The volcano is large, it covers a surface area of 1,300 square kilometres (500 sq mi) or 3,300 square kilometres (1,300 sq mi). It developed over
856-432: A hummocky deposit. The volume of rock removed by the collapse is about 1.2–1.5 cubic kilometres (0.29–0.36 cu mi). A 1-millimetre (0.039 in) thick ash layer found in a drilling core off the coast of Israel ( 32°44′52″N 34°39′02″E / 32.74778°N 34.65056°E / 32.74778; 34.65056 ) was dated at 8,365 ± 65 years ago in uncalibrated radiocarbon years . This tephra layer
963-541: A marked vertical stratification and a warm, shallow mixed layer. Day length and insolation intensity also control the extent of the photic zone . Subsurface productivity is limited by nutrient availability, as the anoxic bottom waters act as a sink for reduced nitrate , in the form of ammonia . The benthic zone also plays an important role in Black Sea nutrient cycling, as chemosynthetic organisms and anoxic geochemical pathways recycle nutrients which can be upwelled to
1070-451: A mudflow. Even without an eruption, strong rainfall could form mudflows on the densely populated steep slopes of the volcano. The volcano is monitored with seismometers and its deformation has been measured. Analyses of the magmatic system indicate that Erciyes has a small, cold and possibly waning magmatic system, unlike Mount Hasan. The ancient Hittites left rock carvings and even an artificial tunnel on Mount Erciyes. Strabo mentions
1177-553: A short timeframe from each other. Yılanlı Da ̆g , a lava dome in Kayseri, is also of Holocene age, having been erupted 8,900 ± 400 years ago. Before extrusion of Dikkartin Dağ , a Plinian fall deposit with base surges and pumice flows covered a surface of 800 square kilometres (310 sq mi) at a minimum. This was followed by a phreatomagmatic phase that deposited material up to 3 metres (9.8 ft) thick, followed by another Plinian phase. The Dikkartin eruption
SECTION 10
#17327722200261284-416: A smaller Plinian eruption that covered a surface of 1,500 square kilometres (580 sq mi) with pumice falls. The Valibaba Tepe ignimbrite extends east of the Erciyes volcano; it originated there and filled in the previous topography. Its total volume has been estimated at 146 cubic kilometres (35 cu mi), and it contains a large proportion of fiammes . Changes in magma composition from
1391-589: A strongly stratified vertical structure. Because of the extreme stratification, it is classified as a salt wedge estuary . Inflow from the Mediterranean Sea through the Bosporus and Dardanelles has a higher salinity and density than the outflow, creating the classic estuarine circulation. This means that the inflow of dense water from the Mediterranean occurs at the bottom of the basin while
1498-1062: A subducting slab , on the other hand, may or may not have played a major role, and the slab itself did not reach down below Central Anatolia, meaning that subduction probably is not responsible for Central Anatolian volcanism. The climate of the region is influenced by topography, with the Taurus and Kaçkar Mountains blocking the entry of moisture into Anatolia. Summers are dry and hot and winters snowy and cold; in Kayseri, summer temperatures are about 19 °C (66 °F) and winter temperature about 0 °C (32 °F). Precipitation at Kayseri falls mostly in autumn, winter, and spring and amounts to 383 millimetres (15.1 in) per year. In Develi, south of Erciyes, maximum temperatures are about 29.5 °C (85.1 °F) and minimum temperatures −5.6 °C (21.9 °F). Estimated temperatures at 2,700 metres (8,900 ft) altitude are about −0.4 °C (31.3 °F), and precipitation 722 millimetres (28.4 in) per year. Groundwater under Kayseri
1605-406: A surface area of 11.7 square kilometres (4.5 sq mi) and reaches a height of 2,760 metres (9,060 ft). The blocky dome flowed down the slopes southwards over 5 kilometres (3.1 mi). Karagüllü on the north-northwestern flank stratigraphically belongs to the same unit as Dikkartin Dağ . This dome flowed for a distance of about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi). The volcano lies in
1712-656: A tectonic depression. It is cut by the Ecemiş fault, which together with the Tuz Gölü fault border this basin. Other faults converge on the volcano or pass through its outer slopes. Aeromagnetic investigation of the region has evidenced the existence of a magnetic anomaly associated with Erciyes, which is probably caused by the volcanism. Erciyes Dagi has erupted basalt, basaltic andesite, andesite, dacite , rhyodacite, and rhyolite . The rocks are chiefly andesite with smaller amounts of dacite; dacites appear to dominate in
1819-464: A thickness of 8 metres (26 ft). Eastern Cappadocia features the famous Cappadocian ignimbrites; one of these ignimbrites, the Valibaba Tepe ignimbrite (also known as İncesu Ignimbrite ), was linked to Erciyes volcano and is the last Cappadocian ignimbrite. This eruption 2.8 million years ago has a total volume of 52 cubic kilometres (12 cu mi) and was preceded by
1926-433: A threat to health—and perhaps even life—for people living on the Black Sea coast. There have been isolated reports of flares on the Black Sea occurring during thunderstorms, possibly caused by lightning igniting combustible gas seeping up from the sea depths. The Black Sea supports an active and dynamic marine ecosystem, dominated by species suited to the brackish , nutrient-rich, conditions. As with all marine food webs,
2033-529: A very thick convective bottom layer. The Black Sea undersea river is a current of particularly saline water flowing through the Bosporus Strait and along the seabed of the Black Sea. The discovery of the river, announced on August 1, 2010, was made by scientists at the University of Leeds and is the first of its kind to be identified. The undersea river stems from salty water spilling through
2140-416: A volume of about 1,000,000 cubic metres (35,000,000 cu ft) at a minimum. A report from 1905 says that the glacier was 700 metres (2,300 ft) long. In 2009 the glacier was 260 metres (850 ft) long and in 2011 an area of 0.05 square kilometres (0.019 sq mi) was reported; it is actively retreating and, assuming that the pace of retreat does not change, it will be gone by 2070. This
2247-496: A weaker mixed assemblage of community development below the seasonal thermocline during summer months, and surface-intensified autumn production. This pattern of productivity is augmented by an Emiliania huxleyi bloom during the late spring and summer months. Since the 1960s, rapid industrial expansion along the Black Sea coastline and the construction of a major dam on the Danube have significantly increased annual variability in
SECTION 20
#17327722200262354-620: Is 4.39 ± 0.28 million years ago. Overall, Koç Dağ was active between 4.4 and 2.9 million years ago. Caldera-forming activity occurred in several eruption phases, accompanied by pumice flows and ash fall. A first phase of activity formed Plinian deposits that reach thicknesses of 22 metres (72 ft) as far as 21 kilometres (13 mi) from the volcano, covering at least 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) of surface. At least fifteen individual layers have been found. A second phase of activity formed pumice flows east-northeast of Koç Dağ , covering 2,100 square kilometres (810 sq mi) to
2461-631: Is a marginal mediterranean sea lying between Europe and Asia , east of the Balkans , south of the East European Plain , west of the Caucasus , and north of Anatolia . It is bounded by Bulgaria , Georgia , Romania , Russia , Turkey , and Ukraine . The Black Sea is supplied by major rivers, principally the Danube , Dnieper and Dniester . Consequently, while six countries have
2568-455: Is a large stratovolcano surrounded by many monogenetic vents and lava domes , and one maar . The bulk of the volcano is formed by lava flows of andesitic and dacitic composition. At some time in the past, part of the summit collapsed towards the east. The volcano began to form in the Miocene . At first, a volcano farther east named Koç Dağ formed from lava flows. Then, again to
2675-753: Is divided into two depositional basins—the Western Black Sea and Eastern Black Sea—separated by the Mid-Black Sea High, which includes the Andrusov Ridge, Tetyaev High, and Archangelsky High, extending south from the Crimean Peninsula . The basin includes two distinct relict back-arc basins which were initiated by the splitting of an Albian volcanic arc and the subduction of both the Paleo - and Neo- Tethys oceans, but
2782-719: Is generally accepted to be a rendering of the Iranian word * axšaina- ("dark colored"). Ancient Greek voyagers adopted the name as Á-xe(i)nos , identified with the Greek word áxeinos (inhospitable). The name Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos (Inhospitable Sea), first attested in Pindar ( c. 475 BC ), was considered an ill omen and was euphemized to its opposite, Εὔξεινος Πόντος Eúxeinos Póntos (Hospitable Sea), also first attested in Pindar. This became
2889-581: Is known as the "S1 tephra" appears to be linked to one of these three eruptions on the basis of its composition, most likely the Dikkartin Dağ eruption, over 600 kilometres (370 mi) away from the drilling core. A tephra layer named Tyam-1, found in Yammoûneh in Lebanon and dated at 8,600 ± 850 years before present, is probably equivalent to this ash layer. Likewise, a thin tephra layer in
2996-523: Is no clear evidence of a Little Ice Age glacier expansion. Later glacial advances mostly correspond to these estimated for other Mediterranean glaciers. Meltwater from these glaciers nourished a now-gone lake in the Sultansazlıği basin. During antiquity, the summit was always covered with snow. Glacial ice is still found on the northwestern slope of Erciyes, in the Aksu Valley at altitudes of 2,900–3,200 metres (9,500–10,500 ft). It has
3103-516: Is not clear; Strabo (63 BC –21 AD ) and Claudius Claudianus (370–410 AD) report volcanic activity, and Roman coins found in Cappadocia show the mountain smoking, but these reports may instead refer to swamp gas release in the Sultansazlığı basin and Strabo's reports appear to refer to fires in swamps. If volcanic activity occurred during historical times, it probably occurred on
3210-470: Is recharged from the mountain. During the last glacial maximum , precipitation may have been double that of present-day. Four vegetation belts surround the mountain: a boreal belt, a subalpine, an alpine, and a subnival belt. The boreal belt extends between 1,100–2,100 metres (3,600–6,900 ft) while the subalpine belt goes from 2,100–2,800 metres (6,900–9,200 ft) elevation and the alpine from 2,800–3,400 metres (9,200–11,200 ft). Species found in
3317-418: Is split by this volcano into the Sultansazlıği and Kayseri-Sarımsaklı basins, both of which nevertheless are part of the same system. These margin faults have been the source of earthquakes during historical times, resulting in damage to cities in the region, and ongoing extension of this crustal domain is the probable reason for volcanism at Erciyes. Erciyes Dagi is a large stratovolcano, reaching
Anti-Taurus Mountains - Misplaced Pages Continue
3424-590: Is subject to interannual variability. Outside of the Rim Current, numerous quasi-permanent coastal eddies are formed as a result of upwelling around the coastal apron and "wind curl" mechanisms. The intra-annual strength of these features is controlled by seasonal atmospheric and fluvial variations. During the spring, the Batumi eddy forms in the southeastern corner of the sea. Beneath the surface waters—from about 50 to 100 metres (160 to 330 ft)—there exists
3531-460: Is the major mechanism for isolation of the deep water. Below the pycnocline is the Deep Water mass, where salinity increases to 22.3 PSU and temperatures rise to around 8.9 °C (48.0 °F). The hydrochemical environment shifts from oxygenated to anoxic, as bacterial decomposition of sunken biomass utilizes all of the free oxygen. Weak geothermal heating and long residence time create
3638-761: Is the westernmost glacier in Turkey today; other glaciers are found in the Kaçkar Mountains at the Black Sea, Mount Cilo in southeastern Turkey, and on Ararat . Block streams and rock glaciers developed during the Holocene , the Üçker valley hosts a rock glacier with a surface area of 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi). A number of potassium–argon dates have been obtained for Erciyes Dagi, ranging from 2.59 ± 0.1 million years ago to 80,000 ± 10,000 years ago. Some stratigraphic units from Erciyes have been dated. Early volcanic activity occurred at
3745-991: The Anatolian Plate . This microplate is part of the collision zone between the Eurasian Plate , the African Plate , and the Arabian Plate that forms the Alpide Belt . This convergence commenced in the Miocene and formed the Anatolian block, with two oceans that existed between these three plates in the Eocene disappearing through subduction . During the late Miocene, the Neo-Tethys ocean disappeared, and Africa and Eurasia collided. Later,
3852-778: The Black Sea and the Mediterranean . Parts of the Anti-Taurus Mountains are protected within the Aladağlar National Park . 37°49′N 35°10′E / 37.817°N 35.167°E / 37.817; 35.167 This Turkey location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Mount Erciyes Mount Erciyes ( Turkish : Erciyes Dağı ) is an inactive volcano in Kayseri Province , Turkey . It
3959-587: The Bosporus ) Burgas , Varna , Constanța , Odesa , Sevastopol , Novorossiysk , Sochi , Poti , Batumi , Trabzon and Samsun . The Black Sea has a positive water balance , with an annual net outflow of 300 km (72 cu mi) per year through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles into the Aegean Sea . While the net flow of water through the Bosporus and Dardanelles (known collectively as
4066-749: The Caucasus Mountains to the east, and the Crimean Mountains to the mid-north. In the west, the coast is generally small floodplains below foothills such as the Strandzha ; Cape Emine , a dwindling of the east end of the Balkan Mountains ; and the Dobruja Plateau considerably farther north. The longest east–west extent is about 1,175 km (730 mi). Important cities along the coast include (clockwise from
4173-864: The Danube (northern Serbia, northern Bulgaria ( Danubian Plain ) and southern Romania ( Wallachian Plain ) to northeast Ukraine and further across the Central Black Earth Region and southern Russia into Siberia . The littoral zone of the Black Sea is often referred to as the Pontic littoral or Pontic zone . The largest bays of the Black Sea are Karkinit Bay in Ukraine; the Gulf of Burgas in Bulgaria; Dnieprovski Bay and Dniestrovski Bay, both in Ukraine; and Sinop Bay and Samsun Bay, both in Turkey. The largest rivers flowing into
4280-560: The Moon was named for Argaeus. The "Mount Harhara" of Bronze Age and Iron Age inscriptions in Anatolia may be Erciyes. Erciyes lies in the Kayseri Province of Turkey . The city of Kayseri lies 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) -25 kilometres (16 mi) north of Erciyes volcano; some lava domes generated by the volcano are within the urban limits. Other towns in the region are Talas and Hacilar , also north of Erciyes but closer to
4387-748: The North Atlantic oscillation , the climatic mechanisms resulting from the interaction between the north Atlantic and mid-latitude air masses. While the exact mechanisms causing the North Atlantic Oscillation remain unclear, it is thought the climate conditions established in western Europe mediate the heat and precipitation fluxes reaching Central Europe and Eurasia, regulating the formation of winter cyclones , which are largely responsible for regional precipitation inputs and influence Mediterranean sea surface temperatures (SSTs). The relative strength of these systems also limits
Anti-Taurus Mountains - Misplaced Pages Continue
4494-826: The Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez separated the Arabian Plate from the African Plate, causing the former to collide with Eurasia and forming the Bitlis–Zagros Belt . The Anatolian block was pushed westward between the North Anatolian and East Anatolian faults, and it is still moving today. In central Anatolia, volcanism commenced in the Miocene. After an effusive phase and the eruption of large ignimbrite sheets, volcanoes developed, including stratovolcanoes such as Erciyes Dagi and Hasan Dagi on
4601-632: The Santonian . Since its initiation, compressional tectonic environments led to subsidence in the basin, interspersed with extensional phases resulting in large-scale volcanism and numerous orogenies , causing the uplift of the Greater Caucasus , Pontides , southern Crimean Peninsula and Balkanides mountain ranges. During the Messinian salinity crisis in the neighboring Mediterranean Sea , water levels fell but without drying up
4708-516: The Turkish Straits ) is out of the Black Sea, water generally flows in both directions simultaneously: Denser, more saline water from the Aegean flows into the Black Sea underneath the less dense, fresher water that flows out of the Black Sea. This creates a significant and permanent layer of deep water that does not drain or mix and is therefore anoxic . This anoxic layer is responsible for
4815-520: The last glacial maximum , probably due to a wetter climate. Chlorine-36 dating has yielded ages corresponding to the last glacial maximum and late glacial for the principal moraines in Aksu valley. A late Holocene glacial advance extended down to 3,850 metres (12,630 ft); dating of these moraines has yielded ages of 1,200 ± 300 years ago. In the Üçker valley, the lowermost moraines are found at an altitude of 2,200 metres (7,200 ft), with
4922-643: The 13th century. A 1570 map Asiae Nova Descriptio from Abraham Ortelius 's Theatrum Orbis Terrarum labels the sea Mar Maggior (Great Sea), compare Latin Mare major . English writers of the 18th century often used Euxine Sea ( / ˈ j uː k s ɪ n / or / ˈ j uː k ˌ s aɪ n / ). During the Ottoman Empire , it was called either Bahr-e Siyah ( Perso-Arabic ) or Karadeniz ( Ottoman Turkish ), both meaning "Black Sea". The International Hydrographic Organization defines
5029-582: The Black Sea Depression they are terrigenous non-carbonate silts , and at the foot of the continental slope turbidite sediments. The Black Sea is the world's largest body of water with a meromictic basin. The deep waters do not mix with the upper layers of water that receive oxygen from the atmosphere. As a result, over 90% of the deeper Black Sea volume is anoxic water. The Black Sea's circulation patterns are primarily controlled by basin topography and fluvial inputs, which result in
5136-404: The Black Sea are: These rivers and their tributaries comprise a 2-million km (0.77-million sq mi) Black Sea drainage basin that covers wholly or partially 24 countries: Unrecognised states: Some islands in the Black Sea belong to Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, and Ukraine: Short-term climatic variation in the Black Sea region is significantly influenced by the operation of
5243-585: The Black Sea features a range of trophic groups, with autotrophic algae, including diatoms and dinoflagellates , acting as primary producers. The fluvial systems draining Eurasia and central Europe introduce large volumes of sediment and dissolved nutrients into the Black Sea, but the distribution of these nutrients is controlled by the degree of physiochemical stratification, which is, in turn, dictated by seasonal physiographic development. During winter, strong wind promotes convective overturning and upwelling of nutrients, while high summer temperatures result in
5350-510: The Black Sea from the rest of the global ocean system. The large shelf to the north of the basin is up to 190 km (120 mi) wide and features a shallow apron with gradients between 1:40 and 1:1000. The southern edge around Turkey and the eastern edge around Georgia , however, are typified by a narrow shelf that rarely exceeds 20 km (12 mi) in width and a steep apron that is typically 1:40 gradient with numerous submarine canyons and channel extensions. The Euxine abyssal plain in
5457-478: The Black Sea is called Siyābun . In the tenth-century Persian geography book Hudud al-'Alam , the Black Sea is called Georgian Sea ( daryā-yi Gurz ). The Georgian Chronicles use the name zğua sperisa ზღუა სპერისა (Sea of Speri) after the Kartvelian tribe of Speris or Saspers . Other modern names such as Chyornoye more and Karadeniz (both meaning Black Sea) originated during
SECTION 50
#17327722200265564-503: The Black Sea was an endorheic basin , operating independently of the global ocean system (similar to the Caspian Sea today). Currently, the Black Sea water level is relatively high; thus, water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean. The Black Sea undersea river is a current of particularly saline water flowing through the Bosporus Strait and along the seabed of the Black Sea, the first of its kind discovered. Current names of
5671-525: The Bosporus Strait from the Mediterranean Sea into the Black Sea, where the water has a lower salt content. Because of the anoxic water at depth, organic matter, including anthropogenic artifacts such as boat hulls, are well preserved. During periods of high surface productivity, short-lived algal blooms form organic rich layers known as sapropels . Scientists have reported an annual phytoplankton bloom that can be seen in many NASA images of
5778-483: The Bosporus is located at 36.5 m (120 ft) below present sea level (deepest spot of the shallowest cross-section in the Bosporus, located in front of Dolmabahçe Palace ) and has a wet section of around 38,000 m (410,000 sq ft). Inflow and outflow current speeds are averaged around 0.3 to 0.4 m/s (1.0 to 1.3 ft/s), but much higher speeds are found locally, inducing significant turbulence and vertical shear. This allows for turbulent mixing of
5885-612: The Kizirtepe monogenetic centres and 20,000 ± 10,000 for Hasan. Volcanic activity in the Acıgöl-Nevşehir system has been fission track dated at 15,500 ± 2,500 years ago. Major faults such as the North Anatolian Fault , which were generated by the convergence, are also active. Some of these faults form the edges of the Erciyes pull-apart basin, a tectonic depression up to 1.2 kilometres (0.75 mi) deep that
5992-576: The N:P:Si ratio in the basin. Coastal areas, accordingly, have seen an increase in the frequency of monospecific phytoplankton blooms, with diatom-bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 2.5 and non-diatom bloom frequency increasing by a factor of 6. The non-diatoms, such as the prymnesiophytes Emiliania huxleyi (coccolithophore), Chromulina sp., and the Euglenophyte Eutreptia lanowii , can out-compete diatom species because of
6099-464: The Rim Current. The Rim Current has a maximum velocity of about 50–100 cm/s (20–39 in/s). Within this feature, two smaller cyclonic gyres operate, occupying the eastern and western sectors of the basin. The Eastern and Western Gyres are well-organized systems in the winter but dissipate into a series of interconnected eddies in the summer and autumn. Mesoscale activity in the peripheral flow becomes more pronounced during these warmer seasons and
6206-457: The Sodmein Cave of the Red Sea Hills , 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) south of Erciyes, has been linked to the Dikkartin Dağ eruption, as was a layer in the former lake at Tayma in Saudi Arabia , 1,240 kilometres (770 mi) away from Erciyes. Other tephras identified in the Levantine Sea and erupted between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago may also come from Erciyes. The eruptions that formed all these layers probably had profound effects on
6313-578: The affected Mediterranean cultures. Another tephra layer found in the Black Sea appears to come from either the Karagüllü Dağ or the Perikartın eruptions. The tephra from these eruptions thus was probably spread northeastward, in contrast to the Dikkartin Dağ eruption, which spread tephra southeastward and thus is not found in the Black Sea. The unusual southward transport of the tephra may have occurred through low altitude winds. Andesites of less than 1,000 years of age have been identified. The occurrence of volcanic activity in historical times
6420-409: The amount of cold air arriving from northern regions during winter. Other influencing factors include the regional topography , as depressions and storm systems arriving from the Mediterranean are funneled through the low land around the Bosporus, with the Pontic and Caucasus mountain ranges acting as waveguides, limiting the speed and paths of cyclones passing through the region. The Black Sea
6527-639: The basin. The lake was fed by glacial meltwater from Erciyes and later overflowed the lava flow at several sites, the most important of which is Çalbama Gediģi . This overflow was not continuous; phases of lower lake levels caused it to dry up. Today, the basin contains wetlands that are protected under the Ramsar Convention and are a major nesting site for migratory birds . Endogenous domes extend from Erciyes, and 184, 210, or 64 individual centres dot its flanks. The domes have diameters of 1–4 kilometres (0.62–2.49 mi), and formed along radial dykes . A number of such domes and centres formed on
SECTION 60
#17327722200266634-424: The cardinal directions , with black or dark for north, red for south, white for west, and green or light blue for east. Hence, "Black Sea" meant "Northern Sea". According to this scheme, the name could only have originated with a people living between the northern (black) and southern (red) seas : this points to the Achaemenids (550–330 BC). In the Greater Bundahishn , a Middle Persian Zoroastrian scripture,
6741-412: The centre of the Black Sea reaches a maximum depth of 2,212 metres (7,257.22 feet) just south of Yalta on the Crimean Peninsula . The Paleo- Euxinian is described by the accumulation of eolian silt deposits (related to the Riss glaciation ) and the lowering of sea levels ( MIS 6, 8 and 10). The Karangat marine transgression occurred during the Eemian Interglacial (MIS 5e). This may have been
6848-417: The commonly used designation in Greek, although in mythological contexts the "true" name Póntos Áxeinos remained favoured. Strabo 's Geographica (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often simply called "the Sea" ( ὁ πόντος ho Pontos ). He thought that the sea was called the "Inhospitable Sea Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos by the inhabitants of the Pontus region of
6955-407: The east, large explosive eruptions formed a caldera . During the Pleistocene , Mount Erciyes proper grew inside the caldera together with a group of lava domes. Lateral eruptions of Erciyes may have generated ash layers in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean during the early Holocene . The last eruptions occurred during the early Holocene and may have deposited ash as far away as Palestine ;
7062-427: The eruption which had a Volcano Explosivity Index of 5 has been compared to that of Mount St. Helens in North America. Karagüllü Dağ was extruded later on the northern flank. Another explosive phase, this time dominated by 20 kilometres (12 mi) long pumice flows that contain charcoal followed and generated the Perikartın lava dome which is compositionally related to Dikkartin . The last event
7169-484: The first phase of caldera-forming activity to the Valibaba Tepe pumice may reflect the emptying of a magma chamber with vertical composition gradient. The Valibaba Tepe ignimbrite was considered part of the famous Cappadocian ignimbrites, but is distinct from them insofar as the other ones (with the possible exception of the Taspinar-Dikmen ignimbrites of Hasan Dagi) are not associated with stratovolcanoes. Erciyes volcano proper started developing 900,000 years ago. It
7276-441: The highest sea levels reached in the late Pleistocene . Based on this some scholars have suggested that the Crimean Peninsula was isolated from the mainland by a shallow strait during the Eemian Interglacial. The Neoeuxinian transgression began with an inflow of waters from the Caspian Sea . Neoeuxinian deposits are found in the Black Sea below −20 m (−66 ft) water depth in three layers. The upper layers correspond with
7383-518: The late 1980s. Additionally, an alien species—the warty comb jelly ( Mnemiopsis leidyi )—established itself in the basin, exploding from a few individuals to an estimated biomass of one billion metric tons. The change in species composition in Black Sea waters also has consequences for hydrochemistry, as calcium-producing coccolithophores influence salinity and pH, although these ramifications have yet to be fully quantified. In central Black Sea waters, silicon levels also reduced significantly, due to
7490-461: The late Holocene advance forming moraines at an altitude of 3,250 metres (10,660 ft). The maximum extent of glaciers on Erciyes occurred 21,300 ± 900 years ago, when glaciers reached lengths of 6 kilometres (3.7 mi). Glacier retreat occurred 20,700 ± 2,200 - 20,400 ± 1,800 years ago in the two catchments. Smaller advances and retreats occurred 14,600 ± 1,200 and 9,300 ± 1,500 years ago. The glaciers expanded last 3,800 ± 400 years ago; there
7597-407: The limited availability of silicon, a necessary constituent of diatom frustules. As a consequence of these blooms, benthic macrophyte populations were deprived of light, while anoxia caused mass mortality in marine animals. Overfishing during the 1970s further compounded the decline in macrophytes, while the invasive ctenophore Mnemiopsis reduced the biomass of copepods and other zooplankton in
7704-702: The limits of the Black Sea as follows: On the Southwest. The Northeastern limit of the Sea of Marmara [A line joining Cape Rumili with Cape Anatoli (41°13'N)]. In the Kertch Strait . A line joining Cape Takil and Cape Panaghia (45°02'N). The area surrounding the Black Sea is commonly referred to as the Black Sea Region . Its northern part lies within the Chernozem belt (black soil belt) which goes from eastern Croatia ( Slavonia ), along
7811-502: The magma. Tholeiitic and calc-alkaline magmas have different elemental compositions and probably formed from separate sources; tholeiitic magmas may have formed from partial melting of the mantle, while the calc-alkaline magmas formed from crustal assimilation in these magmas. Overall, the magma originated in the asthenospheric mantle; lithospheric components may have contributed, however. Volcanism appears to be associated with crustal extension at Erciyes. Mantle metasomatism from
7918-523: The mountain and Kayseri, most of them domestic tourists. A ski centre, Erciyes Ski Resort , exists on Erciyes. The resort lies at an altitude of 2,200 metres (7,200 ft) at the Üçker valley. In 2020, the Erciyes High-Altitude Camp Center was built on Erciyes; it aims at promoting mountain sports on Erciyes and to escape the heat of lower-altitude Turkey. Black Sea Unrecognised states: The Black Sea
8025-490: The northern slopes. Of these centres, 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) wide and 100 metres (330 ft) deep Cora Maar lies 20 kilometres (12 mi) northwest of Erciyes. It formed within Quaternary andesite lava flows; its formation was probably favoured by a shallow aquifer and was accompanied by strong phreatomagmatic explosions. The formation of this maar was accompanied by the release of tephra, which reached
8132-460: The occurrence of historical volcanism is uncertain. Future eruptions of Erciyes may endanger the nearby cities to the north. The volcano was glaciated during the Pleistocene. One regular glacier still exists, but is receding. Erciyes is the adoption into Turkish of the Greek name Argaios ( Greek : Ἀργαῖος). The latinized form is Argaeus ; a rarely encountered alternative latinization
8239-545: The one hand and monogenetic volcanoes and maars on the other hand. The tectonic environment has been compared with the Basin and Range Province . The Central Anatolian Volcanic Province, of which Erciyes is a part, covers a surface area of 32,500 square kilometres (12,500 sq mi). The Cappadocian volcanic plateau comprises ignimbrites that are up to 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) thick. The youngest K–Ar dates obtained on these centres are 60,000 ± 20,000 years ago for
8346-747: The others being the Red Sea , the White Sea and the Yellow Sea . The earliest known name of the Black Sea is the Sea of Zalpa, so called by both the Hattians and their conquerors, the Hittites . The Hattic city of Zalpa was "situated probably at or near the estuary of the Marrassantiya River, the modern Kızıl Irmak , on the Black Sea coast." The principal Greek name Póntos Áxeinos
8453-454: The outflow of fresher Black Sea surface-water into the Sea of Marmara occurs near the surface. According to Gregg (2002), the outflow is 16,000 cubic metres per second (570,000 cubic feet per second) or around 500 cubic kilometres per year (120 cubic miles per year), and the inflow is 11,000 m /s (390,000 cu ft/s) or around 350 km /a (84 cu mi/a). The following water budget can be estimated: The southern sill of
8560-507: The peak of the Khvalinian transgression, on the shelf shallow-water sands and coquina mixed with silty sands and brackish-water fauna, and inside the Black Sea Depression hydrotroilite silts. The middle layers on the shelf are sands with brackish-water mollusc shells. Of continental origin, the lower level on the shelf is mostly alluvial sands with pebbles, mixed with less common lacustrine silts and freshwater mollusc shells . Inside
8667-488: The photic zone, enhancing productivity. In total, the Black Sea's biodiversity contains around one-third of the Mediterranean's and is experiencing natural and artificial invasions or "Mediterranizations". The main phytoplankton groups present in the Black Sea are dinoflagellates , diatoms , coccolithophores and cyanobacteria . Generally, the annual cycle of phytoplankton development comprises significant diatom and dinoflagellate-dominated spring production, followed by
8774-681: The preservation of ancient shipwrecks which have been found in the Black Sea, which ultimately drains into the Mediterranean Sea , via the Turkish Straits and the Aegean Sea. The Bosporus strait connects it to the small Sea of Marmara which in turn is connected to the Aegean Sea via the strait of the Dardanelles . To the north, the Black Sea is connected to the Sea of Azov by the Kerch Strait . The water level has varied significantly over geological time. Due to these variations in
8881-493: The region. As a result of these characteristics the Black Sea has gained interest from the field of marine archaeology , as ancient shipwrecks in excellent states of preservation have been discovered, such as the Byzantine wreck Sinop D , located in the anoxic layer off the coast of Sinop, Turkey . Modelling shows that, in the event of an asteroid impact on the Black Sea, the release of hydrogen sulfide clouds would pose
8988-645: The rim of the 14-by-18-kilometre (8.7 by 11.2 mi) wide caldera in which Erciyes sits and which formed during the Valibaba Tepe eruption. This caldera may originally have had a volume of 110 cubic kilometres (26 cu mi). Clockwise from north, these volcanic centres are Ali Dağ , Kızıl Tepe , Topakkaya Tepe , Dikkartin Dağ , Kolanlı Dağ , Göğdağ , Yılband Dağ , Cora Maar , Karagüllü Dağ , Yılanlı Dağ , Carık Tepe , Perikartın and Lifos Tepe . About half of these centres are at distances of about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from Erciyes, and most of them can be found on
9095-647: The same time as the initial formation of the Erciyes basin. Since about 88,000 - 85,000 years ago, the average magma production rate has been about 0.1 cubic kilometres per millennium (0.024 cu mi/ka), with a long-term flux about four times larger. The oldest volcanic activity at Erciyes is known as Koç Dağ , which forms the eastern slope of Erciyes. This complex erupted pyroxene andesite, 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) long lava flows from Topakkaya Tepe cone and 0.2 cubic kilometres (0.048 cu mi) dense rock equivalent of fall deposits and scoria from Kızıl Tepe . One date obtained on Koç Dağ
9202-469: The sea are usually equivalents of the English name "Black Sea", including these given in the countries bordering the sea: Such names have not yet been shown conclusively to predate the 13th century. In Greece , the historical name "Euxine Sea", which holds a different literal meaning (see below), is still widely used: The Black Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms –
9309-526: The sea. The collision between the Eurasian and African plates and the westward escape of the Anatolian block along the North Anatolian and East Anatolian faults dictates the current tectonic regime, which features enhanced subsidence in the Black Sea basin and significant volcanic activity in the Anatolian region. These geological mechanisms, in the long term, have caused the periodic isolations of
9416-497: The southern shoreline before Greek colonisation due to its difficult navigation and hostile barbarian natives (7.3.6), and that the name was changed to "hospitable" after the Milesians colonised the region, bringing it into the Greek world. Popular supposition derives "Black Sea" from the dark color of the water or climatic conditions. Some scholars understand the name to be derived from a system of colour symbolism representing
9523-696: The summit also contain amphibole , apatite , biotite , feldspar , quartz , and zircon . The mineral yazganite [ de ] was first described from samples obtained on Mount Erciyes, and its chemical formula is NaFe 2 ( Mg,Mn )( AsO 4 ) 3 · H 2 O . The dacites taken from the summit display a noticeable variability in their composition and texture, with their temperatures at formation varying between 734–989 °C (1,353–1,812 °F). The andesites and dacites may have formed from basaltic magma by fractional crystallization involving amphibole, based on elemental composition data. Further, crustal materials were included into
9630-904: The summit region probably ended before the Holocene. Radiometric dating has yielded evidence of a major pulse of volcanic activity in the early Holocene . Dikkartin Dağ , Karagüllü Dağ , and Perikartın belong to the youngest stages of volcanic activity at Erciyes and formed on the rim of the former caldera. Radiocarbon and chlorine-36 dating of the deposits has yielded ages of 10,200 – 9,700 years before present for Dikkartin Dağ , while potassium–argon dating yielded ages of 140,000 ± 20,000 – 110,000 ± 30,000 years ago at first for all three. Radiocarbon dates of 9,971 – 9,594 and 9,984 – 9,596 years before present have been obtained for Karagüllü Dağ and Perikartın , respectively. The three eruptions appear to have occurred within
9737-521: The summit region, however. The volcano is dominated by calc-alkaline rocks; one basalt with tholeiitic to intermediary affinity was erupted 1.7 million years ago; volcanic activity at first was tholeiitic and later became calc-alkaline. Monogenetic volcanoes in the region also erupted basalt, but this basalt is clearly different from the Erciyes basalt. Minerals contained in Erciyes rocks include clinopyroxene , ilmenite , orthopyroxene , plagioclase , and titanomagnetite . Samples taken from
9844-422: The summit. The Aksu valley contains sizable moraines left by the Pleistocene glaciation that are up to 60 metres (200 ft) high, 60–120 metres (200–390 ft) wide and 1–2.5 kilometres (0.62–1.55 mi) long. A glacial outwash plain formed at the valley foot and was partly buried by Karagüllü lavas. Moraines and outwash plains are heavily eroded. Andesite and basaltic andesites are exposed on
9951-674: The timings of these events remain uncertain. Arc volcanism and extension occurred as the Neo-Tethys Ocean subducted under the southern margin of Laurasia during the Mesozoic . Uplift and compressional deformation took place as the Neotethys continued to close. Seismic surveys indicate that rifting began in the Western Black Sea in the Barremian and Aptian followed by the formation of oceanic crust 20 million years later in
10058-408: The two layers. Surface water leaves the Black Sea with a salinity of 17 practical salinity units (PSU) and reaches the Mediterranean with a salinity of 34 PSU. Likewise, an inflow of the Mediterranean with salinity 38.5 PSU experiences a decrease to about 34 PSU. Mean surface circulation is cyclonic ; waters around the perimeter of the Black Sea circulate in a basin-wide shelfbreak gyre known as
10165-426: The upper segment of the Üçker valley. The debris avalanche deposit reaches a distance of 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) from the summit and has a hummocky appearance. The volcano overall has an eroded appearance. Two major valleys extend to the summit, the northwesterly Aksu Valley and the easterly Üçker valley. The minor valleys of Öksüzdere lie north, Topaktaş south, and Saraycık southwest of
10272-524: The vegetation belts are different from these found in the equivalent areas of Western European mountains. The flora of Erciyes is diverse. A number of endemic plant species have been identified, including Astragalus argaeus , Astragalus stenosemioides , Asyneuma trichostegium , Bellardiochloa argaea , Dianthus crinitus argaeus , Festuca cratericola , Festuca woronowii argaea , Hieracium argaeum , Onobrychis argaea , and Vicia canescens argaea . The plant Silene erciyesdaghensis
10379-554: The view from its summit. According to a vita of Saint Lazaros of Mount Galesios (11th century CE) written by his disciple Gregory the Cellarer, Lazaros climbed and descended Mount Erciyes in the depths of winter while singing the Psalms , as he encountered harsh weather and even a bear and attacking dogs. At present, about five hotels exist at the mountain, which is a major winter sports site. In 2010, 324,221 tourists visited
10486-543: The volcano (19 kilometres (12 mi) and 12 kilometres (7.5 mi), respectively), Develi , located south, and İncesu , located west and southwest of the volcano. The mountain is about half a hour from Kayseri but access to the summit area is difficult. Climbers in antiquity reported that both the Black Sea and the Mediterranean could be seen from the summit. Erciyes Dagi and Hasan Dagi are both large stratovolcanoes that lie in Central Anatolia, on
10593-434: The volcano, with each of the five valleys that extend from the summit hosting glaciers. In the Aksu valley, these extended down to an altitude of 2,150 metres (7,050 ft). Glaciers reached lengths of 6 kilometres (3.7 mi); with the Aksu valley glacier reaching a length of 5.8 kilometres (3.6 mi) and the Üçker glacier of 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi). The snowline was 950 metres (3,120 ft) lower during
10700-458: The water level in the basin, the surrounding shelf and associated aprons have sometimes been dry land. At certain critical water levels, connections with surrounding water bodies can become established. It is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits, that the Black Sea joins the World Ocean . During geological periods when this hydrological link was not present,
10807-521: The western, southern, and eastern sides of the volcano; on the eastern side they form the Koç Dağ centre with a height of 2,628 metres (8,622 ft). This centre is mostly formed by lava flows . On the western side, andesitic lava flows reach the Sultansazlıği basin. The huge middle Pleistocene Aliboran lava flow descended the western slopes and blocked the Incesu valley, forming Aliboran Lake in
10914-468: Was Argaeas mons , Argeas mons. The Greek name has the meaning of "bright" or "white"; as applied to the mountain, it may have been eponymous of Argaeus I (678 – 640 BC), king of Macedon and founder of the Argead dynasty . The Turkish name was historically spelled Erciyas , and it was changed to Erciyes to conform with vowel harmony in the 1940s–1960s. Mons Argaeus on
11021-513: Was discovered on Erciyes and named after it. The geographer Strabo claimed that, in antiquity, the volcano was forested. A number of endemic and relic animal species can also be found at Erciyes, as well as a rich lichen flora. Grazing, settlements, and tourism have altered the natural vegetation of the mountain. The volcano was glaciated during the Pleistocene, during which about three stages of glaciation occurred. Aretes , cirques , horns, and moraines from these glaciations can be found on
11128-590: Was explosive, with eruptions at the summit of Erciyes generating block-and-ash flows, pumice flows, and lava domes that formed blocks of 1.5–2 metres (4 ft 11 in – 6 ft 7 in) in diameter. The deposits of this activity are found north and south of the summit of Erciyes and reach thicknesses of 18 metres (59 ft). Cora Maar is not precisely dated, but probably formed less than 100,000 years ago. The last dacitic eruption occurred 80,000 ± 10,000 years ago at Çarık Tepe although later research has discovered later lavic eruptions. Activity in
11235-438: Was formed during two phases, starting with a basaltic andesite lava flow on the southern slope 1.7 million years ago. It was followed by the andesitic lava flows on the western flank and then by many of the dacitic lava domes. Another phase of basaltic andesite activity followed, reaching lengths of 15 kilometres (9.3 mi). Effusive activity ended with small lava flows of varying composition. The next phase of activity
11342-418: Was the collapse of the eastern flank of Ercyies. This collapse was probably triggered by an earthquake , considering that no evidence for a concomitant eruption exists. Considering the ages of the oldest moraines contained within the collapse scar, it probably happened more than 25,000 years ago. This collapse generated a debris avalanche 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) long which dammed a lake and presently forms
11449-410: Was the strongest of the three lava dome forming eruptions and formed an eruption column 25 kilometres (16 mi) high, but it left the smallest crater of the three. This eruption at first formed a tuff ring , within which the lava dome was emplaced. Lava flows extend to lengths of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi). The dome and flow have a total volume of 0.82 cubic kilometres (0.20 cu mi), and
#25974