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85-555: The Ramayana refers to the court of King Janaka in Mithila, attracting scholars and philosophers. In the text Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , there is reference of the famous scholarly Yajna known as Bahudakshina Yajna , in which Brahmin scholars from different parts of the Indian subcontinent participated for Shastrartha at the court of King Janaka. During the Gupta period Mithila

170-697: A Torave Ramayana in Kannada by 16th-century poet Narahari; Adhyathmaramayanam , a Malayalam version by Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan in the 16th century; in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century; in Maithili by Chanda Jha in the 19th century; and in the 20th century, Rashtrakavi Kuvempu 's Sri Ramayana Darshanam in Kannada and Srimadramayana Kalpavrukshamu in Telugu by Viswanatha Satyanarayana who received Jnanapeeth award for this work. There

255-554: A demon, Lankini , who protects all of Lankā. Hanumān fights with her and subjugates her in order to get into Lankā. In the process, Lankini, who had an earlier vision/warning from the gods, therefore, knows that the end of Lankā nears if someone defeats Lankini. Here, Hanumān explores the demons' kingdom and spies on Rāvaṇa. He locates Sītā in Ashoka grove, where she is being wooed and threatened by Rāvaṇa and his rakshasis to marry Rāvaṇa. Hanumān reassures Sītā, giving Rāma's signet ring as

340-476: A diversity of views, in each category. Some Purushartha-focused literature include, The Sanskrit Epics devote major sections on purusharthas , in particular debating dharma. The ancient Tamil moral literature of the Tirukkural focuses on the first three of the purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, and Kama) without discussing Moksha, suggesting that "the proper pursuit of the other three will inevitably lead to

425-429: A fulfilling and happy life, Ancient Indian literature emphasizes that dharma is foremost. If dharma is ignored, artha and kama - profit and pleasure respectively - lead to social chaos. The Gautama Dharmashastra, Apastamba Dharmasutra and Yājñavalkya Smṛti , as examples, all suggest that dharma comes first and is more important than artha and kama. Kama states the relative value of three goals as follows: artha

510-585: A gift. Rama's rule itself was Rāma rājya described to be a just and fair rule. It is believed by many that when Rama returned people celebrated their happiness with diyas , and the festival of Deepavali is connected with Rāma's return. Scholars note "linguistic and rhetorical differences" between the Uttara Kanda and books 2 through 6 of the Ramayana, especially in stories such as Sita's exile and death of Shambuka , and together with Bala Kanda it

595-409: A gigantic form and makes a colossal leap across the sea to Lanka. On the way, he meets with many challenges like facing a Gandharva Kanyā who comes in the form of a demon to test his abilities. He encounters a mountain named Maināka who offers Hanuman assistance and offers him rest. Hanumān refuses because there is little time remaining to complete the search for Sītā. After entering Lankā, he finds

680-481: A portion with other living beings, sprinkling the remainder with water he should eat it as if it were a medicine. Baudhāyana also makes repeated references to the Sannyasa (ascetic) stage and its behavioral focus, such as in verses II.13.7 and 11.18.13. This reference, Olivelle states, is found in many early to mid 1st millennium BC texts, and is clearly from gnomic poetry about an established ascetic tradition by

765-437: A sign that Rāma is still alive. He offers to carry Sītā back to Rāma; however, she refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramāyaṇa will not have significance if Hanumān carries her to Rāma – "When Rāma was not there Rāvaṇa carried Sītā forcibly and when Rāvaṇa was not there, Hanumān carried Sītā back to Ræma." She says that Rāma himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction. She gives Hanumān her comb as

850-437: A son and in the desire to have a legal heir performs a fire sacrifice known as Putrīyā Iṣṭi. Meanwhile, the gods are petitioning to Brahmā and Viṣhṇu about Rāvaṇa, king of the rākṣasas who is terrorizing the universe. Thus Viṣṇu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demon Rāvaṇa . As a consequence, Rāma was first born to Kausalyā, Bharata was born to Kaikeyī, and Lakṣmaṇa and Śatrughna were born to Sumitrā. When Rāma

935-517: A token to prove that she is still alive. Hanumān takes leave of Sītā. Before going back to Rāma and tell him of Sītā's location & desire to be rescued only by him, he decides to wreak havoc in Lankā by destroying trees in the Naulakha Bagh and buildings and killing Rāvaṇa's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and delivered to Rāvaṇa. He gives a bold lecture to Rāvaṇa to release Sīta. He

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1020-668: A twelve-year exile. After nine years, Dasharatha died and Lakkhaṇa and Sita returned. Rāmapaṇḍita, in deference to his father's wishes, remained in exile for a further two years. This version does not include the abduction of Sītā. There is no Ravana in this version, or the Rama-Ravana war. However, Ravana appears in other Buddhist literature, the Lankavatara Sutra . Puru%E1%B9%A3%C4%81rtha Traditional Purushartha ( Sanskrit : पुरुषार्थ, IAST : Puruṣārtha ) literally means "object(ive) of men". It

1105-475: A utopian state where Rama is king) or of a functioning society/ realm. The name Rāmāyaṇa is composed of two words, Rāma and ayaṇa . Rāma , the name of the main figure of the epic, has two contextual meanings. In the Atharvaveda , it means 'dark, dark-coloured or black' and is related to the word rātri which means 'darkness or stillness of night'. The other meaning, which can be found in

1190-652: A version of the Ramayana in the 17th century. Akbar , the third Mughal Emperor, commissioned a simplified text of the Ramayana which he dedicated to his mother, Hamida Banu Begum . Created around 1594, the manuscript is illustrated with scenes from the narrative. Other versions include Krittivasi Ramayan , a Bengali version by Krittibas Ojha in the 15th century; Vilanka Ramayana by 15th century poet Sarala Dasa and Jagamohana Ramayana (also known as Dandi Ramayana ) by 16th century poet Balarama Dasa, both in Odia ;

1275-406: A wicked maidservant, to claim two boons that Daśaratha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyī demands Rāma to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years , while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The grief-stricken king, bound by his word, accedes to Kaikeyī's demands. Rāma accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterizes him throughout

1360-484: Is that the Rama, Lakshmana and Hanuman were tied to a tree and were brought to trial in the tribal court, where the deities of the clan Sidhappan, Nanjappan, Mathappan etc. interrogate them with intense inquiries regarding the ethical justification for abandoning his pregnant wife in the barren jungle, neglecting his duties as a husband. Rama admits his mistakes and reaccepts Sita, Lava and Kusha. Even before Kambar wrote

1445-575: Is a key concept in Hinduism , and refers to the four proper goals or aims of a human life. The four puruṣārthas are Dharma (righteousness, moral values), Artha (prosperity, economic values), Kama (pleasure, love, psychological values) and Moksha (liberation, spiritual values, self-realization). All four Purusharthas are important, but in cases of conflict, Dharma is considered more important than Artha or Kama in Hindu philosophy. Moksha

1530-472: Is a sub-plot to the Ramayana , prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahiravan and Mahi Ravana, evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a cave, to be sacrificed to the goddess Kali . Adbhuta Ramayana is a version that

1615-450: Is an epic poem containing over 24,000 couplet verses, divided into seven kāṇḍa s ( Bālakāṇḍa , Ayodhyakāṇḍa, Araṇyakāṇḍa, Kiṣkindakāṇḍa, Sundarākāṇḍa , Yuddhakāṇḍa, Uttarakāṇḍa), and about 500 sargas (chapters). It is regarded as one of the longest epic poems ever written. The Ramayana text has several regional renderings, recensions, and sub-recensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional revisions:

1700-446: Is an image of Rama and Sita inside his chest. Rama rules Ayodhya and the reign is called Rama-Rajya (a place where the common folk is happy, fulfilled, and satisfied). Then Valmiki trained Lava and Kusha in archery and succeeded the throne after Rama. As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. In particular, the Ramayana related in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and

1785-464: Is best if he continues to follow Rāma's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sītā insists that it is not she but Rāma who needs Lakṣmaṇa's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any stranger. He then draws a line that no demon could cross and leaves to help Rāma. With the coast finally clear, Rāvaṇa appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sītā's hospitality. Unaware of her guest's plan, Sītā

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1870-435: Is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaps from roof to roof, sets fire to Rāvaṇa's citadel, and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kiṣkindhā with the news. Also known as Lankā Kāṇḍa , this book describes the war between the army of Rāma and the army of Rāvaṇa. Having received Hanuman's report on Sītā, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa proceed with their allies towards

1955-605: Is considered by some scholars to be an interpolation, and that "the 'original' poem ended with the Yuddhakanda. This kanda narrates Rama's reign of Ayodhya , the birth of Lava and Kusha , the Ashvamedha yajna , and last days of Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman, where the coronation is performed. On being asked to prove his devotion to Rama, Hanuman tears his chest open and to everyone's surprise, there

2040-448: Is considered the ultimate goal of human life. At the same time, this is not a consensus among all Hindus, and many have different interpretations of the hierarchy, and even as to whether one should exist. Another hindu scripture Veda says Moksha is ultimate in which human soul reach to the ultimate consciousness where human being get rid of shadripu kama, krodha, lobha, moha, mada ,matsarya. Historical Indian scholars recognized and debated

2125-672: Is more important and should precede kama, while dharma is more important and should precede both kama and artha. Kautiliya's Arthashastra , however, argues that artha is the foundation for the other two. Without prosperity and security in society or at individual level, both moral life and sensuality become difficult. Poverty breeds vice and hate, while prosperity breeds virtues and love, suggested Kautiliya. Kautilya adds that all three are mutually connected, and one should not cease enjoying life, nor virtuous behavior, nor pursuit of wealth creation. Excessive pursuit of any one aspect of life with complete rejection of other two, harms all three including

2210-460: Is obscure but also attributed to Valmiki – intended as a supplementary to the original Valmiki Ramayana . In this variant of the narrative, Sita is accorded far more prominence, such as elaboration of the events surrounding her birth – in this case to Ravana 's wife, Mandodari as well as her conquest of Ravana's older brother in the Mahakali form. The Gondi people have their own version of

2295-402: Is of two kinds: pravrtti and nivrtti , The first kind of activity leads to progress ( abhyudaya ), and the second, to perfection ( nihsreyasa ). Indian scholars offered a creative resolution to the tension between "action"-filled life and "renunciation"-driven life, by suggesting the best of both worlds can be achieved by dedicating oneself to "action with renunciation", that is when "action

2380-413: Is tricked and is then forcibly carried away by Rāvaṇa. Jatāyu , a vulture , tries to rescue Sītā but is mortally wounded. In Lankā, Sītā is kept under the guard of rakṣasīs . Ravaṇa asks Sītā to marry him, but she refuses, being totally devoted to Rāma. Meanwhile, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa learn about Sītā's abduction from Jatāyu and immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meet Kabandha and

2465-464: Is without attachment or craving for results". Action must be engaged in because it is Dharma , that is, it is good, virtuous, right, a duty and a moral activity, and not because of one's craving for the results or material rewards without any consideration for Dharma. This idea of "craving-free, dharma-driven action" has been called Nishkama Karma in Bhagavad Gita . Other Indian texts state

2550-513: The Mahabharata , is 'pleasing, pleasant, charming, lovely, beautiful'. The word ayana means travel or journey. Thus, Rāmāyaṇa means "Rama's journey" with ayana altered to yaṇa (due to the amalgamation of "a" in Rama and the "a" in ayana, as per the Sanskrit grammar rule of internal sandhi ). Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the available text range from

2635-526: The Puranas . The genre also includes teachings on the goals of human life . It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal son, servant, brother, husband, wife, and king. Like the Mahabharata , Ramayana presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in the narrative allegory , interspersing philosophical and ethical elements. In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana

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2720-675: The Alvar literature of Kulasekhara Alvar , Thirumangai Alvar , Andal and Nammalvar (dated between 5th and 10th centuries CE). Even the songs of the Nayanmars have references to Ravana and his devotion to Lord Siva. The entire Ramayana was written as a Tamil Opera again in the 18th century CE by Arunachala Kavirayar in Srirangam . The Ramayana was named as Rama Natakam and was composed in Tamil Language . Arunachala Kavi

2805-469: The Himalayas . Upon reaching, Hanumān is unable to identify the sanjeevani herb that will cure Lakṣmaṇa and so he decides to bring the entire mountain back to Lankā. Eventually, the war ends when Rāma kills Rāvaṇa. Rāma then installs Vibhishaṇa on the throne of Lanka. On meeting Sītā, Rāma says; "The dishonour meted out to him and the wrong done to her by Rāvaṇa have been wiped off, by his victory over

2890-662: The Ramavataram in Tamil in the 12th century AD, there are many ancient references to the story of Ramayana, implying that the story was familiar in the Tamil lands even before the Common Era. References to the story can be found in the Sangam literature of Akanaṉūṟu (dated 1st century BCE) and Purananuru (dated 300 BC), the twin epics of Silappatikaram (dated 2nd century CE) and Manimekalai (cantos 5, 17 and 18), and

2975-530: The "aims of human life". In his book Bhagavad-Gita As It Is , Prabhupada describes Purusartha as "material religiosity, economic development, sense gratification and, at the end, the attempt to become one with the Supreme." Purushartha is also referred to as Chaturvarga . Purushartha is a key concept in Hinduism, which holds that every human has four proper goals that are necessary and sufficient for

3060-412: The 12th-13th to the 15th century in Mithila. During the mediaeval period, Shalaka Pariksha and Shadyantra Pariksha were the examinations conducted for graduation from the institution. Mahesha Thakura , the founder of Darbhanga Raj , later introduced Dhaut Pariksha . Students were not allowed to take any piece of written information with them after finishing their studies, to keep a monopoly on

3145-578: The 15th century. The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the early 14th century Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese by Madhava Kandali . Valmiki's Ramayana inspired Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulsidas in 1576, an epic in Awadhi Hindi with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti ; it is an acknowledged masterpiece, popularly known as Tulsi-krita Ramayana . Gujarati poet Premanand wrote

3230-410: The 7th century BCE). The text also mentions Ayodhya as the capital of Kosala , rather than its later name of Saketa or the successor capital of Shravasti . In terms of narrative time, the action of the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata . Goldman & Sutherland Goldman (2022) consider Ramayana's oldest surviving version was composed around 500 BCE. Books two to six are the oldest portion of

3315-419: The 7th to 5th centuries BCE, with later stages extending up to the 3rd century CE. According to Robert P. Goldman (1984), the oldest parts of the Ramayana date to the early 7th century BCE . The later parts cannot have been composed later than the 6th or 5th century BCE, due to the narrative not mentioning Buddhism (founded in the 5th century BCE) nor the prominence of Magadha (which rose to prominence in

3400-569: The Ramayana known as the Gond Ramayani , derived from oral folk legends. It consists of seven stories with Lakshmana as the protagonist, set after the main events of the Ramayana, where he finds a bride. In Adiya Ramayana, an oral version of Ramayana prevailing among the Adiya tribe of Wayanad , Sita is an Adiya woman hailing from Pulpally in Wayanad. A notable difference in the version

3485-495: The Ramayana. The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and the Hindu life and culture, and its main figures were fundamental to the cultural consciousness of a number of nations, both Hindu and Buddhist . Its most important moral influence was the importance of virtue, in the life of a citizen and in the ideals of the formation of a state (from Sanskrit : रामराज्य , romanized :  Rāmarājya ,

Vedic learning in Mithila - Misplaced Pages Continue

3570-406: The affairs of Mananat (mind, meditation). केश्यग्निं केशी विषं केशी बिभर्ति रोदसी । केशी विश्वं स्वर्दृशे केशीदं ज्योतिरुच्यते ॥१॥ '''मुनयो''' वातरशनाः पिशङ्गा वसते मला । वातस्यानु ध्राजिं यन्ति यद्देवासो अविक्षत ॥२॥ He with the long loose locks (of hair) supports Agni, and moisture, heaven, and earth; He is all sky to look upon: he with long hair is called this light. The Munis , girdled with

3655-538: The aid of the rakṣasa Mārīca . Mārīca, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sītā's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sītā pleads with Rāma to capture it. Rāma, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sītā from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sītā under Lakṣmaṇa's guard. After some time, Sītā hears Rāma calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakṣmaṇa rush to his aid. Lakṣmaṇa tries to assure her that Rāma cannot be hurt that easily and that it

3740-414: The ascetic Śabarī , who directs them towards Sugriva and Hanuman. Kishkindha Kanda is set in the place of Vānaras (Vana-nara) – Forest dwelling humans. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa meet Hanumān, the biggest devotee of Rāma, greatest of ape heroes, and an adherent of Sugriva , the banished pretender to the throne of Kiṣkindhā. Rāma befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vāli thus regaining

3825-535: The bow, but breaks it in the process. Rāma marries Sītā; the wedding is celebrated with great festivity in Mithilā and the marriage party returns to Ayodhyā. After Rāma and Sītā have been married, an elderly Daśaratha expresses his desire to crown Rāma, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyī was happy about this, but was later on provoked by Mantharā ,

3910-431: The burning pyre, carrying Sītā in his arms and restores her to Rāma, testifying to her purity. Rama later joyfully accepts her. The episode of Agni Pariksha varies in the versions of Ramāyaṇa by Valmiki and Tulsidas . In Tulsidas 's Ramcharitmanas , Sītā was under the protection of Agni (see Māyā Sītā ) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rāma. The gods led by Brahma arrive and glorify Rama as

3995-402: The earth, only to return without success from north, east, and west. The southern search party under the leadership of Aṅgada and Hanumān learns from a vulture named Sampātī the elder brother of Jatāyu, that Sītā was taken to Lankā. Sundara Kanda forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid account of Hanumān 's heroics. After learning about Sītā, Hanumān assumes

4080-465: The enemy with the assistance of Hanumān, Sugrīva and Vibhishaṇa". However, upon criticism from people in his kingdom about the chastity of Sītā, Rāma gets extremely disheartened. So Sītā, in order to prove the citizens wrong and wipe the false blame on her, requests Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa to prepare a pyre for her to enter. When Lakṣmaṇa prepares the pyre, Sītā prays to Agni and enters into it, in order to prove her conjugal fidelity. Agni appears in person from

4165-481: The epic without two of its kandas. During the 12th century, Kamban wrote Ramavataram , known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil , but references to Ramayana story appear in Tamil literature as early as 3rd century CE. The Telugu rendition, Ranganatha Ramayanam , was written by Gona Budda Reddy in the 13th century and another of a purer Telugu rendition, called Molla Ramayanam written by Atukuri Molla in

4250-437: The epic, while the first and last books ( Balakanda and Uttara Kanda , respectively) seem to be later additions. Style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest of the epic have led scholars since Hermann Jacobi toward this consensus. The Ramayana belongs to the genre of Itihasa , narratives of past events ( purāvṛtta ), which includes the epics Mahabharata and Ramayana , and

4335-514: The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are the first known sources that comprehensively present the notion that integrated living entails the pursuit of four goals or ends. Prasad (2008) states that the division between the trivarga and mokṣa is intended to highlight the context between the social ( trivarga ) and personal ( mokṣa ) spheres. The Sannyasa is entirely focussed on the pursuit of Moksha without violating Dharma . Baudhayana Dharmasūtra, completed by about 7th century BC, states

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4420-425: The first three ashramas must devote itself predominantly to one specific goal of life. The fourth stage of Sannyasa is different, and the overwhelming consensus in ancient and medieval Indian texts is that anyone accepting Sannyasa must entirely devote to Moksha aided by Dharma , with a complete renunciation of Artha and Kama . With the known exception of Kamasutra , most texts make no recommendation on

4505-534: The following behavioral vows for a person in Sannyasa , These are the vows a Sannyasi must keep – Abstention from injuring living beings, truthfulness, abstention from appropriating the property of others, abstention from sensual pleasures, liberality (kindness, gentleness) are the major vows. There are five minor vows: abstention from anger, obedience towards the guru, avoidance of rashness, cleanliness, and purity in eating. He should beg (for food) without annoying others, any food he gets he must compassionately share

4590-430: The forest and implores him to return to Ayodhyā and claim the throne that is rightfully his. But Rāma, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. Bharata reluctantly returns to Ayodhyā and rules the kingdom on behalf of his brother. In exile, Rāma, Sītā, and Lakṣmaṇa journey southward along the banks of the river Godāvari , where they build cottages and live off

4675-572: The fourth." The Nalatiyar , another work of the Sangam literature , too, follows similar philosophy as the Tirukkural. The four puruṣārthas are often discussed in the context of four ashramas or stages of life ( Brahmacharya – student, Grihastha – householder, Vanaprastha – retirement and Sannyasa – renunciation). Scholars have attempted to connect the four stages to the four puruṣārthas, however Olivelle dismisses this, as neither ancient nor medieval texts of India state that any of

4760-415: The incarnation of Supreme God Narayana. Indra restores the dead Vanaras back to life. After the exile, Rāma returns to Ayodhya and the people are so happy they celebrate it like a festival. Deepavali is the day considered that Rāma, Sītā, Lakṣmaṇa and Hanumān reached Ayodhyā after a period of 14 years in exile after Rāma's army of good defeated demon king Rāvaṇa's army of evil. The return of Rāma to Ayodhyā

4845-508: The inherent tension between active pursuit of wealth (Artha) and pleasure (Kama), and renunciation of all wealth and pleasure for the sake of spiritual liberation (Moksha). They proposed "action with renunciation" or "craving-free, dharma-driven action", also called Nishkama Karma as a possible solution to the tension. Puruṣārtha (पुरुषार्थ) is a composite Sanskrit word from Purusha (पुरुष) and Artha (अर्थ). Purusha means "spirit" , "immaterial essence" , or "primaeval human being as

4930-407: The kidnapping of Sita by Ravana , the king of Lanka , that resulted in war; and Rama's eventual return to Ayodhya along with Sita to be crowned king amidst jubilation and celebration. Scholarly estimates for the earliest stage of the text range from the 7th to 5th centuries BCE, and later stages extend up to the 3rd century CE, although the original date of composition is unknown. It is one of

5015-531: The killing of the ascetic Sambuka. The U-K attributes both actions to Rama, whom people acknowledged to be righteous and as a model to follow. By masquerading as an additional kanda of the Ramayana composed by Valmiki himself, the U-K succeeded, to a considerable extent, in sabotaging the values presented in Valmiki's Ramayana. The epic begins with the sage Vālmīki asking Nārada if there is a righteous man still left in

5100-417: The kingdom of Kiṣkindhā, in exchange for helping Rāma to recover Sītā. However, Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time enjoying his newly gained power. The clever former ape queen Tārā , (wife of Vāli) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakṣmaṇa from destroying the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honor his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of

5185-541: The land. One day, in the Pañcavati forest they are visited by a rākṣasī named Śurpaṇakhā , sister of Ravaṇa. She tries to seduce the brothers and, after failing, attempts to kill Sītā out of jealousy. Lakṣmaṇa stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her brothers Khara and Dushan organize an attack against the princes. Rama defeats Khara and his rakshasas. When the news of these events reaches Rāvaṇa, he resolves to destroy Rāma by capturing Sītā with

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5270-439: The landscape, his own ancestors, and the ancestors of the princes. The party then decide to go to attend king Janaka's sacrifice in the kingdom of Mithilā , who has a bow that no one has been able to string. Janaka recounts the history of the famed bow, and informs them that whoever strings the bow will win the hand of his daughter Sītā , whom he had found in the earth when plowing a field. Rāma then proceeds to not only string

5355-718: The largest ancient epics in world literature and consists of nearly 24,000 verses (mostly set in the Shloka / Anuṣṭubh metre), divided into seven kāṇḍa (chapters). It belongs to the genre of Itihasa , narratives of past events ( purāvṛtta ), interspersed with teachings on the goals of human life . There are many versions of the Ramayana in Indian languages, including Buddhist and Jain adaptations. There are also Cambodian ( Reamker ), Indonesian , Filipino , Thai ( Ramakien ), Lao , Burmese , Nepali , Maldivian , Vietnamese , Tibeto-Chinese , and Malay versions of

5440-430: The main epic, according to many Uttara Kanda is certainly a later interpolation, not attributable to Valmiki. Both of these two kāndas are absent in the oldest manuscript. Some think that the Uttara Kanda contradicts how Rama and Dharma are portrayed in the rest of the epic. M. R. Parameswaran says that the way the positions of women and Shudras are depicted shows that the Uttara Kanda is a later insertion. Since Rama

5525-424: The northern (n) and the southern (s). Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the Ramayana , like the Mahabharata , is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind." There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last volumes of Valmiki's Ramayana (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda) were composed by the original author. Though Bala Kanda is sometimes considered in

5610-412: The one excessively pursued. The sastras , states Kane, observe that the relative precedence of artha, kama and dharma are naturally different with age. Moksha is considered in Hinduism as the parama-puruṣārtha or ultimate goal of human life. Indian scholars recognized and have debated the inherent tension between renunciation and Moksha on one hand, and the active pursuit of Kama and Artha on

5695-429: The other being the Mahabharata . The epic narrates the life of Rama , the seventh avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu , who is a prince of Ayodhya in the kingdom of Kosala . The epic follows his fourteen-year exile to the forest urged by his father King Dasharatha , on the request of Rama's stepmother Kaikeyi ; his travels across forests in the Indian subcontinent with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana ;

5780-513: The other. This has led to the concepts of Pravrtti (प्रवृत्ति, Pravritti) and Nivrtti (निवृत्ति, Nivritti), with the former meaning "giving or devoting one's self to" external action, while the latter means "withdrawing and restraining one's self from" external action in order to focus on one's own liberation. Artha and Kama are Pravrtti , while Moksha is Nivrtti . Both are considered important in Hinduism. Manusmriti, for example, describes it as, Activity, according to orthodox tradition,

5865-544: The purity of their ideals and traditions." Late mediaeval Eastern schools of Brahmins were focused on Nyaya Shastra and logical sciences, in contrast to the Vedanta of southern Brahmins from the Vijayanagara cultural area. According to Vidyabhusana, the science of logic developed out of parishad , councils of learned Brahmins. The Mithila school of Nyaya was an Indian school of Nyaya philosophy, which flourished from

5950-469: The relative preference on Artha or Kama, that an individual must emphasize in what stage of life. The Kamasutra states, The life span of a man is one hundred years. Dividing that time, he should attend to three aims of life in such a way that they support, rather than hinder each other. In his youth he should attend to profitable aims (artha) such as learning, in his prime to pleasure (kama), and in his old age to dharma and moksha. This text does not mention

6035-508: The rest of southeast Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on Ramayana in Indonesia , Cambodia , Philippines , Thailand , Malaysia , Laos , Vietnam and Maldives . There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. A West Bengal manuscript from the 6th century presents

6120-530: The same answer to tension between "pursue wealth and love" versus "renounce everything" Purusharthas , but using different words. Isa Upanishad, for example, states "act and enjoy with renunciation, do not covet". The concept of mokṣa appears in the Upanishads , while the preceding Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas commonly refer to kāma , artha and dharma as the " trivarga " or "three categories" of possible human pursuits. The Dharmaśāstras and

6205-455: The shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Rāvaṇa's renegade brother Vibhiṣaṇa . The vānaras named Nala and Nīla construct the Rama Setu . The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues. During a battle, Ravana's son Meghanāda hurls a powerful weapon at Lakṣmaṇa and he gets mortally wounded. So Hanumān assumes his gigantic form and flies from Lankā to

6290-461: The soul and original source of the universe". , depending on the darsana , the school of thought. Artha in one context means "purpose", "object of desire" and "meaning". Together, Purushartha literally means "purpose of human being" or "object of human pursuit". Alf Hiltebeitel translates Purushartha as "Goals of Man". Prasad clarifies that "Man" includes both man and woman in ancient and medieval Indian texts. Olivelle translates it as

6375-481: The story. He asks Sītā to remain in Ayodhyā, but she convinces him to take her with him in exile. Lakṣmaṇa also resolves to follow his brother into the forest. After Rāma's departure, King Daśaratha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata, who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhyā. He is shocked and refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming. He visits Rāma in

6460-469: The study of Logic. Ramayana Traditional The Ramayana ( / r ɑː ˈ m ɑː j ə n ə / ; Sanskrit : रामायणम् , romanized :  Rāmāyaṇam ), also known as Valmiki Ramayana , as traditionally attributed to Valmiki , is a smriti text (also described as a Sanskrit epic ) from ancient India , one of the two important epics of Hinduism known as the Itihasas ,

6545-673: The time Baudhayana Dharmasutra and other texts were written. Katha Upanishad, in hymns 2.1–2.2 contrasts the human feeling of pleasant ( preyas , प्रेयस्) with that of bliss ( sreyas , श्रेयस्), praising the latter. The hymns of Rig Veda in Book 10 Chapter 136, mention Muni (मुनि, monks, mendicants, holy man), with characteristics that mirror those found in later concepts of renunication-practising, Moksha -motivated ascetics ( Sannyasins and Sannyasinis ). These Muni are said to be Kesins (केशिन्, long haired) wearing Mala clothes (मल, dirty, soil-colored, yellow, orange, saffron) and engaged in

6630-468: The wind, wear garments of soil hue; They, following the wind's swift course go where the Gods have gone before. Scharfe states, "there are abundant references both to the trivarga and caturvarga in Hindu literature throughout the ages". Each of these four canonical puruṣārthas was subjected to a process of study and extensive literary development in Indian history. This produced numerous treatises, with

6715-529: The world, to which Nārada replies that such a man is Rāma. After seeing two birds being shot, Vālmīki creates a new form of metre called śloka , in which he is granted the ability to compose an epic poem about Rāma. He teaches his poem to the boys Lava and Kuśa, who recite it throughout the land and eventually at the court of king Rāma. Then the main narrative begins. Daśaratha was the King of Ayodhyā. He had three wives: Kausalyā, Kaikeyī, and Sumitrā. He did not have

6800-414: Was 16 years old, the r̥ṣi (sage) Viśvāmitra comes to the court of Daśaratha in search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rāma, who is followed by Lakṣmaṇa, his constant companion throughout the story. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Viśvāmitra and proceed to destroy Tāṭakā and many other demons. Viśvāmitra also recounts much lore of

6885-444: Was a center for disputes between Buddhists, Jains and Brahmins, with prominent Mimamsa authors writing defenses of Vedic ritual. Education took place through "Tols, Pathshāla and Chatušpathi or Chaupari," with students living at the house of their teacher . The Turkic conquests had little impact in Mithila, leaving it as "an isolated outpost and centre of Brahmanic and Sanskrit scholarship," where "Hindu scholars were able to protect

6970-473: Was celebrated with his coronation. It is called Rāma pattabhisheka . There are mentions in Rāmayaṇa that Rama gave several donations to Sugriva, Jambavan, other Vanaras, and gave a pearl necklace to Sita telling her to give it to a great person. She gives it to Hanumān. Rāma was so thankful to Vibhisaṇa and wanted to give him a great gift. Rāma gave his Aradhana Devata (Sri Ranganathaswamy) to Vibhishana as

7055-465: Was fascinated by the epic Ramayana so much that he wanted to impart the story and the good lessons preached by it to a large number of persons who could not obviously read the entire epic in original. He composed the entire Ramayana in the form of songs together as an opera so even normal people could understand his Ramayana. In the Buddhist variant of the Ramayana ( Dasaratha Jataka ), Dasharatha

7140-457: Was king of Benares and not Ayodhya. Rama (called Rāmapaṇḍita in this version) was the son of Kaushalya, first wife of Dasharatha. Lakṣmaṇa (Lakkhaṇa) was a sibling of Rama and son of Sumitra, the second wife of Dasharatha. Sita was the wife of Rama. To protect his children from his wife Kaikeyi, who wished to promote her son Bharata, Dasharatha sent the three to a hermitage in the Himalayas for

7225-426: Was revered as a dharmatma, his ideas seen in the Ramayana proper cannot be replaced by new ideas as to what dharma is, except by claiming that he himself adopted those new ideas. That is what the U-K [Uttara Kanda] does. It embodies the new ideas in two stories that are usually referred to as Sita-parityaga, the abandonment of Sita (after Rama and Sita return to Ayodhya and Rama was consecrated as king) and Sambuka-vadha,

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