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118-538: Intensive academic efforts to reconstruct African-American history began in the late 19th century ( W. E. B. Du Bois , The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America , 1896). Among the pioneers in the first half of the 20th century were Carter G. Woodson , Herbert Aptheker , Melville Herskovits , and Lorenzo Dow Turner . Programs and departments of Black studies in

236-513: A Democratic Society (SDS), a well-connected and organized club, hosted a conference entitled "Black Power and its Challenges." Black leaders, who were directly tied to then ongoing civil rights movements, spoke to a predominantly white audience about their respective goals and challenges. These leaders included Stokely Carmichael of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and James Bevel of

354-535: A broad way of teaching just to get the information out. AASU used these claims to gain ground on their proposal to create a Black studies department. Nathan Hare , a sociology professor at San Francisco State University, created what was known as the "A Conceptual Proposal for Black Studies" and AASU used Hare's framework to create a set of criteria. A Black studies program was implemented by the UC Berkeley administration on January 13, 1969. In 1969, St. Clair Drake

472-682: A continuing education diploma program in Afro-Colombian studies was developed and began to be offered at the University of Cauca in Belalcázar, Caldas . At the Pontifical Xavierian University , there is a master's degree program in Afro-Colombian studies. There is also a study abroad program for Afro-Colombian students and African-American students existing between the Afro-Colombian studies program at

590-663: A difficulty, I nevertheless trust that I have succeeded in rendering this monograph a small contribution to the scientific study of slavery and the American Negro. The work begins by examining the history of slavery in the Thirteen Colonies , including the Atlantic slave trade . It then discusses the role of slavery in the American Revolution , and how the institution of slavery was preserved in

708-513: A global context. This aim reinforces the importance of representing diverse voices and experiences, ensuring that the Black experience is recognized as integral to the broader human narrative. In summary, Africana studies serves not only to broaden students' understanding of global histories and cultures but also to empower them with an enriched perspective that celebrates the complexity and diversity of Black experiences. By acknowledging and addressing

826-425: A growing body of scholarship that challenged dominant narratives. As Africana studies continues to evolve, the fourth stage—emphasizing global connections and an Afro-centric perspective—highlights the discipline's responsiveness to contemporary issues. It seeks to explore the interconnectedness of African and African Diaspora experiences, fostering a deeper understanding of cultural phenomena and their implications in

944-618: A night in late June 1969, LGBT people resisted, for the first time, a police raid, and rebelled openly in the streets. This uprising called the Stonewall riots began a new period of the LGBT rights movement that in the next decade would cause dramatic change both inside the LGBT community and in the mainstream American culture. The rapid rise of a " New Left " applied the class perspective of Marxism to postwar America but had little organizational connection with older Marxist organizations such as

1062-608: A radio, television, refrigerator and motor vehicles. The Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact countries were improving quickly after rebuilding from WWII. Real GDP growth averaged 6% a year during the second half of the decade; overall, the worldwide economy prospered in the 1960s with expansion of the middle class and the increase of new domestic technology. In the United Kingdom, the Labour Party gained power in 1964 with Harold Wilson as prime minister through most of

1180-640: A remnant Afro-Dominican language. Lorimer Denis , Francois Duvalier , and Jean Price-Mars , as founders of the Bureau of Ethnology and leading figures in the Noirisme movement in Haiti , were also influential in the publishing of the foundational Afro-Haitian studies journal, Les Griots . One of the most influential academics in Afro-Haitian studies is René Piquion . As of 2019, Afro-Puerto Rican studies

1298-566: A result of increased global focus on Afro-Latin American studies. The curriculum for Afro-Venezuelan studies was developed at Universidad Politécnica Territorial de Barlovento Argelia Laya (UPTBAL), in Higuerote , Barlovento , by Alejandro Correa. In 2006, Afro-Epistemology and African Culture were formally developed as the initial courses for students in this curriculum. Following the rise and decline of Black British Cultural Studies between

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1416-495: A sit-in at the Sproul Hall Administration building to protest an unfair rule that prohibited all political clubs from fundraising, excluding the democrat and republican clubs. Police arrested 800 students. Students formed a " freedom of speech movement" and Mario Savio became its poetic leader, stating that "freedom of speech was something that represents the very dignity of what a human is." The Students for

1534-576: A speech given before a joint session of Congress on 25 May 1961: "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth." The Soviet program lost its sense of direction with the death of chief designer Sergey Korolyov in 1966. Political pressure, conflicts between different design bureaus, and engineering problems caused by an inadequate budget would doom

1652-548: A volume of this journal. In 1967, Carlos Larrazábal Blanco authored, Los Negros Y La Esclavitud En Santo Domingo , which is considered to be a foundational academic work in Afro-Dominican studies. Even in areas of the Dominican Republic with many Afro-Dominicans and where Afro-Dominican culture is predominant, there has been an ongoing challenge in Afro-Dominican studies to find linguistic evidence of

1770-502: A wide range of policies which embraced Keynesian economics (which he is the first president to do so). Among these policies included a 7% tax credit for businesses that invest in new plants and equipment, Income tax cuts and an increase in the federal minimum wage. Although, the 1960s were not perfect. The government routinely produced fiscal deficits (as a result of the tax cuts and increased expenditure embarked under Kennedy), with only one surplus during this time period (as opposed to

1888-482: A widespread, eclectic collection of newspapers served as a unifying medium for the counterculture. The movement was also marked by the first widespread, socially accepted drug use (including LSD and marijuana ) and psychedelic music. The war in Vietnam would eventually lead to a commitment of over half a million American troops, resulting in over 58,500 American deaths and producing a large-scale antiwar movement in

2006-598: Is a combination of factors: the composite expertise of their faculty, their faculty's areas of specialization, and the worldviews of the faculty that make up each unit. By worldview, I am referring to the question of whether the constituent faculty in a given setting manifests any or a combination of the following visions of our project: The range of names in Black Studies also reflects the historical and sociopolitical contexts in which these programs emerged. For example, terms like "Afro-American Studies" originated during

2124-530: Is not offered as a degree program by the University of Puerto Rico . Numerous academic publications, such as Arrancando Mitos De Raiz: Guia Para La Ensenanza Antirracista De La Herencia Africana En Puerto Rico , were scholarly works that established Isar Godreau as a leading academic in Afro-Puerto Rican Studies. The Executive branch created a law to establish a Committee for Afro-Costa Rican Studies, as one, among other laws, to increase

2242-712: Is rooted in and derives from the cultures and experiences of African peoples. By doing so, as Ama Mazama indicates, this should increase how relevant Black studies is and strengthen its disciplinary presence. Among English-speaking countries of the Caribbean , scholars educated in the United States and Britain added considerably to the development of Black studies. Scholars, such as Fitzroy Baptiste, Richard Goodridge, Elsa Goveia , Allister Hinds, Rupert Lewis, Bernard Marshall, James Millette, and Alvin Thompson, added to

2360-637: The Chicano Movement addressed what it perceived to be negative ethnic stereotypes of Mexicans in mass media and the American consciousness. It did so through the creation of works of literary and visual art that validated Mexican-American ethnicity and culture. Chicanos fought to end social stigmas such as the usage of the Spanish language and advocated official bilingualism in federal and state governments. The Chicano Movement also addressed discrimination in public and private institutions. Early in

2478-541: The Communist Party , and even went as far as to reject organized labor as the basis of a unified left-wing movement. Sympathetic to the ideology of C. Wright Mills , the New Left differed from the traditional left in its resistance to dogma and its emphasis on personal as well as societal change. Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) became the organizational focus of the New Left and was the prime mover behind

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2596-824: The Fair Housing Act of 1968 that banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing. Another large ethnic minority group, the Mexican-Americans , are among other Hispanics in the U.S. who fought to end racial discrimination and socioeconomic disparity. The largest Mexican-American populations were in the Southwestern United States, such as California with over 1 million Chicanos in Los Angeles alone, and Texas where Jim Crow laws included Mexican-Americans as "non-white" in some instances to be legally segregated. Socially,

2714-533: The Ford Foundation , and the African-American academics who produced the publications used traditional disciplinary orthodoxies, from outside of African-American studies, to analyze and evaluate the boundaries, structure, and legitimacy of African-American studies. To the detriment of the field, an abundance of research on African American studies has been developed by academics who are not within

2832-610: The National Organization for Women . In 1968, " Women's Liberation " became a household term as, for the first time, the new women's movement eclipsed the civil rights movement when New York Radical Women , led by Robin Morgan , protested the annual Miss America pageant in Atlantic City, New Jersey . The movement continued throughout the next decades. Gloria Steinem was a key feminist. The United States, in

2950-498: The Recession of 1969–1970 . It lasted a total of 106 months, which made it the longest recorded economic expansion in the history of the United States until the 1990s United States boom . On January 20, 1961, John F. Kennedy became the president of the United States. In his campaign, John F. Kennedy promised to "get America moving again." His goal was economic growth of 4–6% per year and unemployment below 4%. To do this, he proposed

3068-562: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). Educational conferences, like that of the SDS, forced the university to take some measures to correct the most obvious racial issue on campus—the sparse black student population. In 1966, the school held its first official racial and ethnic survey, in which it was discovered that the "American Negro" represented 1.02% of the university population. In 1968,

3186-675: The University of Cincinnati in a single issue in 1977 (an unrelated journal called Studia Africana is published by the Centro de Estudios Africanos, in Barcelona , since 1990). The International Journal of Africana Studies (ISSN 1056-8689) has been appearing since 1992, published by the National Council for Black Studies . Africana philosophy is a part of and developed within the field of Africana studies. In 1988 and 1990, publications on African-American studies were funded by

3304-692: The Vostok 6 mission. In 1965, Soviets launched the first probe to hit another planet of the Solar System ( Venus ), Venera 3 , and the first probe to make a soft landing on and transmit from the surface of the Moon, Luna 9 . In March 1966, the Soviet Union launched Luna 10 , which became the first space probe to enter orbit around the Moon, and in September 1968, Zond 5 flew the first terrestrial beings, including two tortoises, to circumnavigate

3422-490: The first humans landed on the Moon . The Apollo 11 mission, launched on 16 July 1969, carried mission Commander Neil Armstrong , Command Module Pilot Michael Collins , and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin , and Aldrin and Armstrong flew the Lunar Module Eagle to the lunar surface. Apollo 11 fulfilled President John F. Kennedy 's goal of reaching the Moon by the end of the 1960s, which he had expressed during

3540-592: The " ' 60s " or the " Sixties ") was a decade that began on January 1, 1960, and ended on December 31, 1969. While the achievements of humans being launched into space , orbiting Earth , and walking on the Moon extended exploration, the Sixties are known as the " countercultural decade " in the United States and other Western countries. There was a revolution in social norms, including clothing, music, drugs, dress, sexuality , formalities, civil rights , precepts of military duty, and schooling. Some people denounce

3658-422: The 1947 Mendez v. Westminster U.S. Supreme Court ruling which declared that segregating children of "Mexican and Latin descent" was unconstitutional and the 1954 Hernandez v. Texas ruling which declared that Mexican Americans and other racial groups in the United States were entitled to equal protection under the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution . The most prominent civil-rights organization in

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3776-595: The 1950s which produced 3). Furthermore, by 1966 inflation began to climb, which is a general trend that continued into the 1970's . By the end of the decade under Nixon, the combined inflation and unemployment rate known as the misery index (economics) had exploded to nearly 10% with inflation at 6.2% and unemployment at 3.5% and by 1975 the misery index was almost 20%. By the end of the decade, median family income had risen from $ 8,540 in 1963 to $ 10,770 by 1969. Prominent assassinations, targeted killings, and assassination attempts include: Natural: Non-natural: In

3894-521: The 1950s, publications that included the presence of Afro-Chileans were not systematized, and, from the 1960s to the 1980s, publications continued to group Afro-Chileans with other groups. Since the 2000s, there has been increasing systematization and a more formal development of Afro-Chilean studies, along with a greater focus on Afro-Chileans and the recovery of Afro-Chilean cultural heritage . Scholars, such as Rogerio Velásquez, Aquiles Escalante, José Rafael Arboleda, and Thomas Price, were forerunners in

4012-425: The 1960s began, American cars showed a rapid rejection of 1950s styling excess, and would remain relatively clean and boxy for the entire decade. The horsepower race reached its climax in the late 1960s, with muscle cars sold by most makes. The compact Ford Mustang , launched in 1964, was one of the decade's greatest successes. The " Big Three " American automakers enjoyed their highest ever sales and profitability in

4130-413: The 1960s, but the demise of Studebaker in 1966 left American Motors Corporation as the last significant independent. The decade would see the car market split into different size classes for the first time, and model lineups now included compact and mid-sized cars in addition to full-sized ones. The popular modern hatchback, with front-wheel-drive and a two-box configuration, was born in 1965 with

4248-423: The 1960s. The Soviets sent the first man, Yuri Gagarin , into outer space during the Vostok 1 mission on 12 April 1961, and scored a host of other successes, but by the middle of the decade the U.S. was taking the lead. In May 1961, President Kennedy set the goal for the United States of landing a man on the Moon by the end of the 1960s. In June 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space during

4366-921: The 1990s, organizations that followed in the example of the Center of Afro-Ecuadorian Studies ushered in the development of the Afro-Ecuadorian Etnoeducación program at the National High School, in Chota Valley , Ecuador , and a master's degree program in Afro-Andean Studies at the Simón Bolívar Andean University (UASB), in Quito , Ecuador. With the promulgation of Article 84 of the 1998 Constitution of Ecuador, gave formal recognition

4484-569: The Africological movement as a subsequent academic movement. Asante authored the book Afrocentricity , in 1980. Within the book, Asante used the term " Afrology " as the name for the interdisciplinary field of Black studies, and defined it as "the Afrocentric study of African phenomena." Later, Winston Van Horne changed Asante's use of the term "Afrology" to "Africology." Asante then went on to use his earlier definition for "Afrology" as

4602-621: The Americas contributed to how they socially organized themselves. Afterward, Nascimento went back to Brazil and began institutionalization of Africana studies in 1981. While at the Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo , Nascimento developed the Afro-Brazilian Studies and Research Institute (IPEAFRO). A course for professors was provided by IPEAFRO between 1985 and 1995. From the 1920s to

4720-470: The Draft ", " draft dodger ", " conscientious objector ", and " Vietnam vet ". Voter age-limits were challenged by the phrase: "If you're old enough to die for your country, you're old enough to vote." Beginning in the mid-1950s and continuing into the late 1960s, African Americans in the United States organized a movement to end legalized racial discrimination and obtain voting rights . This article covers

4838-671: The Mexican-American community, the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF), was founded in 1968. Although modeled after the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund , MALDEF has also taken on many of the functions of other organizations, including political advocacy and training of local leaders. Meanwhile, Puerto Ricans in the U.S. mainland fought against racism, police brutality and socioeconomic problems affecting

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4956-508: The Moon. The deaths of astronauts Gus Grissom , Ed White , and Roger B. Chaffee in the Apollo 1 fire on 27 January 1967, put a temporary hold on the U.S. space program, but afterward progress was steady, with the Apollo 8 crew ( Frank Borman , Jim Lovell , William Anders ) being the first crewed mission to orbit another celestial body (the Moon) during Christmas of 1968. On 20 July 1969,

5074-707: The Panamanian government, the Afro-Panamanian Studies Center hosted the Second Congress on Black Culture in the Americas. Since the 1980s, Afro-Argentine studies has undergone renewed growth. In 1980, Abdias Nascimento gave a presentation in Panama of his scholarship on Kilombismo at the 2nd Congress of Black Culture in the Americas. His scholarship on Kilombismo detailed how the economic and political affairs of Africans throughout

5192-557: The Pontifical Xavierian University in Colombia and African-American studies programs at historically black colleges and universities in the United States. Afro-Ecuadorians initiated the development of the Center of Afro-Ecuadorian Studies in the late 1970s, which served as a means of organizing academic questions relating to Afro-Ecuadorian identity and history. Though it dissolved in the early 1980s, by

5310-578: The Soviet attempt to land men on the Moon. Shortly after the American Apollo 1 disaster, tragedy struck the Soviet program when cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov was killed when the parachutes on his Soyuz 1 flight failed. A succession of uncrewed American and Soviet probes traveled to the Moon, Venus , and Mars during the 1960s, and commercial satellites also came into use. Shinkansen , the world's first high-speed rail service began in 1964. As

5428-477: The U.S.S.R, both agreed to withdraw their weapons averting potential nuclear warfare . After U.S. president Kennedy's assassination , direct tensions between the superpower countries of the United States and the Soviet Union developed into a contest with proxy wars , insurgency funding, puppet governments and other overall influence mainly in Latin America , Africa, and Asia . This " Cold War " dominated

5546-641: The United Kingdom (especially London) it was called the Swinging Sixties . The United States had four presidents that served during the decade; Dwight D. Eisenhower , John F. Kennedy , Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon . Eisenhower was near the end of his term and left office in January 1961, and Kennedy was assassinated in 1963. Kennedy had wanted Keynesian and staunch anti-communist social reforms. These were passed under Johnson including civil rights for African Americans and health care for

5664-428: The United Kingdom. The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America The Suppression of the African Slave-trade to the United States of America (1894) was W. E. B. Du Bois 's doctoral thesis for Harvard University which he finished while teaching at Wilberforce University . This thesis made Du Bois the first African-American to earn a Ph.D from Harvard. Du Bois summarized

5782-406: The United States were first created in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of inter-ethnic student and faculty activism at many universities, sparked by a five-month strike for Black studies at San Francisco State University . In February 1968, San Francisco State hired sociologist Nathan Hare to coordinate the first Black studies program and write a proposal for the first Department of Black Studies;

5900-414: The United States. As late as the end of 1965, few Americans protested the American involvement in Vietnam, but as the war dragged on and the body count continued to climb, civil unrest escalated. Students became a powerful and disruptive force and university campuses sparked a national debate over the war. As the movement's ideals spread beyond college campuses, doubts about the war also began to appear within

6018-518: The University of California campuses. In the Autumn season of 1968, black students from UCSB joined the national civil rights movement to end racial segregation and exclusion of Black history and studies from college campuses. Triggered by the insensitivity of the administration and general campus life, they occupied North Hall and presented the administration with a set of demands. Such efforts led to

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6136-753: The Western market, and popular economy models such as the Toyota Corolla , Datsun 510 , and the first popular Japanese sports car, the Datsun 240Z , were released in the mid- to late-1960s. Mopeds and Scooters gains popularity in these decade, with Honda Super Cub in United States, Japan and Europe, Mitsubishi Silver Pigeon in Japan and Vespa , Kreidler Florett , Zundapp and Sachs mopeds in Western Europe. The counterculture movement dominated

6254-713: The administration itself. A mass movement began rising in opposition to the Vietnam War , including the National Mobilization to End the War in Vietnam 's 1967 march to the United Nations and its March on the Pentagon , the 1968 Democratic National Convention protests at which the slogan " The whole world is watching " became famous, and continuing in the massive Moratorium protests in 1969 as well as

6372-491: The body of scholarship is undergoing growth. There have been efforts to organize the elements of Afro-Peruvian studies in Peru, such as by LUNDU, which organized an international conference for Afro-Peruvian studies in Peru on November 13, 2009. During this LUNDU-organized conference, Luis Rocca, who co-founded the National Afro-Peruvian Museum , and is also a historian, presented on his research regarding Afro-Peruvians . A university student group focused on Afro-Peruvian studies

6490-431: The civil rights movement were passage of Civil Rights Act of 1964 that banned discrimination based on "race, color, religion, or national origin" in employment practices and public accommodations, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that restored and protected voting rights, the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 that dramatically opened entry to the U.S. to immigrants other than traditional European groups, and

6608-434: The civil rights movement, emphasizing a focus on the African American experience and the struggle for racial equality. In contrast, more contemporary terms like "Africana Studies" and "Pan-African Studies" reflect a broader engagement with the global Black experience, including connections across the African diaspora and an acknowledgment of transnational influences. In 1991, the national chair for Black Canadian Studies, which

6726-476: The civil rights movement. The students at the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley) were witnesses to the Civil Rights Movement , and by 1964, they were thrust into activism. On October 1, 1964, Jack Weinberg , a former graduate student, was sitting at a table where the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was distributing literature encouraging students to protest against institutional racism . Police asked Weinberg to produce his ID to confirm that he

6844-441: The conservatism and social conformity of the 1950s, and the U.S. government's extensive military intervention in Vietnam. The youth involved in the popular social aspects of the movement became known as hippies . These groups created a movement toward liberation in society, including the sexual revolution , questioning authority and government, and demanding more freedoms and rights for women and minorities. The Underground Press ,

6962-419: The country, especially in U.S.–Mexican border towns and East Coast cities like New York City, and the growth of the Cuban American community in Miami, Florida. The multitude of discrimination at this time represented an inhuman side to a society that in the 1960s was upheld as a world and industry leader. The issues of civil rights and warfare became major points of reflection of virtue and democracy, what once

7080-417: The decade as one of irresponsible excess, flamboyance, the decay of social order, and the fall or relaxation of social taboos. A wide range of music emerged; from popular music inspired by and including the Beatles (in the United States known as the British Invasion ), the folk music revival , to the poetic lyrics of Bob Dylan . In the United States the Sixties were also called the "cultural decade" while in

7198-459: The decade included: During the 1960s the United States was in the postwar economic boom . The 1960s are remembered as a time period of rapid workforce growth (roughly 33% between February 1961 and December 1969), tax cuts , low unemployment, rapid GDP growth, gains in productivity and generally low inflation. After the Recession of 1960–1961 the United States experienced sustained rapid economic growth which began in February 1961 and ended with

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7316-514: The decade. In France, the protests of 1968 led to President Charles de Gaulle temporarily fleeing the country. Italy formed its first left-of-center government in March 1962 with Aldo Moro becoming prime minister in 1963. Soviet leaders during the decade were Nikita Khrushchev until 1964 and Leonid Brezhnev . During the 1960s, the world population increased from 3.0 to 3.7 billion people. There were approximately 1.15 billion births and 500 million deaths. Prominent coups d'état of

7434-403: The definition for his newly adopted term, "Africology". Systematic Africology, which is a research method in the field of Black studies that was developed by Asante, utilizes the theory of Afrocentricity to analyze and evaluate African phenomena. In an effort to shift Black studies away from its interdisciplinary status toward disciplinary status, Asante recommended that Afrocentricity should be

7552-461: The department was created in September 1968 and gained official status at the end of the five-month strike in the spring of 1969. Hare's views reflected those of the Black Power movement, and he believed that the department should empower Black students. The creation of programs and departments in Black studies was a common demand of protests and sit-ins by minority students and their allies, who felt that their cultures and interests were underserved by

7670-416: The destruction of many historical and cultural buildings, artifacts and materials all of which would last until the death of Mao Zedong . By the end of the 1950s , post-war reconstructed Europe began an economic boom . World War II had closed up social classes with remnants of the old feudal gentry disappearing. A developing upper-working-class (a newly redefined middle-class) in Western Europe could afford

7788-402: The development of Afro-Colombian studies in the 1940s and 1950s. In the 1960s, as social science programs became incorporated into university institutions, contributions from anthropologists and social scientists added to its emergence. Following the promulgation of the Colombian Constitution , particularly Article 55 , in 1991, Law 70 in 1993, and Decree 804 by the Ministry of Education in 1995,

7906-494: The development of Black studies at the University of the West Indies campuses in Barbados , Jamaica , and Trinidad . During the early 1900s, Fernando Ortiz pioneered the emerging field of Afro-Cuban studies. On January 16, 1937, the Society for Afro-Cuban Studies was established. Afro-Cuban Studies (Estudios Afrocubanos) is the academic journal for the Society for Afro-Cuban Studies (SEAC/Sociedad de Estudios Afrocubanos). In 1939, Rómulo Lachatañeré 's academic work appeared in

8024-469: The discipline of African American studies. Rather, the academics, and the scholarship they have produced about African American studies, has been characterized as bearing an "Aryan hegemonic worldview." It has been argued that due to a staffing shortage in the field of African American studies, academics in the field, who are trained in traditional fields, carry with them presumptions of the primacy of their field of training's viewpoints, which tends to result in

8142-973: The discipline" remains "unsettled" (Asante & Karenga, 2006, p. 421). This remark came as a result of an extensive survey of existing Black Studies programs, which led to the editors identifying a multiplicity of names for the discipline: Africana Studies, African and African Diaspora Studies, African/Black World Studies, Pan-African Studies, Africology, African and New World Studies, African Studies–Major, Black World Studies, Latin American Studies, Latin American and Caribbean Studies, Black and Hispanic Studies, Africana and Latin American Studies, African and African-American Studies, Black and Hispanic Studies, African American Studies, Afro-American Studies, African American Education Program, Afro-Ethnic Studies, American Ethnic Studies, American Studies–African-American Emphasis, Black Studies, Comparative American Cultures, Ethnic Studies Programs, Race and Ethnic Studies. Okafor (2014) clarifies: What appears to drive these distinctive names

8260-441: The discipline's evolution in response to historical contexts and societal needs. The first stage, from the 1890s until World War II, was marked by grassroots organizations that sought to illuminate the rich histories and cultures of African peoples. This foundational work laid the groundwork for future scholarship by challenging prevailing narratives that often marginalized or misrepresented Black experiences. The second stage shifted

8378-399: The early 1980s and late 1990s, Black studies in the United States reinvigorated Black Critical Thought in the United Kingdom . Kehinde Andrews , who initiated the development of the Black Studies Association in the United Kingdom as well as the development of a course in Black studies at Birmingham City University , continues to advocate for the advancement of the presence of Black studies in

8496-525: The elderly and the poor . Despite his large-scale Great Society programs, Johnson was increasingly disliked by the New Left at home and abroad. For some, May 1968 meant the end of traditional collective action and the beginning of a new era to be dominated mainly by the so-called new social movements . After the Cuban Revolution led by Fidel Castro , the United States attempted to depose

8614-698: The elements for Afro-Colombian studies began to come together, and historic discrimination of Afro-Colombians was able to begin being addressed, with the development of national educational content about Afro-Colombians and Africa . At the University City of Bogotá , of the National University of Colombia , the Afro-Colombian Studies Group developed and established a training program in Afro-Colombian studies for primary and secondary school teachers. In February 2002,

8732-516: The end of Mao's Great Leap Forward in 1962 that led to many Chinese to die from the deadliest famine in human history and the start of the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976. Its stated goal was to preserve Chinese communism by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society , leading to the arrests of a many Chinese politicians, the killings of millions of civilians and ethnic minorities, and

8850-423: The establishment of formal academic programs labeled as Black Studies, which further institutionalized the discipline within higher education. These programs aimed to create a rigorous academic framework for studying the Black experience, often incorporating interdisciplinary approaches that draw from history, sociology, literature, and the arts. This formalization not only legitimized the field but also contributed to

8968-420: The eventual creation of the Black studies department and the Center for Black Studies. Similar activism was happening outside of California. At Yale University , a committee, headed by political scientist , Robert Dahl , recommended establishing an undergraduate major in African-American culture, one of the first of such at an American university. When Ernie Davis , who was from Syracuse University , became

9086-580: The facts of Negro life in the South and the big cities of the North. The proclaimed peaceful intentions of the United States contradicted its economic and military investments in the Cold War status quo." These intolerable issues became too visible to ignore therefore its repercussions were feared greatly, the realization that we as individuals take the responsibility for encounter and resolution in our lives issues

9204-443: The field of African American studies that they are entering into. Furthermore, such academics, who would also recognize themselves as experts in the discipline of African American studies, would also attempt to assess the legitimacy of Africology – done so, through analysis based on critical rhetoric rather than based on pensive research. Following the Black studies movement and Africana studies movement, Molefi Kete Asante identifies

9322-744: The first African American to win the Heisman Trophy in college football, it renewed debates about race on college campuses in the country. Inspired by the Davis win, civil rights movement, and nationwide student activism, in 1969, black and white students, led by the Student African American Society (SAS), at Syracuse University , marched in front of the building at Newhouse and demanded for Black studies to be taught at Syracuse. It existed as an independent, underfunded non-degree offering program from 1971 until 1979. In 1979,

9440-790: The fledgling United States by the Constitution Convention . The work then examines the Haitian Revolution , and the effect it had on U.S. slave owners in the American South . Du Bois concludes his work by analyzing the blockade of Africa and the role of slave-produced cotton in the U.S. economy prior to the American Civil War . In 2014 the work was re-introduced with a new introduction by Henry Louis Gates Jr. Turbulent Sixties The 1960s (pronounced "nineteen-sixties", shortened to

9558-413: The focus to African Americans, reflecting the urgent need to address the unique historical and cultural contributions of this community, particularly in the wake of the civil rights movement. This period emphasized the significance of African American history, culture, and identity within a broader American context, fostering a greater understanding of systemic racism and social justice. The third stage saw

9676-491: The gaps in traditional educational narratives, this field of study aims to contribute to a more equitable and inclusive understanding of history and culture. In the United States, the 1960s is known as the " Turbulent Sixties ." During this time period, the nation experienced great social unrest, as citizens challenged the social order in radical ways. Many movements took place in the United States during this time period, including women's rights movement, labor rights movement, and

9794-419: The historical and cultural issues of Africa and its descendants, while Black studies was designed to deal with the uplift and development of the black (African-American) community in relationship to education and its "relevance" to the black community. The adaptation of the term, "Africana studies", appears to have derived from the encyclopedic work of W. E. B. Du Bois and Carter G. Woodson . James Turner , who

9912-436: The historical and cultural issues of Africanity within a professorial interpretation of the interactions between these fields and college administrations. Thus, Africana studies reflected the mellowing and institutionalization of the Black studies movement in the course of its integration into the mainstream academic curriculum. Black studies and Africana studies differ primarily in that Africana studies focuses on Africanity and

10030-584: The inequities faced by African Americans. Forms of protest and/or civil disobedience included boycotts such as the successful Montgomery bus boycott (1955–1956) in Alabama, sit-ins such as the influential Greensboro sit-ins (1960) in North Carolina, marches such as the Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) in Alabama, and other nonviolent activities. Noted legislative achievements during this phase of

10148-443: The inheritors of what is undoubtedly one of the most challenging, and threatening set of social circumstances that has ever fallen upon a generation of young people in history." Everyone learns differently and teaching only one way is a cause for students to not want to learn, which eventually leads to dropping out. All students have their specialties, but teachers don't use that to help them in their learning community. Instead, they use

10266-471: The introduction of the Renault 16 , many of this car's design principles live on in its modern counterparts: a large rear opening incorporating the rear window, foldable rear seats to extend boot space. The Mini , released in 1959, had first popularised the front wheel drive two-box configuration, but technically was not a hatchback as it had a fold-down bootlid. Japanese cars also began to gain acceptance in

10384-543: The level of inclusion of Afro-Costa Ricans in Costa Rica . Christopher H. Lutz authored, Santiago de Guatemala, 1541–1773 , which is considered to be one of the foundational literatures of Afro-Guatemalan studies. Due to a history of scarce resources and anti-black racism, Afro-Hondurans have largely been excluded from academic publications about Honduras ; consequently, Afro-Honduran studies has remained limited in its formal development. In March 1980, along with

10502-420: The levels of the early 1960s. Large riots broke out in many cities like Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, New York City, Newark, New Jersey , Oakland, California and Washington, D.C. By the end of the decade, politicians like George Wallace and Richard Nixon campaigned on restoring law and order to a nation troubled with the new unrest. The Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union dominated

10620-563: The marginalization of the African phenomena that are the subjects of study and even the field of African American studies at-large. Consequently, matters of development of theory as well as the development of historical and African consciousness frequently go overlooked. As the focus of African American studies is the study of the African diaspora and Africa, including the problems of the African diaspora and Africa, Conyers claims that this makes

10738-417: The meta-paradigm for Black studies and that the new name for Black studies should be Africology; this is intended to shift Black studies away from having a "topical definition" of studying African peoples, which is shared with other disciplines, toward having a "perspectival definition" that is unique in how African peoples are studied – that is, the study of African peoples, through a centered perspective, which

10856-460: The middle of a social revolution, led the world in LGBT rights in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Inspired by the civil-rights movement and the women's movement, early gay-rights pioneers had begun, by the 1960s, to build a movement. These groups were rather conservative in their practices, emphasizing that gay men and women are no different from those who are straight and deserve full equality. This philosophy would be dominant again after AIDS, but by

10974-494: The movement of resistance to conscription ("the Draft") for the war. The antiwar movement was initially based on the older 1950s Peace movement , heavily influenced by the American Communist Party , but by the mid-1960s it outgrew this and became a broad-based mass movement centered in universities and churches: one kind of protest was called a " sit-in ". Other terms heard in the United States included "

11092-403: The new leader by training Cuban exiles and invading the island of Cuba . This led to Cuba to ally itself to the Soviet Union, a hostile enemy to the United States, resulting in an international crisis when Cuba hosted Soviet ballistic missiles similar to Turkey hosting American missiles, which brought the possibility of causing World War III . However, after negotiations between the U.S. and

11210-438: The opposition to the War in Vietnam. The 1960s left also consisted of ephemeral campus-based Trotskyist , Maoist and anarchist groups, some of which by the end of the 1960s had turned to militancy . The 1960s was also associated with a large increase in crime and urban unrest of all types. Between 1960 and 1969 reported incidence of violent crime per 100,000 people in the United States nearly doubled and have yet to return to

11328-726: The phase of the movement between 1955 and 1968, particularly in the South. The emergence of the Black Power movement , which lasted roughly from 1966 to 1975, enlarged the aims of the civil rights movement to include racial dignity, economic and political self-sufficiency , and anti-imperialism . The movement was characterized by major campaigns of civil resistance . Between 1955 and 1968, acts of civil disobedience and nonviolent protest produced crisis situations between activists and government authorities. Federal, state, and local governments, businesses, and communities often had to respond immediately to these situations that highlighted

11446-566: The program became the Department of African American Studies , offering degrees within the College of Arts and Sciences. Unlike the other stages, Black studies grew out of mass rebellions of black college students and faculty in search of a scholarship of change. The fourth stage, the new name "Africana studies" involved a theoretical elaboration of the discipline of Black studies according to African cultural reclamation and disparate tenets in

11564-681: The second half of the 1960s, its most famous moments being the Summer of Love in San Francisco in 1967, and the Woodstock Festival in upstate New York in 1969. Psychedelic drugs , especially LSD , were widely used medicinally, spiritually and recreationally throughout the late 1960s, and were popularized by Timothy Leary with his slogan " Turn on, tune in, drop out ". Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters also played

11682-399: The second half of the decade, young people began to revolt against the conservative norms of the old time, as well as remove themselves from mainstream liberalism, in particular the high level of materialism which was so common during the era. This created a "counterculture" that sparked a social revolution throughout much of the Western world. It began in the United States as a reaction against

11800-419: The streets, marching and protesting, authoring books and debating to change social and political views that limited women. In 1963, with Betty Friedan 's book, The Feminine Mystique , the role of women in society, and in public and private life was questioned. By 1966, the movement was beginning to grow in size and power as women's group spread across the country and Friedan, along with other feminists, founded

11918-448: The theory of Afrocentricity increasingly relevant. The National Council for Black Studies has also recognized the problem of academics, who have been trained in fields such as education, economics, history, philosophy, political science, psychology, and sociology – fields outside of African American studies – and are committed to their disciplinary training, yet are not able to recognize the shortcomings of their training, as it relates to

12036-479: The three million Puerto Ricans residing in the 50 states. The main concentration of the population was in New York City. In the 1960s and the following 1970s, Hispanic-American culture was on the rebound like ethnic music, foods, culture and identity both became popular and assimilated into the American mainstream. Spanish-language television networks, radio stations and newspapers increased in presence across

12154-466: The traditional academic structures. Black studies departments, programs, and courses were also created in the United Kingdom , the Caribbean , Brazil , Canada , Colombia , Ecuador , and Venezuela . The academic discipline is known by various names. Mazama (2009) expounds: In the appendix to their recently published Handbook of Black Studies , Asante and Karenga note that "the naming of

12272-706: The twentieth century, Mexican Americans formed organizations to protect themselves from discrimination. One of those organizations, the League of United Latin American Citizens , was formed in 1929 and remains active today. The movement gained momentum after World War II when groups such as the American G.I. Forum , which was formed by returning Mexican American veterans, joined in the efforts by other civil rights organizations. Mexican-American civil-rights activists achieved several major legal victories including

12390-440: The university instituted its Educational Opportunity Program (EOP), facilitated the increased minority student enrollment, and offered financial aid to minority students with high potential. By 1970, there were 1,400 EOP students. As the minority student population increased, tension between activists clubs and minorities rose because minorities wanted the reigns of the movement that affected them directly. One student asserted that it

12508-490: The very end of the 1960s, the movement's goals would change and become more radical, demanding a right to be different, and encouraging gay pride . The symbolic birth of the gay rights movement would not come until the decade had almost come to a close. Gays were not allowed by law to congregate. Gay establishments such as the Stonewall Inn in New York City were routinely raided by the police to arrest gay people. On

12626-419: The work this way: The question of the suppression of the slave-trade is so intimately connected with the questions as to its rise, the system of American slavery, and the whole colonial policy of the eighteenth century, that it is difficult to isolate it, and at the same time to avoid superficiality on the one hand, and unscientific narrowness of view on the other. While I could not hope entirely to overcome such

12744-490: The world's geopolitics during the decade. Construction of the Berlin Wall by East Germany began in 1961. Africa was in a period of radical political change as 32 countries gained independence from their European colonial rulers . The heavy-handed American role in the Vietnam War lead to an anti-Vietnam War movement with outraged student protestors around the globe culminating in the protests of 1968 . China saw

12862-664: Was "backward to educate white people about Black Power when many black people are still uneducated on the matter. "The members of the Afro-American Student Union (AASU) proposed an academic department called "Black Studies" in April 1968. "We demand a program of 'Black Studies', a program that will be of and for black people. We demand to be educated realistically and that no form of education which attempts to lie to us, or otherwise mis-educate us will be accepted." AASU members asserted: "The young people of America are

12980-428: Was a student, but he refused to do so and was, therefore, arrested. In support of Weinberg, 3,000 students surrounded the police vehicle, and even used the car as a podium, from where they spoke about their right to engage in political protest on campus. This impromptu demonstration was the first of many protests, culminating in the institutionalization of Black studies. Two months later, students at UC Berkeley organized

13098-546: Was also created near San Juan de Lurigancho , Lima , Peru . Additionally, there has been some scholarship in Afro-Peruvian studies developed in the United States and a panel on Afro-Peruvian studies at a conference hosted on December 11, 2019, by the Hutchins Center for African and African American Research in the United States. Since 1996, the amount of scholarship of Afro-Uruguayan studies has increased as

13216-410: Was an emerging idealism of the 1960s. A second wave of feminism in the United States and around the world gained momentum in the early 1960s. While the first wave of the early 20th century was centered on gaining suffrage and overturning de jure inequalities, the second wave was focused on changing cultural and social norms and de facto inequalities associated with women. At the time, a woman's place

13334-619: Was generally seen as being in the home, and they were excluded from many jobs and professions. In the U.S., a Presidential Commission on the Status of Women found discrimination against women in the workplace and every other aspect of life, a revelation which launched two decades of prominent women-centered legal reforms (i.e., the Equal Pay Act of 1963 , Title IX , etc.) which broke down the last remaining legal barriers to women's personal freedom and professional success. Feminists took to

13452-583: Was given to Afro-Ecuadorian Etnoeducación. Juan Garcia, who was one of the founders of the Center of Afro-Ecuadorian Studies, is a leading scholar in Afro-Ecuadorian studies and has contributed considerably to the development of the programs in Chota Valley and Quito. In 1971, Carvalho Neto authored, Afro-Paraguayan studies . While the presence of Afro-Peruvian studies may not be strong in Peru,

13570-695: Was named after James Robinson Johnston , was created at Dalhousie University for the purpose of advancing the development and presence of Black studies in Canada . Aleksandr Sergeevich Pushkin was studied by the Black Canadian Studies chairman, John Barnstead. Through development of the publication, The black population in Mexico (1946), Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán made way for the development of Afro-Mexican studies. The development of Africana studies, as outlined by Robert Harris Jr., underscores

13688-436: Was named the first chair of the degree granting, Program in African and Afro-American Studies at Stanford University . Many Black studies programs and departments and programs around the nation were created in subsequent years. At University of California, Santa Barbara , similarly, student activism led to the establishment of a Black studies department, amidst great targeting and discrimination of student leaders of color on

13806-476: Was recruited from graduate school at Northwestern on the heels of the student rebellions of 1969, first used the term to describe a global approach to Black studies and name the " Africana Studies and Research Center " at Cornell , where he acted as the founding director. Studia Africana , subtitled "An International Journal of Africana Studies", was published by the Department for African American Studies at

13924-578: Was viewed as traditional and inconsequential was now becoming the significance in the turning point of a culture. A document known as the Port Huron Statement exemplifies these two conditions perfectly in its first hand depiction, "while these and other problems either directly oppressed us or rankled our consciences and became our own subjective concerns, we began to see complicated and disturbing paradoxes in our surrounding America. The declaration "all men are created equal..." rang hollow before

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