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51-431: Âli Pasha advocated for a western style of reform to modernize the empire, including secularization of the state and education and improvements to civil liberties. He advocated for an Ottoman nationalism that would replace diverse ethnic and religious loyalties. To that end, non-Muslims started to serve in government, with a couple becoming cabinet ministers. In foreign policy, following the Crimean War Ottoman Empire joined

102-635: A balance of power among European nations, and that the other powers of the Concert of Europe would respect the territories of the Ottoman Empire and its independence. Subsequently, it was altered somewhat and incorporated into Article seven of the 1856 treaty of Paris. Although the intervention of England, France, and Sardinia in the Crimean War, in addition to the Treaty of Paris in 1856, saved

153-490: A more stable empire. This idea of fusion of Ottoman citizens was known as Ottomanism and the Young Ottomans did not share this view, expressing their views through media like newspapers. Although the opposition tactics of the Young Ottomans were within the boundaries of Istanbul censorship, Âli Pasha nonetheless closed down their newspapers and banished them. During Abdul Aziz's 1867 European tour, Âli Pasha stayed in

204-483: A relatively short period of time. A significant diplomatic victory was scored by Piedmont-Sardinia although it was not considered a European great power by being granted a seat by French Emperor Napoleon III , mostly for having sent an expeditionary corps of 18,000 men to fight against Russia, but also possibly because of the influence of the attractive minded Countess of Castiglione , who had caught Napoleon's attention. Foreign minister Camillo Benso di Cavour seized

255-423: A result, there was an increase of Christian missionaries in the Ottoman Empire. This created a concern that Muslims would convert to Christianity and get out of military service. In response to this fear, the Ottoman Empire ended up making a policy that conversion would not be allowed. In short, converts to Christianity could be arrested and punished. The new freedoms also were unpopular with some non-Muslim members of

306-570: A role in the background can be read from the following agreements negotiated in the peace treaty: the Black Sea became neutral, meaning its waters were closed to all warships and the building of fortresses was forbidden, the Danube was opened to the shipping of all nations. Also important appeared to be a multilateral agreement on some basic legal principles of maritime warfare, resulting in the separate Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law , that

357-400: A sense of a "non-Ottoman" party who were different from them. The essence of the millet system of confessional groupings was not dismantled, but secular organizations and policies were applied. Primary education, conscription, head tax and military service were to be applied to non-Muslims and Muslims alike. Ottomanism was inspired and formed as a reaction to European ideas and

408-620: A social and political response, with the hope of saving the Empire from downfall. The major precursors to Ottomanism were the Reformation Edict of 1856 , which promised full equality under the law regardless of religion, and the Ottoman Nationality Law of 1869, which created a common Ottoman citizenship irrespective of religious or ethnic affiliation. The Ottoman Nationality Law , promulgated on January 19, 1869,

459-481: A turning point in the empire upon his death in 1871. His politics put him as a conservative reformer, being a monarchist and an Islamic supremacist , albeit he was strongly in favor of equality under the law and İttihad-ı Anasır . Unlike Fuad, he consistently distrusted parliaments and constitutions. He was a fierce proponent of the independence of the Porte, and overtime, he developed autocratic tendencies. His place in

510-475: The millet s . The idea of Ottomanism originated amongst the Young Ottomans (founded in 1865) in concepts such as the acceptance of all separate ethnicities in the Empire regardless of their religion, i.e., all were to be "Ottomans" with equal rights. In other words, Ottomanism held that all subjects were equal before the law. Ideally, all citizens would share a geographical area, a language, culture, and

561-607: The Austrian Empire stayed out of the war. Its threats to enter the war did put an end to military actions on the side of Russia. France, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia and the Ottoman Chaliphate were at that time considered as the great powers in Europe, they were all represented at the congress as was Piedmont-Sardinia as warring party. They assembled soon after 1 February 1856, when Russia accepted

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612-627: The Concert of Europe . Troops were withdrawn from Serbia , and the Cretan revolt was suppressed. His egalitarian reforms, dealings with Christian powers, and increasingly authoritarian regime were not without controversy, opponents of which coalesced around the Young Ottomans . After his death in 1871, a period of chaos resulted as reactionaries took control over the government, leading to the Great Eastern Crisis . Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha

663-658: The Ottoman Empire and Piedmont-Sardinia and was presided by the French Prime-Minister Alexandre Colonna-Walewski . The agreement resulted in continued recognition of the Ottoman Empire and the return to pre-war territorial borders for Russia and the Empire. The Crimean War was fought mainly on the Crimean Peninsula by Russia on one side and Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and Piedmont-Sardinia on

714-600: The Quai d'Orsay . One of the representatives who attended the Congress of Paris on behalf of the Ottoman Empire was Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha , who was the Ottoman Empire's grand vizier . Russia was represented by Prince Orlov and Baron Brunnov . Britain sent Lord Cowley , its ambassador to France. The Congress of Vienna (1814) with over 200 nations participating, spread questions and issues for different committees to resolve. The Congress of Paris could resolved everything in

765-532: The Young Ottomans . The Young Ottomans disagreed vehemently with the Tanzimat reform and saw it as pandering to the demands of Europe at the expense of sharia law . Âli Pasha, on the other hand, wanted the fusion of all subjects by providing equal opportunities in education and public office, with the result being that Christians no longer would see themselves as oppressed by the Ottoman state, therefore leading to

816-575: The great powers over the treatment of Christians within the Empire . The Ottomans thought that if they could unite the Empire fully under one state entity, then they would be stronger and the Europeans would have a harder time encroaching on Ottoman territory, as well as on Ottoman people. Previously, the Empire was vastly split into many small communities that mostly governed themselves. The Sultan oversaw these communities, but most areas adhered to their own laws and beliefs. This accounted in part for

867-578: The 1876–1878 First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire . Its proponents believed that it could create the Unity of the Peoples, İttihad-ı Anasır , needed to keep millets from tearing the empire apart. Thinkers such as Montesquieu (1689–1755) and Rousseau (1712–1778), as well as the events of the French Revolution of 1789, strongly influenced Ottomanism. It promoted equality among

918-408: The Congress of Paris regulated four issues: The Declaration has been signed by Great Britain, Austria , France , Prussia , Russia , Sardinia and Turkey . As an important juridical novelty in international law the treaty for the first time in history created the possibility for nations that were not involved in the establishment of the agreement and did not sign, to become a party by acceding

969-622: The Empire had become a part of the European Concert, but not an actor in the European balance of power. Thus it was not recognized as a great power that could claim compensation in case of territorial gain by another member of the system". The conditions of the Paris Congress collapsed after the defeat of France in the 1870-1871 Franco-Prussian War . After the surrender of the fortress of Metz, when France lost hope of winning

1020-648: The Grand Vizier for one year, an office he filled no less than five times; in that role he represented the Porte at the Congress of Paris in 1856 and signed the peace treaty that ended the Crimean War . In 1846 Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha was made Minister of Foreign Affairs under Mustafa Pasha which is no surprise given his well honed skill in diplomacy. Sultan Abdülaziz , who often clashed with Âli Pasha over

1071-534: The Ottoman Empire from Russia, the Ottoman Empire was now facing external pressure from its saviors to treat all their citizens equally regardless of religion. In response, Grand Vizier Âli Pasha formulated the Hatt-i Humayun reform edict of 1856 . This promised equality to everyone in front of the law, opened civil offices to all subjects, guaranteed the security of life and property of non-Muslims and promised no one would be forced to change their religion. As

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1122-582: The Ottoman Empire were restored to their prewar boundaries. The Black Sea was neutralized and so that no warships were allowed to enter, but it was open to all other nations. It also opened the Danube River for shipping from all nations. After signing the peace treaty, on a proposal of the French Prime-Minister, the plenipotentiaries assembled in the conference also agreed on a declaration respecting maritime law during wartime. This

1173-544: The Ottoman government made him an anathema of the Young Ottomans . Âli Pasha was a freemason . In 1910, a political testament of the deceased Âli Pasha was published. The document was written in 1871, just before his death, and was addressed to Sultan Abdülaziz . In it, he recounts his accomplishments such as keeping the Ottoman Empire intact, improving the bureaucracy, dealing with revolts with minor concessions, starting railroad construction and appeasement of European powers. He also mentions some failures on his part, such as

1224-479: The Ottoman population. Christian subjects, for instance, were angry for being put on the same level as Jews. Âli Pasha constantly battled the sultan on the powers of the Grand Vezir during his time in office. He not only insisted that the sultan defer to him for ministerial appointments, but also secretaries and even attendants. Âli Pasha was also known to remove those with whom he disagreed politically, such as,

1275-638: The Russians, diplomacy became more important. Such developments not only led to growth within the Translation office, but also to higher scrutiny of the Translation Office and it increased salaries. The job, however, didn't just improve Âli Paha's lot in life; it also impacted his future policies. For instance, Âli Pasha and others in the Translation Office, such as Âli Pasha's future partner in reform, Mehmed Fuad Pasha , got needed experience in

1326-402: The added stress of enacting reforms by himself, Âli Pasha's health began to deteriorate. He was stricken with tuberculosis and died on 7 September 1871 after three months of illness, at the age of 56. In response to his death, the Young Ottomans returned from exile, hoping to find a government more in line with their ideals. The Tanzimat period was terminated. The new Vezir, Mahmud Nedim Pasha ,

1377-678: The age of 14 as a clerk in the Imperial Council. The next year Âli Pasha was transferred to the records department of the Imperial Council. Once again Âli Pasha was transferred a year later, this time to the Translation Office . The Translation Office ( Turkish : Tercüme Odası , known in English as the office of the " dragoman " from the Turkish tercüme , "translation") was set up in response to Greek independence. This

1428-525: The basic elements of this legislation. Many in the non-Muslim millets and many Muslims rejected Ottomanism. Non-Muslims perceived it as a step towards dismantling their traditional privileges. Meanwhile, the Muslims saw it as the elimination of their own superior position. There were claims that Ottomanism was a reaction to the Tanzimat , the 1839-1876 era of intensive restructuring of the Ottoman Empire by

1479-769: The bureaucratic elite. The inauguration of the General Assembly in 1876 contributed to the spirit of reform, as all millets were represented in this bicameral assembly. Ottomanism enjoyed a revival during the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, and during the Second Constitutional Era of 1908 to 1920. It lost most of its adherents during the First Balkan War of 1912–13, when the Ottoman Empire lost most of its European territories inhabited by minorities. Disappointment in

1530-468: The capital and was appointed regent of the Ottoman Sultanate, for a 44 day period. See Baha'u'llah 's letter to Âli Pasha here. His close friend and fellow Tanzimat reformer was Fuad Pasha , who died in 1869 as the acting foreign minister. Upon his death, Âli Pasha took on the roles of both foreign minister and prime minister (grand vizier). Grieving over the death of Fuad Pasha, and with

1581-480: The declaration afterwards. Within a short period after signing, 55 states, royal houses and free cities ratified the Declaration, which meant a big step in the globalisation of international (maritime) law. Turkish historians still express dissatisfaction: "Although [the] Ottoman Empire was on the side of victors, the Porte also lost the right to have a navy in the Black Sea together with Russia. Put differently,

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1632-537: The failure of Ottomanism became integral to the surge of Kemalism in the 1920s. Congress of Paris The Congress of Paris is the name for a series of diplomatic meetings held in 1856 in Paris , France , to negotiate peace between the warring powers in the Crimean War that had started almost three years earlier. The Congress was attended by diplomatic representatives from the nations of France, Great Britain , Russia , Austria , and Prussia , as well as from

1683-507: The first set of peace terms after Austria threatened to enter the war. It is also notable that the meeting took place in Paris, after the 1855 Exposition Universelle The Congress of Paris worked out the final terms from 25 February to 30 March 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed on 30 March 1856 with Russia on one side and France, Great Britain, Turkey and Piedmont-Sardinia on the other. at

1734-456: The growing Western involvement in the Ottoman Empire. Following the Tanzimat reforms begun in 1839, Ottomanism developed from a need to bring the Empire together. The Ottomans feared the growing threat the Europeans posed, especially after events like the 1838 Treaty of Balta Liman , which allowed for British merchants in the Empire to be taxed equally to the locals, and the growing concern of

1785-411: The inadequate tax system, and goes on to give the sultan advice for the future. Such advice includes maintaining religious freedom, accepting non-Muslims into the armed forces and civil service, and improving the tax system by employing controlled companies to collect taxes. However, later research has cast serious doubt on the accuracy and authenticity of the testament. Aydogdu has shown that the testament

1836-435: The official ambassador and he would continue to rise higher and higher in political office. When Âli Pasha himself was made Grand Vizier in 1852, he was the youngest ever appointed. In 1854 during the Crimean War Âli Pasha was recalled from retirement in order to take the portfolio of foreign affairs for a second time under Reshid Pasha and in this capacity took part in 1855 in the conference of Vienna. In 1855 he again became

1887-593: The opportunity to denounce Austrian political and military interference in the Italian Peninsula , which he said was stifling the wish of Italians to choose their government. The Congress resulted in a pledge by all powers to jointly maintain "the integrity of the Ottoman Empire", thus guaranteeing its independence. Also, Russia gave up the left bank of the mouth of the Danube River, including part of Bessarabia , to Moldavia , as well as its claim to

1938-710: The other side for two main official reasons. One reason often communicated was the Russians' demand for both better treatment of and their right to protect the Ottoman Empire's Orthodox subjects. That would be promised by the sultan at the Congress of Paris. Another reason was a dispute between the Russians and the French about the privileges of the Russian Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Churches in Palestine. The reasons and interests playing

1989-520: The powers of the Grand Vizier, admitted that he could not replace such a man so recognized in Europe. It was during his role as ambassador that Âli Pasha promoted friendship with England and France as well as incorporating western practices into the Ottoman Empire. For example, based on his experience of the education system of France, Âli Pasha laid the foundation of the prestigious Galatasaray High School in its modern form, where children of minority religions would be taught amongst Muslim students. This

2040-464: The special protection of Christians in the Ottoman Empire. Moldavia and Wallachia , which together would become Romania in 1858, along with Serbia, were recognized as quasi-independent self-governing principalities under protection of the other European powers. The Ottoman sultan agreed, in return, to help to improve the status of the Christian subjects in his empire. The territories of Russia and

2091-607: The success of the Ottoman Empire: the Sultan didn't force any major changes on populations as he conquered them. Because of struggle for self-determination , the concept of nation-states with shared senses of identities began to rise in Europe, most notably with the Greek War of Independence of 1821-1830, which also started affecting the various other peoples of the Ottoman Empire. From these instances, Ottomanism developed as

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2142-628: The world of diplomacy through the work of translation in that very field. This exposure to the diplomatic realm distanced Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha from the values of traditional Ottoman society while at the same time developed within him the values of a rational bureaucrat. In 1835 Âli Pasha was appointed second secretary to the Embassy in Vienna, where he studied the organization of the Austrian Empire . A few years later Âli Pasha found himself as counselor to Mustafa Reşid Pasha . Although, Mustafa Reşid Pasha

2193-467: Was acceded by altogether 55 nations. Backed by Britain and France, the sultan declared war against Russia on 4 October 1853. On 28 March 1854, both of the other powers declared war against Russia. On 26 January 1855, Piedmont-Sardinia also entered the war by sending 10,000 troops to aid Britain and France against Russia. Throughout the war, the Russian Army 's main concern was to make sure that

2244-453: Was an advocate of sultan absolutism, and the only thing he shared at all with the Young Ottomans was the belief of an Islamic character of the Ottoman Empire. Historian Roderic Davison describes Âli as small and frail, being soft spoken, speaking barely above a whisper, but with active eyes. As well as being meticulous, he appreciated formality and hierarchy. While he was not one to make rivals, he also trained no successors, which proved to be

2295-537: Was born on March 5, 1815, in Istanbul into a home of modest means. He was born the son of a shopkeeper, with no formal education except three years of primary school. It was in primary school that Âli Pasha learned to read and write in addition to memorizing some surahs of the Quran . Nonetheless, Âli Pasha did continue to educate himself, including teaching himself French . He started his lengthy public service career at

2346-523: Was done so that people of other religions would cease to see the Turks as enemies. Âli Pasha's responsibilities and recognition increased further when he was chosen as lead delegate for the peace talks, while being appointed Grand Vizier again in the 1855 Congress of Vienna, following the Crimean war. It was there that he formatted a peace settlement that included the Ottoman Empire into the Concert of Europe ,

2397-576: Was due to the fact that, prior to Greek independence, many Greeks had acted as translators in government business. Consequently, the Greek uprising for independence resulted in an exodus of the Greek translators working for the government and left a demand for translators. In addition, internal affairs including, the defeat of Ottoman armies at the hand of the Egyptians and the Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi with

2448-467: Was mainly the outcome of a modus vivendi signed between France and Britain at the dawn of the Crimean War in 1854. Both large naval powers had different opinions on certain issues in maritime warfare and being allies for the first time, they had to find a common line. They agreed they would not seize enemy goods on neutral vessels nor neutral goods on enemy vessels and they would not issue letters of marque . The Declaration all warring parties agreed upon at

2499-488: Was one of those laws that combined elements of the principles of jus soli and jus sanguinis and thus resembled the French Nationality Law , specifically the 1851 formulation, which it is argued to have been inspired by. The nationality legislation was a 19th-century concept, and the Ottoman Empire adopted it early. The Ottoman Nationality Law appeared before any commonly-adopted international concept of

2550-451: Was only ambassador to the Court of Saint James , better known as the royal court of Britain, he would be appointed Grand Vizier in 1839 and began a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire, known as the Tanzimat period . Mustafa left Âli Pasha in charge while he headed back to the Ottoman Empire to take his position as Grand Vizier. This development eventually would lead to Âli Pasha being made

2601-587: Was received as a hoax when it was first published in a newspaper in 1871 after Âli Pasha's death and it was not advocated by any of the Pasha's inheritors. He was awarded the Order of the Red Eagle , 1st Class (for non-Christians) in 1851. Ottomanism Ottomanism or Osmanlılık ( Ottoman Turkish : عثمانلولق , Turkish : Osmanlıcılık . French : Ottomanisme ) was a concept which developed prior to

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