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112-584: By area, Aaqoura is the largest village in Lebanon (belonging to its citizens - not emirate أميرية lands) in Lebanon. By voting power, it is the third largest town in the Byblos Jbeil District after Jbeil Byblos and Qartaba . Maronites emerged from Aaqoura in the fourth century when Saint Maroun's disciple Ibrahim El Korchy started preaching and converting pagans to the Christian faith in

224-534: A bishopric was established in Byblos, and the town grew rapidly. Although a Sasanian colony is known to have been established in the region following the early Muslim conquests of 636, there is little archaeological evidence for it. Trade with Europe effectively dried up, and it was not until the coming of the First Crusade in 1098 that prosperity returned to Byblos, known then as Gibelet or Giblet. In

336-505: A Meritaten-tasherit ("junior") and an Ankhesenpaaten-tasherit. According to some, this indicates that Akhenaten fathered his own grandchildren. Others hold that, since these grandchildren are not attested to elsewhere, they are fictions invented to fill the space originally portraying Kiya's child. Egyptologists know very little about Akhenaten's life as prince Amenhotep. Donald B. Redford dates his birth before his father Amenhotep III's 25th regnal year, c.  1363–1361 BC , based on

448-430: A Sed festival when he was likely still in his early twenties. Some historians see it as evidence for Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV's coregency, and believed that Amenhotep IV's Sed festival coincided with one of his father's celebrations. Others speculate that Amenhotep IV chose to hold his festival three years after his father's death, aiming to proclaim his rule a continuation of his father's reign. Yet others believe that

560-536: A brief independent reign after Akhenaten is unclear. If Smenkhkare outlived Akhenaten, and became sole pharaoh, he likely ruled Egypt for less than a year. The next successor was Nefertiti or Meritaten ruling as Neferneferuaten , reigning in Egypt for about two years. She was, in turn, probably succeeded by Tutankhaten, with the country being administered by the vizier and future pharaoh Ay . While Akhenaten—along with Smenkhkare—was most likely reburied in tomb KV55,

672-459: A collection of fossilised fish, sharks, eel, flying fish, and other marine life, some of which are millions of years old. The old medieval part of Byblos is surrounded by walls running about 270m from east to west and 200m from north to south. Byblos Castle was built by the Crusaders in the 12th century. It is located in the archaeological site near the port. Work on the church started during

784-530: A dozen elderly militarists could have done," while James Henry Breasted said Akhenaten "was not fit to cope with a situation demanding an aggressive man of affairs and a skilled military leader." Others noted that the Amarna letters counter the conventional view that Akhenaten neglected Egypt's foreign territories in favour of his internal reforms. For instance, Norman de Garis Davies praised Akhenaten's emphasis on diplomacy over war, while James Baikie said that

896-485: A hereditary fief, undertaking to pay an annual fee to Genoa and the church of San Lorenzo (Genoa's Cathedral). The Embriaco family's residence, the Byblos Castle , along with the fortified town, served as an important military base for the Crusaders. The remains of the castle are among the most impressive architectural structures now visible in the town centre. The town was taken by Saladin in 1187, re-taken by

1008-584: A male heir. While this is debated, some historical parallels exist: Akhenaten's father Amenhotep III married his daughter Sitamun, while Ramesses II married two or more of his daughters, even though their marriages might simply have been ceremonial. In Akhenaten's case, his oldest daughter Meritaten is recorded as Great Royal Wife to Smenkhkare but is also listed on a box from Tutankhamun's tomb alongside pharaohs Akhenaten and Neferneferuaten as Great Royal Wife. Additionally, letters written to Akhenaten from foreign rulers make reference to Meritaten as "mistress of

1120-564: A military expedition to quell a rebellion and raids on settlements on the Nile by Nubian nomadic tribes. The victory was commemorated on two stelae, one discovered at Amada and another at Buhen . Egyptologists differ on the size of the campaign: Wolfgang Helck considered it a small-scale police operation, while Alan Schulman considered it a "war of major proportions". Other Egyptologists suggested that Akhenaten could have waged war in Syria or

1232-454: A new capital city be built: Akhetaten (Ancient Egyptian: ꜣḫt-jtn , meaning "Horizon of the Aten"), better known today as Amarna. The events Egyptologists know the most about during Akhenaten's life are connected with founding Akhetaten, as several so-called boundary stelae were found around the city to mark its boundary. The pharaoh chose a site about halfway between Thebes , the capital at

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1344-411: A protected landing place for boats. Dunand discovered around twenty houses although some of the settlement was suggested to have been lost to the sea, robbed or destroyed. Dwellings were rectangular with plastered floors, pottery was usually Dark faced burnished ware with some shell impressions. The Middle Neolithic was a smaller settlement of no more than 0.15 ha (0.37 acres) adjacent to

1456-585: A royal couple just a year before Akhenaten's death. The inscription is dated to Year 16, month 3 of Akhet , day 15 of the reign of Akhenaten. Before the 2012 discovery of the Deir el-Bersha inscription, the last known fixed-date event in Akhenaten's reign was a royal reception in regnal year twelve, in which the pharaoh and the royal family received tributes and offerings from allied countries and vassal states at Akhetaten. Inscriptions show tributes from Nubia ,

1568-598: A time when the balance of power between Egypt's neighbors and rivals was shifting, and the Hittites, a confrontational state, overtook the Mitanni in influence. Early in his reign, Akhenaten was evidently concerned about the expanding power of the Hittite Empire under Šuppiluliuma I . A successful Hittite attack on Mitanni and its ruler Tushratta would have disrupted the entire international balance of power in

1680-565: A village of those working on Valley of the Kings tombs was relocated to the workers' village at Akhetaten. However, construction work continued in the rest of the country, as larger cult centers, such as Heliopolis and Memphis, also had temples built for Aten. The Amarna letters have provided important evidence about Akhenaten's reign and foreign policy. The letters are a cache of 382 diplomatic texts and literary and educational materials discovered between 1887 and 1979, and named after Amarna,

1792-476: A year or two later. Nefertiti might not have assumed the role of coregent until after year sixteen, when a stela still mentions her as Akhenaten's Great Royal Wife . While Nefertiti's familial relationship with Akhenaten is known, whether Akhenaten and Smenkhkare were related by blood is unclear. Smenkhkare could have been Akhenaten's son or brother, as the son of Amenhotep III with Tiye or Sitamun . Archaeological evidence makes it clear, however, that Smenkhkare

1904-437: A younger son of pharaoh Amenhotep III and his principal wife Tiye . Akhenaten had an elder brother, crown prince Thutmose , who was recognized as Amenhotep III's heir. Akhenaten also had four or five sisters: Sitamun , Henuttaneb , Iset , Nebetah , and possibly Beketaten . Thutmose's early death, perhaps around Amenhotep III's thirtieth regnal year, meant that Akhenaten was next in line for Egypt's throne. Akhenaten

2016-454: Is 'Gebul' or 'Jabul'), as they're derivatives of ג־ב־ל ('g-ḇ-l' / 'g- b -l' / 'g-v-l'), which means 'twist as a rope', '(be a, set) border' or 'bound(aria)', which tells us that it is a North Boundary of Canaan. Situated approximately 42 km (26 mi) north of Beirut , Byblos holds a strong allure for archaeologists due to its accumulations of various strata resulting from countless centuries of human dwelling. The initial excavation

2128-498: Is an ancient city in the Keserwan-Jbeil Governorate of Lebanon . The area is believed to have been first settled between 8800 and 7000   BC and continuously inhabited since 5000   BC. During its history, Byblos was part of numerous cultures including Egyptian , Phoenician , Assyrian , Persian , Hellenistic , Roman , Genoese , Mamluk and Ottoman . Urbanisation is thought to have begun during

2240-637: Is an old market. This summer music festival is an annual event that takes place in the historic quarter. The Armenian Genocide Orphans' Aram Bezikian Museum is a museum dedicated to preserving the memory of the Armenian Genocide and its survivors. Byblos is twinned with: Amenhotep IV Akhenaten (pronounced / ˌ æ k ə ˈ n ɑː t ən / listen ), also spelled Akhenaton or Echnaton ( Ancient Egyptian : ꜣḫ-n-jtn ʾŪḫə-nə-yātəy , pronounced [ˈʔuːχəʔ nə ˈjaːtəj] , meaning 'Effective for

2352-467: Is known for Meketaten, the assumption had been that Akhenaten was the father. Aidan Dodson believes this to be unlikely, as no Egyptian tomb has been found that mentions or alludes to the cause of death of the tomb owner. Further, Jacobus van Dijk proposes that the child is a portrayal of Meketaten's soul . Finally, various monuments, originally for Kiya, were reinscribed for Akhenaten's daughters Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten. The revised inscriptions list

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2464-450: Is satisfied", "Effective spirit of the Aten", or "Serviceable to the Aten", respectively. Gertie Englund and Florence Friedman arrive at the translation "Effective for the Aten" by analyzing contemporary texts and inscriptions, in which Akhenaten often described himself as being "effective for" the sun disc. Englund and Friedman conclude that the frequency with which Akhenaten used this term likely means that his own name meant "Effective for

2576-697: The 19th dynasty , only to decline during the 20th and 21st dynasties. In addition, when the New Kingdom collapsed in the 11th century BC, Byblos ceased being a colony and became the foremost city of Phoenicia. Although the archaeological evidence seems to indicate a brief resurgence during the 22nd and 23rd dynasties, it is clear after the Third Intermediate Period the Egyptians started favouring Tyre and Sidon instead of Byblos. Archaeological evidence at Byblos, particularly

2688-734: The 4th-dynasty pharaoh Sneferu ( fl.  2600   BC) and as Gubla ( 𒁺𒆷 ) in the Akkadian cuneiform Amarna letters to the 18th-dynasty pharaohs Amenhotep III and IV . In the 1st   millennium   BC, its name appeared in Phoenician and Punic inscriptions as Gebal ( 𐤂𐤁𐤋 , GBL ); in the Hebrew Bible as Geval ( גבל ); and in Syriac as GBL ( ܓܒܠ ). The name seems to derive from GB ( 𐤂𐤁 , " well ") and ʾL ( 𐤀𐤋 , " god "),

2800-644: The Achaemenid Empire (538–332 BC), Byblos was the fourth of four Phoenician vassal kingdoms established by the Persians; the first three being Sidon , Tyr , and Arwad . Hellenistic rule came with the arrival of Alexander the Great in the area in 332 BC. Coinage was in use, and there is abundant evidence of continued trade with other Mediterranean countries. During the Greco-Roman period,

2912-506: The Aten and distancing himself from other gods. Egyptologist Donald B. Redford believes this implied that Amenhotep IV's eventual religious policies were not conceived of before his reign, and he did not follow a pre-established plan or program. Redford points to three pieces of evidence to support this. First, surviving inscriptions show Amenhotep IV worshipping several different gods, including Atum , Osiris , Anubis , Nekhbet , Hathor , and

3024-598: The Aten '), was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh reigning c.  1353–1336 or 1351–1334 BC, the tenth ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty . Before the fifth year of his reign, he was known as Amenhotep IV (Ancient Egyptian: jmn-ḥtp , meaning " Amun is satisfied", Hellenized as Amenophis IV ). As a pharaoh, Akhenaten is noted for abandoning traditional ancient Egyptian religion of polytheism and introducing Atenism , or worship centered around Aten . The views of Egyptologists differ as to whether

3136-576: The Canaanite war god Resheph , but this had fallen into ruins by the time of Alexander the Great . In the Assyrian period, Sibittibaal of Byblos became tributary to Tiglath-Pileser III in 738 BC, and in 701 BC, when Sennacherib conquered all Phoenicia , the king of Byblos was Urumilki . Byblos was also subject to Assyrian kings Esarhaddon (r. 681–669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (r. 668–627 BC), under its kings Milkiasaph and Yehawmelek . In

3248-737: The Double Plumes " "Beloved of Aten" "Great of Kingship in Karnak" "Great of Kingship in Akhet-Aten" "Crowned in Heliopolis of the South" (Thebes) "Exalter of the Name of Aten" "Amun is Satisfied, Divine Lord of Thebes" "Effective for the Aten" Around the same time he changed his royal titulary, on the thirteenth day of the growing season 's fourth month , Akhenaten decreed that

3360-712: The Eastern Mediterranean that Akhenaten inherited from his predecessors. In the 200 years preceding Akhenaten's reign, following the expulsion of the Hyksos from Lower Egypt at the end of the Second Intermediate Period , the kingdom's influence and military might increased greatly. Egypt's power reached new heights under Thutmose III , who ruled approximately 100 years before Akhenaten and led several successful military campaigns into Nubia and Syria. Egypt's expansion led to confrontation with

3472-477: The Eye of Ra , and texts from this era refer to "the gods" and "every god and every goddess". The High Priest of Amun was also still active in the fourth year of Amenhotep IV's reign. Second, even though he later moved his capital from Thebes to Akhetaten , his initial royal titulary honored Thebes—his nomen was "Amenhotep, god-ruler of Thebes"—and recognizing its importance, he called the city "Southern Heliopolis,

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3584-652: The Grand Serail in Beirut . Byblos was chosen by Condé Nast Traveler as the second best city in the Middle East for 2012, beating Tel Aviv and Dubai , and by the World Tourism Organization as the best Arab tourist city for 2013. The Byblos Wax Museum displays wax statues of characters whose dates of origin range from Phoenician times to current days. The Byblos Fossil Museum has

3696-626: The Land of Punt , Syria , the Kingdom of Hattusa , the islands in the Mediterranean Sea , and Libya . Egyptologists, such as Aidan Dodson , consider this year twelve celebration to be the zenith of Akhenaten's reign. Thanks to reliefs in the tomb of courtier Meryre II , historians know that the royal family, Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and their six daughters, were present at the royal reception in full. However, historians are uncertain about

3808-981: The Lebanese American University (LAU) . The LAU Byblos Campus houses the Medical School, the Engineering School, the School of Architecture and Design, the Pharmacy School, which offers the only Pharm.D. Program outside the United States accredited by the Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) , the School of Business, and the School of Arts and Sciences. Byblos is re-emerging as an upscale touristic hub. With its ancient port , Phoenician , Roman, and Crusader ruins, sandy beaches and

3920-481: The Levant , possibly against the Hittites. Cyril Aldred, based on Amarna letters describing Egyptian troop movements, proposed that Akhenaten launched an unsuccessful war around the city of Gezer , while Marc Gabolde argued for an unsuccessful campaign around Kadesh . Either of these could be the campaign referred to on Tutankhamun's Restoration Stela: "if an army was sent to Djahy [southern Canaan and Syria] to broaden

4032-608: The Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period, approximately 8800 to 7000 BC (Durand's Early Neolithic). Early Neolithic Byblos was a later settlement than others in the Beqaa Valley such as Labweh and Ard Tlaili . It was located on the seaward slope of the larger of the two hills that used to compose ancient Byblos, with a watered valley in between. The original site spread down into the valley and covered an area of 1.2 ha (3.0 acres) providing fertile soils and

4144-696: The 12th and 13th century, Byblos became part of the County of Tripoli , a Crusader state connected to, but largely independent from, the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem . As Gibelet or Giblet, it came under the rule of the Genoese Embriaco family , who created for themselves the Lordship of Gibelet , first as administrators of the city in the name of the Republic of Genoa , and then as

4256-635: The 20th century, it is in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo as of 2019. Despite leaving the sarcophagus behind, Akhenaten's mummy was removed from the royal tombs after Tutankhamun abandoned Akhetaten and returned to Thebes. It was most likely moved to tomb KV55 in Valley of the Kings near Thebes. This tomb was later desecrated, likely during the Ramesside period . Whether Smenkhkare also enjoyed

4368-637: The 3rd millennium BC, the first signs of a town can be observed, with the remains of well-built houses of uniform size. This was the period when the Canaanite civilization began to develop. Neolithic remains of some buildings can be observed at the site. Jacques Cauvin published studies of flint tools from the stratified Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites in 1962. Remains of humans found in Chalcolithic burials have been published by Henri Victor Vallois in 1937. Tombs from this era were discussed by Emir Maurice Chehab in 1950. Early pottery found at

4480-516: The Aaqoura area. The carved stone Saint Peter and Paul church in Aaqoura is by far the oldest existing church in Lebanon and one of the oldest in the world. It was converted in the 4th century from a tomb place to the priests of the temple of Ashtarout in Afqa to a church. The village of Aaqoura is known for the famous mountain chains surrounding and protecting it. These mountains have offered refuge for

4592-562: The Amarna family's continued rule when Egypt was confronted with an epidemic. Dodson suggested that the two were chosen to rule as Tutankhaten's coregent in case Akhenaten died and Tutankhaten took the throne at a young age, or rule in Tutankhaten's stead if the prince also died in the epidemic. Akhenaten died after seventeen years of rule and was initially buried in a tomb in the Royal Wadi east of Akhetaten. The order to construct

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4704-470: The Ancient Middle East at a time when Egypt had made peace with Mitanni; this would cause some of Egypt's vassals to switch their allegiances to the Hittites, as time would prove. A group of Egypt's allies who attempted to rebel against the Hittites were captured, and wrote letters begging Akhenaten for troops, but he did not respond to most of their pleas. Evidence suggests that the troubles on

4816-674: The Arabic form of the name is used, it is typically rendered Jbeil , Jbail , or Jbayl in English. All of these, along with Byblos, are etymologically related. During the Crusades , this name appeared in Western records as Gibelet or Giblet . This name was used for Byblos Castle and its associated lordship . The Phoenician City, known to the Greeks as Býblos ( Βύβλος ) and to

4928-485: The Aten". Some historians, such as William F. Albright , Edel Elmar , and Gerhard Fecht , propose that Akhenaten's name is misspelled and mispronounced. These historians believe "Aten" should rather be "Jāti", thus rendering the pharaoh's name Akhenjāti or Aḫanjāti (pronounced / ˌ æ k ə ˈ n j ɑː t ɪ / ), as it could have been pronounced in Ancient Egypt. Kanakht-qai-Shuti "Strong Bull of

5040-727: The Crusaders, and conquered by Baibars in 1266, but it remained in the possession of the Embriacos until around 1300. Having voluntarily surrendered to the Mamluks, the city was relatively spared from looting following its capture. Its fortifications were subsequently restored by Baybars . From 1516 until 1918, the town and the whole region became part of the Ottoman Empire . Byblos and all of Lebanon were placed under French Mandate from 1920 until 1943 when Lebanon achieved independence. The 2006 Lebanon War negatively affected

5152-686: The Crusades in 1115. It was considered a cathedral and was partially destroyed during an earthquake in AD 1170. It was later given to the Maronite bishop as a gift by Prince Yusuf Shihab . The old mosque by the Castle dates back to the Mamluk period, and adopted the name of Sultan Abdulmejid I after he renovated it. In the southeast section of the historic city, near the entrance of the archaeological site,

5264-472: The Eighteenth Dynasty founded a new dynasty , they discredited Akhenaten and his immediate successors and referred to Akhenaten as "the enemy" or "that criminal" in archival records. Akhenaten was all but lost to history until the late-19th-century discovery of Amarna , or Akhetaten, the new capital city he built for the worship of Aten. Furthermore, in 1907, a mummy that could be Akhenaten's

5376-433: The Hittites; ordered by Akhenaten to come to Egypt, Aziru was released after promising to stay loyal to the pharaoh, nonetheless turning to the Hittites soon after his release. Egyptologists know little about the last five years of Akhenaten's reign, beginning in c.  1341 or 1339 BC. These years are poorly attested and only a few pieces of contemporary evidence survive; the lack of clarity makes reconstructing

5488-459: The Mitanni, but this rivalry ended with the two nations becoming allies. Slowly, however, Egypt's power started to wane. Amenhotep III aimed to maintain the balance of power through marriages—such as his marriage to Tadukhipa , daughter of the Mitanni king Tushratta —and vassal states. Under Amenhotep III and Akhenaten, Egypt was unable or unwilling to oppose the rise of the Hittites around Syria. The pharaohs seemed to eschew military confrontation at

5600-644: The New Kingdom pharaohs of Ancient Egypt Around 1350 BC, the Amarna letters include 60 letters from Rib-Hadda and his successor Ili-Rapih who were rulers of Byblos, writing to the Egyptian government. This is mainly due to Rib-Hadda's constant pleas for military assistance from Akhenaten . They also deal with the conquest of neighbouring city-states by the Habiru . It appears Egyptian contact peaked during

5712-543: The Romans as Byblus , was important for their import of papyrus out of Ancient Egypt – to the extent that " Byblos " came to mean "papyrus" in Greek. The English word " Bible ", therefore, ultimately derives from the Greek name of the city, Βύβλος ('Βύblos / Byblos') , a Greek mumbo-jumble of גְּבָל ('Gāḇal / Gə b al Gobâl'..., that is, 'Gebal' or 'Jebel'), which shares the same root as גְּבוּל ('Gəḇūl / Gā b ūl, that

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5824-664: The Rud-Menu ("Enduring of monuments for Aten forever"), the Teni-Menu ("Exalted are the monuments of the Aten forever"), and the Sekhen Aten ("booth of Aten"). Around regnal year two or three, Amenhotep IV organized a Sed festival . Sed festivals were ritual rejuvenations of an aging pharaoh, which usually took place for the first time around the thirtieth year of a pharaoh's reign and every three or so years thereafter. Egyptologists only speculate as to why Amenhotep IV organized

5936-420: The ancient city by covering its harbour and town walls with an oil slick that was the result of an oil spill from a nearby power plant. Byblos's inhabitants are predominantly Christian, mostly Maronite , with minorities of Armenian Apostolic , Greek Orthodox , and Greek Catholics . There is also a minority of Shi`i Muslims . It is said that the city of Bint Jbeil ("Daughter of Byblos") in Southern Lebanon

6048-445: The arrival of the Egyptian military on their lands, and provide evidence that these troops were dispatched and arrived at their destination. Dozens of letters detail that Akhenaten—and Amenhotep III—sent Egyptian and Nubian troops, armies, archers, chariots, horses, and ships. Only one military campaign is known for certain under Akhenaten's reign. In his second or twelfth year, Akhenaten ordered his Viceroy of Kush Tuthmose to lead

6160-487: The birth of Akhenaten's first daughter, who was likely born fairly early in his own reign. The only mention of his name, as "the King's Son Amenhotep", was found on a wine docket at Amenhotep III's Malkata palace, where some historians suggested Akhenaten was born. Others contend that he was born at Memphis , where growing up he was influenced by the worship of the sun god Ra practiced at nearby Heliopolis . Redford and James K. Hoffmeier state, however, that Ra's cult

6272-596: The boundaries of Egypt, no success of their cause came to pass." John Coleman Darnell and Colleen Manassa also argued that Akhenaten fought with the Hittites for control of Kadesh, but was unsuccessful; the city was not recaptured until 60–70 years later, under Seti I . Overall, archeological evidence suggests that Akhenaten paid close attention to the affairs of Egyptian vassals in Canaan and Syria, though primarily not through letters such as those found at Amarna but through reports from government officials and agents. Akhenaten managed to preserve Egypt's control over

6384-420: The citizens of Aaqoura during the different wars in Lebanon and the region. Also known for their courage, hospitality, and their intelligence the people of Aaqoura are studying and working worldwide. The local citizens work, value, and guard their lands. They cherish and proclaim their Christianity and play a major role in Lebanon through their political influence and their international relations. As of 2022,

6496-399: The construction of a large temple complex dedicated to the Aten at Karnak in Thebes, northeast of the parts of the Karnak complex dedicated to Amun. The Aten temple complex , collectively known as the Per Aten ("House of the Aten"), consisted of several temples whose names survive: the Gempaaten ("The Aten is found in the estate of the Aten"), the Hwt Benben ("House or Temple of the Benben "),

6608-440: The core of its Near Eastern Empire (which consisted of present-day Israel as well as the Phoenician coast) while avoiding conflict with the increasingly powerful and aggressive Hittite Empire of Šuppiluliuma I , which overtook the Mitanni as the dominant power in the northern part of the region. Only the Egyptian border province of Amurru in Syria around the Orontes River was lost to the Hittites when its ruler Aziru defected to

6720-423: The death of his father Amenhotep III or whether there was a coregency , lasting perhaps as long as 12 years. Eric Cline , Nicholas Reeves , Peter Dorman , and other scholars argue strongly against the establishment of a long coregency between the two rulers and in favor of either no coregency or one lasting at most two years. Donald B. Redford , William J. Murnane , Alan Gardiner , and Lawrence Berman contest

6832-491: The epidemic might account for several deaths in the royal family that occurred in the last five years of Akhenaten's reign, including those of his daughters Meketaten , Neferneferure , and Setepenre . Akhenaten could have ruled together with Smenkhkare and Nefertiti for several years before his death. Based on depictions and artifacts from the tombs of Meryre II and Tutankhamun, Smenkhkare could have been Akhenaten's coregent by regnal year thirteen or fourteen, but died

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6944-468: The fact "that there is no evidence of revolt within the borders of Egypt itself during the whole reign is surely ample proof that there was no such abandonment of his royal duties on the part of Akhenaten as has been assumed." Indeed, several letters from Egyptian vassals notified the pharaoh that they have followed his instructions, implying that the pharaoh sent such instructions. The Amarna letters also show that vassal states were told repeatedly to expect

7056-414: The festival was held to honor the Aten on whose behalf the pharaoh ruled Egypt, or, as Amenhotep III was considered to have become one with the Aten following his death, the Sed festival honored both the pharaoh and the god at the same time. It is also possible that the purpose of the ceremony was to figuratively fill Amenhotep IV with strength before his great enterprise: the introduction of the Aten cult and

7168-400: The first few years after he took the throne, such as those of Kheruef , Ramose , and Parennefer , show the pharaoh in the traditional artistic style. In Ramose's tomb, Amenhotep IV appears on the west wall, seated on a throne, with Ramose appearing before the pharaoh. On the other side of the doorway, Amenhotep IV and Nefertiti are shown in the window of appearances, with the Aten depicted as

7280-476: The first great (seat) of Re (or) the Disc". Third, Amenhotep IV did not yet destroy temples to the other gods and he even continued his father's construction projects at Karnak 's Precinct of Amun-Re . He decorated the walls of the precinct's Third Pylon with images of himself worshipping Ra-Horakhty , portrayed in the god's traditional form of a falcon-headed man. Artistic depictions continued unchanged early in Amenhotep IV's reign. Tombs built or completed in

7392-416: The five Byblian royal inscriptions dating back to around 1200–1000 BC, shows existence of a Phoenician alphabet of twenty-two characters; an important example is the Ahiram sarcophagus . The use of the alphabet was spread by Phoenician merchants through their maritime trade into parts of North Africa and Europe. One of the most important monuments of this period is the Temple of the Obelisks , dedicated to

7504-400: The form of one copper hook, found in a jar. Some jars were lined with white plaster that was applied and self-hardened after firing. Copper appeared more frequently in the Late Chalcolithic period along with multiple burials in tombs and jar handles with impressed signs. According to Lorenzo Nigro , Byblos moved from being a fishermen's village to its earlier urban form at the beginning of

7616-433: The founding of the new capital Akhetaten. Regardless of the celebration's aim, Egyptologists believe that during the festivities Amenhotep IV only made offerings to the Aten rather than the many gods and goddesses, as was customary. Among the last documents that refer to Akhenaten as Amenhotep IV are two copies of a letter to the pharaoh from Ipy , the high steward of Memphis . These letters, found at Gurob , informing

7728-418: The house". Egyptologists in the early 20th century also believed that Akhenaten could have fathered a child with his second oldest daughter Meketaten. Meketaten's death, at perhaps age ten to twelve, is recorded in the royal tombs at Akhetaten from around regnal years thirteen or fourteen. Early Egyptologists attribute her death to childbirth, because of the depiction of an infant in her tomb. Because no husband

7840-468: The identification of the mummy found in that tomb as Akhenaten remains controversial to this day. The mummy has repeatedly been examined since its discovery in 1907. Most recently, Egyptologist Zahi Hawass led a team of researchers to examine the mummy using medical and DNA analysis , with the results published in 2010. In releasing their test results, Hawass's team identified the mummy as the father of Tutankhamun and thus "most probably" Akhenaten. However,

7952-606: The inscription only means that construction on Amenhotep-Huy's tomb started during Amenhotep III's reign and ended under Akhenaten's, and Amenhotep-Huy thus simply wanted to pay his respects to both rulers. Akhenaten took Egypt's throne as Amenhotep IV, most likely in 1353 or 1351 BC. It is unknown how old Amenhotep IV was when he did this; estimates range from 10 to 23. He was most likely crowned in Thebes , or less likely at Memphis or Armant . The beginning of Amenhotep IV's reign followed established pharaonic traditions. He did not immediately start redirecting worship toward

8064-484: The king of Sidon, where Rib-Hadda was almost certainly executed. In a view discounted by the 21st century, several Egyptologists in the late 19th and 20th centuries interpreted the Amarna letters to mean that Akhenaten was a pacifist who neglected foreign policy and Egypt's foreign territories in favor of his internal reforms. For example, Henry Hall believed Akhenaten "succeeded by his obstinate doctrinaire love of peace in causing far more misery in his world than half

8176-547: The latter a word that could variously refer to any of the Canaanite gods or to their leader in particular . The name thus seems to have meant the "Well of the God" or "Source of the God". Its present Arabic name Jubayl ( جبيل ) or J ( e ) beil is a direct descendant of these earlier names, although apparently modified by a misunderstanding of the name as the triliteral root GBL or JBL , meaning " mountain ". When

8288-472: The latter part of the pharaoh's reign "a daunting task" and a controversial and contested topic of discussion among Egyptologists. Among the newest pieces of evidence is an inscription discovered in 2012 at a limestone quarry in Deir el-Bersha , just north of Akhetaten, from the pharaoh's sixteenth regnal year. The text refers to a building project in Amarna and establishes that Akhenaten and Nefertiti were still

8400-482: The modern name for Akhenaten's capital Akhetaten. The diplomatic correspondence comprises clay tablet messages between Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun, various subjects through Egyptian military outposts, rulers of vassal states , and the foreign rulers of Babylonia , Assyria , Syria , Canaan , Alashiya , Arzawa , Mitanni , and the Hittites . The Amarna letters portray the international situation in

8512-772: The mother of Tutankhamun . William Murnane proposes that Kiya is the colloquial name of the Mitanni princess Tadukhipa , daughter of the Mitanni king Tushratta who had married Amenhotep III before becoming the wife of Akhenaten. Akhenaten's other attested consorts are the daughter of the Enišasi ruler Šatiya and another daughter of the Babylonian king Burna-Buriash II . Akhenaten could have had seven or eight children based on inscriptions. Egyptologists are fairly certain about his six daughters, who are well attested in contemporary depictions. Among his six daughters, Meritaten

8624-548: The northern frontier led to difficulties in Canaan , particularly in a struggle for power between Labaya of Shechem and Abdi-Heba of Jerusalem , which required the pharaoh to intervene in the area by dispatching Medjay troops northwards. Akhenaten pointedly refused to save his vassal Rib-Hadda of Byblos —whose kingdom was being besieged by the expanding state of Amurru under Abdi-Ashirta and later Aziru , son of Abdi-Ashirta—despite Rib-Hadda's numerous pleas for help from

8736-503: The older site. The pottery was more developed with red washes and more varied forms and elaborate decorations, buildings were poorer with unplastered floors. The Late Neolithic period showed development from the middle in building design, a wider range of more developed flint tools and a far larger variety of pottery with fabrication including silica. The Late Chalcolithic featured developments of " Canaanite blades " and fan scrapers. Adult burials in jars started to appear along with metal in

8848-502: The oldest Egyptian words for an oceangoing boat was "Byblos ship". Archaeologists have recovered Egyptian -made artifacts as old as a vessel fragment bearing the name of the Second dynasty ruler Khasekhemwy , although this "may easily have reached Byblos through trade and/or at a later period". Objects have been found at Byblos naming the 13th Dynasty Egyptian king Neferhotep I . The rulers of Byblos maintained close relationships with

8960-474: The pharaoh that the royal estates in Memphis are "in good order" and the temple of Ptah is "prosperous and flourishing", are dated to regnal year five, day nineteen of the growing season's third month . About a month later, day thirteen of the growing season's fourth month , one of the boundary stela at Akhetaten already had the name Akhenaten carved on it, implying that the pharaoh changed his name between

9072-461: The pharaoh. Rib-Hadda wrote a total of 60 letters to Akhenaten pleading for aid from the pharaoh. Akhenaten wearied of Rib-Hadda's constant correspondences and once told Rib-Hadda: "You are the one that writes to me more than all the (other) mayors" or Egyptian vassals in EA 124. What Rib-Hadda did not comprehend was that the Egyptian king would not organize and dispatch an entire army north just to preserve

9184-465: The picturesque mountains that surround it make it an ideal tourist destination. The city is known for its fish restaurants, open-air bars, and outdoor cafes. Yachts cruise into its harbor today as they did in the 1960s and 1970s when Marlon Brando and Frank Sinatra were regular visitors to the city. Byblos was crowned as the "Arab Tour Capital" for the year 2016 by the Lebanese minister of tourism in

9296-410: The political status quo of several minor city states on the fringes of Egypt's Asiatic Empire. Rib-Hadda would pay the ultimate price; his exile from Byblos due to a coup led by his brother Ilirabih is mentioned in one letter. When Rib-Hadda appealed in vain for aid from Akhenaten and then turned to Aziru, his sworn enemy, to place him back on the throne of his city, Aziru promptly had him dispatched to

9408-400: The priests there achieved significant power earlier in the Eighteenth Dynasty , especially under Hatshepsut and Thutmose III , thanks to pharaohs offering large amounts of Egypt's growing wealth to the cult of Amun; historians, such as Donald B. Redford , therefore posited that by moving to a new capital, Akhenaten may have been trying to break with Amun's priests and the god. Akhetaten

9520-411: The prince was Parennefer , whose tomb mentions this fact. Egyptologist Cyril Aldred suggests that prince Amenhotep might have been a High Priest of Ptah in Memphis, although no evidence supporting this had been found. It is known that Amenhotep's brother, crown prince Thutmose , served in this role before he died. If Amenhotep inherited all his brother's roles in preparation for his accession to

9632-414: The property of a ruler, nor being the property of a female ruler, nor being the property of any people able to lay claim to it." Historians do not know for certain why Akhenaten established a new capital and left Thebes, the old capital. The boundary stelae detailing Akhetaten's founding is damaged where it likely explained the pharaoh's motives for the move. Surviving parts claim what happened to Akhenaten

9744-556: The reasons for the reception. Possibilities include the celebration of the marriage of future pharaoh Ay to Tey , celebration of Akhenaten's twelve years on the throne, the summons of king Aziru of Amurru to Egypt, a military victory at Sumur in the Levant , a successful military campaign in Nubia, Nefertiti's ascendancy to the throne as coregent, or the completion of the new capital city Akhetaten. Following year twelve, Donald B. Redford and other Egyptologists proposed that Egypt

9856-555: The religious make-up of the town's 4,152 registered voters were roughly 92.3% Maronite Catholics , 3.1% Greek Orthodox , 2.4% Greek Catholic , 0.8% Christian Minorities , and 1.4% others. This Lebanon location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Byblos Byblos ( / ˈ b ɪ b l ɒ s / BIB -loss ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Βύβλος ), also known as Jebeil , Jbeil or Jubayl ( Arabic : جُبَيْل , romanized :  Jubayl , locally Jbeil [ʒ(ə)beːl] ),

9968-596: The religious policy was absolutely monotheistic , or whether it was monolatristic , syncretistic , or henotheistic . This culture shift away from traditional religion was reversed after his death. Akhenaten's monuments were dismantled and hidden, his statues were destroyed, and his name excluded from lists of rulers compiled by later pharaohs. Traditional religious practice was gradually restored, notably under his close successor Tutankhamun , who changed his name from Tutankhaten early in his reign. When some dozen years later, rulers without clear rights of succession from

10080-543: The smaller weight and standardized size, using them during constructions was more efficient than using heavy building blocks of varying sizes. By regnal year eight, Akhetaten reached a state where it could be occupied by the royal family. Only his most loyal subjects followed Akhenaten and his family to the new city. While the city continued to be built, in years five through eight, construction work began to stop in Thebes. The Theban Aten temples that had begun were abandoned, and

10192-489: The sun disc. In Parennefer's tomb, Amenhotep IV and Nefertiti are seated on a throne with the sun disc depicted over the pharaoh and his queen. While continuing the worship of other gods, Amenhotep IV's initial building program sought to build new places of worship to the Aten. He ordered the construction of temples or shrines to the Aten in several cities across the country, such as Bubastis , Tell el-Borg , Heliopolis , Memphis, Nekhen , Kawa , and Kerma . He also ordered

10304-400: The tell was published by E.S. Boynton in 1960 with further studies by R. Erich in 1954 and Van Liere and Henri de Contenson in 1964. Prehistoric settlements at Byblos were divided up by Dunand into the following five periods, which were recently expanded and re-calibrated by Yosef Garfinkel to correlate with Tell es-Sultan (Jericho): The site first appears to have been settled during

10416-411: The temple of Resheph was elaborately rebuilt, and the city, though smaller than its neighbours such as Tyrus and Zidonia, was a centre for the cult of Adonis . King Herod of Judaea , known for his extensive building projects, including beyond his own kingdom, constructed a city wall for Byblos. In the 3rd century, a small but impressive theatre was constructed. With the rise of Christianity ,

10528-707: The third millennium BC and it developed into a city making it one of the oldest cities in the world , if not the oldest. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site . It was in Ancient Byblos that the Phoenician alphabet , likely the ancestor of the Greek , Latin and all other Western alphabets, was developed. Eusebius' Onomasticon stated that Byblos was called "Gobel / Gebal" in Hebrew. The name appears as Kebny in Egyptian hieroglyphic records going back to

10640-567: The third millennium BC. Early Bronze Age remains were characterised by the development of Byblos combed ware and a lithic assemblage studied by Jacques Cauvin. Watson Mills and Roger Bullard suggest that during the Old Kingdom of Egypt and Middle Kingdom of Egypt Byblos was virtually an Egyptian colony. The growing city was a wealthy one and seems to have been an ally (among "those who are on his waters") of Egypt for many centuries. First Dynasty tombs used timbers from Byblos. One of

10752-513: The throne, he might have become a high priest in Thutmose's stead. Aldred proposes that Akhenaten's unusual artistic inclinations might have been formed during his time serving Ptah , the patron god of craftsmen, whose high priests were sometimes referred to as "The Greatest of the Directors of Craftsmanship". There is much controversy around whether Amenhotep IV ascended to Egypt's throne on

10864-455: The time, and Memphis , on the east bank of the Nile , where a wadi and a natural dip in the surrounding cliffs form a silhouette similar to the " horizon " hieroglyph . Additionally, the site had previously been uninhabited. According to inscriptions on one boundary stela, the site was appropriate for Aten's city for "not being the property of a god, nor being the property of a goddess, nor being

10976-475: The tomb and to bury the pharaoh there was commemorated on one of the boundary stela delineating the capital's borders: "Let a tomb be made for me in the eastern mountain [of Akhetaten]. Let my burial be made in it, in the millions of jubilees which the Aten, my father, decreed for me." In the years following the burial, Akhenaten's sarcophagus was destroyed and left in the Akhetaten necropolis; reconstructed in

11088-527: The two inscriptions. Amenhotep IV changed his royal titulary to show his devotion to the Aten. No longer would he be known as Amenhotep IV and be associated with the god Amun , but rather he would completely shift his focus to the Aten. Egyptologists debate the exact meaning of Akhenaten, his new personal name . The word "akh" ( Ancient Egyptian : ꜣḫ ) could have different translations, such as "satisfied", "effective spirit", or "serviceable to", and thus Akhenaten's name could be translated to mean "Aten

11200-540: The view of any coregency whatsoever between Akhenaten and his father. Most recently, in 2014, archaeologists found both pharaohs' names inscribed on the wall of the Luxor tomb of vizier Amenhotep-Huy . The Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities called this "conclusive evidence" that Akhenaten shared power with his father for at least eight years, based on the dating of the tomb. However, this conclusion has since been called into question by other Egyptologists, according to whom

11312-399: The world", and "the first individual in history", but also as a "heretic", "fanatic", "possibly insane", and "mad". Public and scholarly fascination with Akhenaten comes from his connection with Tutankhamun, the unique style and high quality of the pictorial arts he patronized , and the religion he attempted to establish, foreshadowing monotheism. The future Akhenaten was born Amenhotep,

11424-458: Was "worse than those that I heard" previously in his reign and worse than those "heard by any kings who assumed the White Crown ", and alludes to "offensive" speech against the Aten. Egyptologists believe that Akhenaten could be referring to conflict with the priesthood and followers of Amun, the patron god of Thebes. The great temples of Amun, such as Karnak , were all located in Thebes and

11536-671: Was a planned city with the Great Temple of the Aten , Small Aten Temple , royal residences, records office , and government buildings in the city center. Some of these buildings, such as the Aten temples, were ordered to be built by Akhenaten on the boundary stela decreeing the city's founding. The city was built quickly, thanks to a new construction method that used substantially smaller building blocks than under previous pharaohs. These blocks, called talatats , measured 1 ⁄ 2 by 1 ⁄ 2 by 1 ancient Egyptian cubits ( c.  27 by 27 by 54 cm ), and because of

11648-771: Was born in regnal year one or five; Meketaten in year four or six; Ankhesenpaaten , later queen of Tutankhamun, before year five or eight; Neferneferuaten Tasherit in year eight or nine; Neferneferure in year nine or ten; and Setepenre in year ten or eleven. Tutankhamun, born Tutankhaten, was most likely Akhenaten's son, with Nefertiti or another wife. There is less certainty around Akhenaten's relationship with Smenkhkare , Akhenaten's coregent or successor and husband to his daughter Meritaten; he could have been Akhenaten's eldest son with an unknown wife or Akhenaten's younger brother. Some historians, such as Edward Wente and James Allen , have proposed that Akhenaten took some of his daughters as wives or sexual consorts to father

11760-477: Was conducted by Ernest Renan in 1860, documented in his work "Mission de Phénicie" (1865–1874) . This was succeeded by Pierre Montet 's efforts from 1921 to 1924, and later by Maurice Dunand , who continued excavations from 1925 for a span of forty years. Renan's expedition was to "provide the evidence that the city did not move and that Gebeil is Byblos". Fragments attributed to the semi-legendary pre- Homeric Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon say Byblos

11872-458: Was founded by those Shi`i Muslims. Byblos has three representatives in the Parliament of Lebanon : two Maronites and one Shi`i Muslim. As of 2022, the religious make-up of the town's 9,247 registered voters were roughly 65.8% Maronite Catholics , 8.7% Armenian Orthodox , 7.2% Shia , 6.3% Sunni , 4.6% Greek Orthodox , and 7.4% others. Byblos is home to the professional schools of

11984-405: Was married to Meritaten , Akhenaten's eldest daughter. For another, the so-called Coregency Stela , found in a tomb at Akhetaten, might show queen Nefertiti as Akhenaten's coregent, but this is uncertain as the stela was recarved to show the names of Ankhesenpaaten and Neferneferuaten . Egyptologist Aidan Dodson proposed that both Smenkhkare and Neferiti were Akhenaten's coregents to ensure

12096-493: Was married to Nefertiti , his Great Royal Wife . The exact timing of their marriage is unknown, but inscriptions from the pharaoh's building projects suggest that they married either shortly before or after Akhenaten took the throne. For example, Egyptologist Dimitri Laboury suggests that the marriage took place in Akhenaten's fourth regnal year. A secondary wife of Akhenaten named Kiya is also known from inscriptions. Some Egyptologists theorize that she gained her importance as

12208-399: Was so widespread and established throughout Egypt that Akhenaten could have been influenced by solar worship even if he did not grow up around Heliopolis. Some historians have tried to determine who was Akhenaten's tutor during his youth, and have proposed scribes Heqareshu or Meryre II , the royal tutor Amenemotep, or the vizier Aperel . The only person who we know for certain served

12320-579: Was struck by an epidemic , most likely a plague . Contemporary evidence suggests that a plague ravaged through the Middle East around this time, and ambassadors and delegations arriving to Akhenaten's year twelve reception might have brought the disease to Egypt. Alternatively, letters from the Hattians might suggest that the epidemic originated in Egypt and was carried throughout the Middle East by Egyptian prisoners of war. Regardless of its origin,

12432-733: Was the first city erected in Phoenicia and was established by the god Cronus . (Cronus was considered the nearest equivalent to the Canaanite Baal / Baal Hammon in the syncretising system used by the ancient Greeks and Romans.) According to the writer Philo of Byblos (quoting Sanchuniathon, and quoted in Eusebius ), Byblos was founded by the Phoenician shrine god El (whom the Greeks identified with their god Cronus ). During

12544-538: Was unearthed from the tomb KV55 in the Valley of the Kings by Edward R. Ayrton . Genetic testing has determined that the man buried in KV55 was Tutankhamun's father, but its identification as Akhenaten has since been questioned. Akhenaten's rediscovery and Flinders Petrie 's early excavations at Amarna sparked great public interest in the pharaoh and his queen Nefertiti . He has been described as "enigmatic", "mysterious", "revolutionary", "the greatest idealist of

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