131-475: Afro-Haitians or Black Haitians ( French : Afro-Haïtiens, Haïtiens Noirs ; Haitian Creole : Afro-Ayisyen, Ayisyen Nwa ) are Haitians who trace their full or partial ancestry to Sub-Saharan Africa . They form the largest racial group in Haiti and together with other Afro-Caribbean groups, the largest racial group in the region. The majority of Afro-Haitians are descendants of enslaved Africans brought to
262-744: A French official to teachers in the department of Finistère , in western Brittany, included the following: "And remember, Gents: you were given your position in order to kill the Breton language". The prefect of Basses-Pyrénées in the French Basque Country wrote in 1846: "Our schools in the Basque Country are particularly meant to replace the Basque language with French..." Students were taught that their ancestral languages were inferior and they should be ashamed of them; this process
393-525: A brand of African socialism. After the breakup of the Mali Federation, Senghor and Prime Minister Mamadou Dia governed together under a parliamentary system. In December 1962, their political rivalry led to an attempted coup by Dia. The coup was put down without bloodshed and Dia was arrested and imprisoned. Senegal adopted a new constitution that consolidated the President's power. Senghor
524-431: A comprehensive academic study entitled "The World's 10 most influential languages". In the article, Weber ranked French as, after English, the second-most influential language of the world, ahead of Spanish. His criteria were the numbers of native speakers, the number of secondary speakers (especially high for French among fellow world languages), the number of countries using the language and their respective populations,
655-608: A country occupying a narrow sliver of land along the banks of the Gambia River , which separates Senegal's southern region of Casamance from the rest of the country. It also shares a maritime border with Cape Verde . Senegal's economic and political capital is Dakar . Senegal is the westernmost country in the mainland of the Old World , or Afro-Eurasia . It owes its name to the Senegal River , which borders it to
786-555: A foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050. French is the fastest growing language on the continent (in terms of either official or foreign languages). French is increasingly being spoken as a native language in Francophone Africa, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and
917-779: A liberal party (the Senegalese Democratic Party ). The 1960s and early 1970s saw the continued and persistent violating of Senegal's borders by the Portuguese military from Portuguese Guinea . In response, Senegal petitioned the United Nations Security Council in 1963 , 1965 , 1969 (in response to shelling by Portuguese artillery), 1971 and finally in 1972 . In 1980, Senghor decided to retire from politics. The next year, he transferred power in 1981 to his hand-picked successor, Abdou Diouf . Former prime minister Mamadou Dia , who
1048-482: A peace treaty with the separatist group in the Casamance region. This, however, has yet to be implemented. There was a round of talks in 2005, but the results have not yet yielded a resolution. In March 2012, the incumbent president Abdoulaye Wade lost the presidential election and Macky Sall was elected as the new President of Senegal. President Macky Sall was re-elected in 2019 elections . The presidential term
1179-705: A period of prosperity and prominence among European nations. Richelieu established the Académie française to protect the French language. By the early 1800s, Parisian French had become the primary language of the aristocracy in France. Near the beginning of the 19th century, the French government began to pursue policies with the end goal of eradicating the many minorities and regional languages ( patois ) spoken in France. This began in 1794 with Henri Grégoire 's "Report on
1310-474: A relatively low ranking on the Human Development Index (170th out of 191). Most of the population lives on the coast and works in agriculture or other food industries ; other major industries include mining, tourism, and services. The country does not have notable natural resources, but the basis of its development lies in education, where almost half the state's budget is spent. Senegal
1441-494: A relic of the old nominal case system of Latin longer than most other Romance languages (with the notable exception of Romanian which still currently maintains a case distinction), differentiating between an oblique case and a nominative case. The phonology was characterized by heavy syllabic stress, which led to the emergence of various complicated diphthongs such as -eau which would later be leveled to monophthongs. The earliest evidence of what became Old French can be seen in
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#17327796320241572-587: A second language. French is the second most taught foreign language in the EU. All institutions of the EU use French as a working language along with English and German ; in some institutions, French is the sole working language (e.g. at the Court of Justice of the European Union ). French is also the 16th most natively spoken language in the world, the sixth most spoken language by total number of speakers , and
1703-526: A second language. However it has also become a native language in a number of urban areas, especially in regions like Ivory Coast , Cameroon , Gabon, Madagascar , and the Democratic Republic of the Congo . In some North African countries, though not having official status, it is also a first language among some upper classes of the population alongside indigenous languages, but only
1834-941: A second one among the general population. In 2015, approximately 40% of the Francophone population (including L2 and partial speakers) lived in Europe, 36% in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian Ocean, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas, and 1% in Asia and Oceania. French is the second most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union . Of Europeans who speak other languages natively, approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as
1965-547: A variant of Canadian French , is spoken in parts of New England . Missouri French was historically spoken in Missouri and Illinois (formerly known as Upper Louisiana ), but is nearly extinct today. French also survived in isolated pockets along the Gulf Coast of what was previously French Lower Louisiana , such as Mon Louis Island , Alabama and DeLisle, Mississippi (the latter only being discovered by linguists in
2096-814: A violent separatist movement in the southern region of the Casamance. Nevertheless, Senegal's commitment to democracy and human rights strengthened. Abdou Diouf served four terms as president. During the Gulf War , over 500 Senegalese participated in the Battle of Khafji and the unexpected Liberation of Kuwait campaign , under the command of the U.S.-led coalition. In the presidential election of 1999, opposition leader Abdoulaye Wade defeated Diouf in an election deemed free and fair by international observers. Senegal experienced its second peaceful transition of power , and its first from one political party to another. On 30 December 2004 President Wade announced that he would sign
2227-476: Is Aïssata Tall Sall . She took office in November 2020. Historically, Senegal has been close to France, its former colonizer, but this had caused a great amount of tension with the people and was one of the reasons why former President Macky Sall lost support. Senegalese often complained that Sall was consistently giving French companies priority contracts to extract Senegal's natural resources rather than giving
2358-415: Is twoubadou , a musical style that has endured to this day. Currently the music heard in Haiti's Compas genre is a little softer than the merengue , and combines Congo rhythms with European and Caribbean influences. Konpa is the most current version of this rhythm. French language French ( français [fʁɑ̃sɛ] or langue française [lɑ̃ɡ fʁɑ̃sɛːz] )
2489-437: Is 95%, and in the French collectivity of Wallis and Futuna , it is 84%. In French Polynesia and to a lesser extent Wallis and Futuna, where oral and written knowledge of the French language has become almost universal (95% and 84% respectively), French increasingly tends to displace the native Polynesian languages as the language most spoken at home. In French Polynesia, the percentage of the population who reported that French
2620-779: Is a Romance language of the Indo-European family . Like all other Romance languages, it descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire . French evolved from Gallo-Romance , the Latin spoken in Gaul , and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues d'oïl —languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French ( Francien ) largely supplanted. French
2751-778: Is a member state of the African Union , the United Nations, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation , and the Community of Sahel–Saharan States . In the world of motor sports , Senegal is known for the Paris–Dakar Rally . The country of Senegal is named after the Senegal River . The name of
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#17327796320242882-472: Is a widespread second language among the Lebanese people , and is taught in many schools along with Arabic and English. French is used on Lebanese pound banknotes, on road signs, on Lebanese license plates , and on official buildings (alongside Arabic). Today, French and English are secondary languages of Lebanon , with about 40% of the population being Francophone and 40% Anglophone. The use of English
3013-489: Is also a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the Red Cross (alongside English, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic and Russian), Amnesty International (alongside 32 other languages of which English is the most used, followed by Spanish, Portuguese, German, and Italian), Médecins sans Frontières (used alongside English, Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic), and Médecins du Monde (used alongside English). Given
3144-430: Is among the top five most studied languages worldwide, with about 120 million learners as of 2017. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 16th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. French has a long history as an international language of literature and scientific standards and is a primary or second language of many international organisations including
3275-462: Is an official language in 27 countries , as well as one of the most geographically widespread languages in the world, with about 50 countries and territories having it as a de jure or de facto official, administrative, or cultural language. Most of these countries are members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), the community of 54 member states which share
3406-402: Is concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys. Haiti's population was about 11 million according to UN 2018 estimates, with half of the population being under 20 years old. The first formal census, taken in 1950, showed a population of 3.1 million. According to The World Factbook , 95% of Haitians are primarily of African descent; the remaining 5% of
3537-400: Is done in the style of Western Africa . Popular literature retains fables and other forms that are expressed in the vernacular. Economic activities are typical of Western culture and clothing tends to be European, but the scarf worn by women over the head is typical of clothing worn throughout West Africa. Two languages are spoken in Haiti. French is taught in schools and known by about 42% of
3668-652: Is enacted only in New Brunswick, where about one third of the population is Francophone. French is also an official language of all of the territories ( Northwest Territories , Nunavut , and Yukon ). Out of the three, Yukon has the most French speakers, making up just under 4% of the population. Furthermore, while French is not an official language in Ontario , the French Language Services Act ensures that provincial services are available in
3799-503: Is growing in the business and media environment. Out of about 900,000 students, about 500,000 are enrolled in Francophone schools, public or private, in which the teaching of mathematics and scientific subjects is provided in French. Actual usage of French varies depending on the region and social status. One-third of high school students educated in French go on to pursue higher education in English-speaking institutions. English
3930-404: Is known as Old French. The period of Old French spanned between the 8th and 14th centuries. Old French shared many characteristics with Latin. For example, Old French made use of different possible word orders just as Latin did because it had a case system that retained the difference between nominative subjects and oblique non-subjects . The period is marked by a heavy superstrate influence from
4061-469: Is often considered to be a useful skill by business owners in the United Kingdom; a 2014 study found that 50% of British managers considered French to be a valuable asset for their business, thus ranking French as the most sought-after foreign language there, ahead of German (49%) and Spanish (44%). MIT economist Albert Saiz calculated a 2.3% premium for those who have French as a foreign language in
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4192-828: Is one of the official languages of such major international and regional courts, tribunals, and dispute-settlement bodies as the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights , the Caribbean Court of Justice , the Court of Justice for the Economic Community of West African States , the Inter-American Court of Human Rights , the International Court of Justice , the International Criminal Tribunal for
4323-512: Is taught in universities around the world, and is one of the world's most influential languages because of its wide use in the worlds of journalism, jurisprudence , education, and diplomacy. In diplomacy, French is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (and one of the UN Secretariat 's only two working languages ), one of twenty official and three procedural languages of the European Union , an official language of NATO ,
4454-553: Is the language of business and communication, with French being an element of social distinction, chosen for its emotional value. French is an official language of the Pacific Island nation of Vanuatu , where 31% of the population was estimated to speak it in 2023. In the French special collectivity of New Caledonia , 97% of the population can speak, read and write French while in French Polynesia this figure
4585-484: Is the most widely spoken one, with 80% of the population speaking it as a first or second language, acting as Senegal's lingua franca alongside French. Like other African nations, the country includes a wide mix of ethnic and linguistic communities , with the largest being the Wolof , Fula , and Serer people . Senegalese people are predominantly Muslim . Senegal is classified as a heavily indebted poor country , with
4716-483: Is the native language of about 23% of the Swiss population, and is spoken by 50% of the population. Along with Luxembourgish and German, French is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg , where it is generally the preferred language of business as well as of the different public administrations. It is also the official language of Monaco . At a regional level, French is acknowledged as an official language in
4847-492: Is the second-most spoken language (after English) in the states of Maine and New Hampshire . In Louisiana , it is tied with Spanish for second-most spoken if Louisiana French and all creoles such as Haitian are included. French is the third most spoken language (after English and Spanish) in the states of Connecticut , Rhode Island , and New Hampshire . Louisiana is home to many distinct French dialects, collectively known as Louisiana French . New England French , essentially
4978-424: Is the sole official language in the province of Quebec , where some 80% of the population speak it as a native language and 95% are capable of conducting a conversation in it. Quebec is also home to the city of Montreal , which is the world's fourth-largest French-speaking city, by number of first language speakers. New Brunswick and Manitoba are the only officially bilingual provinces, though full bilingualism
5109-796: The Almoravid dynasty of the Maghreb , who in turn propagated it with the help of the Almoravids and Toucouleur allies. This movement faced resistance from ethnicities of traditional religions, the Serers in particular. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the area came under the influence of the empires to the east; the Jolof Empire of Senegal was also founded during this time. In the Senegambia region, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of
5240-764: The Aosta Valley region of Italy where it is the first language of approximately 50% of the population, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands . It is also spoken in Andorra and is the main language after Catalan in El Pas de la Casa . The language is taught as the primary second language in the German state of Saarland , with French being taught from pre-school and over 43% of citizens being able to speak French. The majority of
5371-462: The Aosta Valley region of Italy; and various communities elsewhere. French is estimated to have about 310 million speakers, of which about 80 million are native speakers. According to the OIF, approximately 321 million people worldwide are "able to speak the language" as of 2022, without specifying the criteria for this estimation or whom it encompasses. In Francophone Africa, it is spoken mainly as
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5502-643: The Casamance conflict . The 2012 presidential election was controversial due to President Wade's candidacy, as the opposition argued he should not be considered eligible to run again. Several youth opposition movements, including M23 and Y'en a Marre , emerged in June 2011. In the end, Macky Sall of the Alliance for the Republic won, and Wade conceded the election to Sall. This peaceful and democratic transition
5633-579: The Casamance conflict . In the early 21st century, violence has subsided and President Macky Sall held talks with rebels in Rome in December 2012. Abdou Diouf was president between 1981 and 2000. He encouraged broader political participation, reduced government involvement in the economy, and widened Senegal's diplomatic engagements, particularly with other developing nations. Domestic politics on occasion spilled over into street violence, border tensions, and
5764-693: The Community of Sahel–Saharan States . Senegal is the 84th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index . The Armed Forces of Senegal consist of about 17,000 personnel in the army, air force , navy, and gendarmerie. The Senegalese military receives most of its training, equipment, and support from France and the United States, and to a lesser extent Germany. Military noninterference in political affairs has contributed to Senegal's stability since independence. Senegal has participated in many international and regional peacekeeping missions. Most recently, in 2000, Senegal sent
5895-615: The Congo of Central Africa and many African nations are represented in the liturgy of Sèvis Lwa. A generally ignored but significant element is that of the Taino people , the indigenous people of Hispaniola . The Tainos were influential in the belief system of Haitian Vodou, especially in the Petro cult, a religious group with no counterpart on the African continent. Characterized by the worship of
6026-539: The Democratic Republic of Congo . There is not a single African French , but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages . Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth. It is also where the language has evolved the most in recent years. Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries, but written forms of
6157-485: The European Union , French was the dominant language within all institutions until the 1990s. After several enlargements of the EU (1995, 2004), French significantly lost ground in favour of English, which is more widely spoken and taught in most EU countries. French currently remains one of the three working languages, or "procedural languages", of the EU, along with English and German. It is the second-most widely used language within EU institutions after English, but remains
6288-559: The Francien dialect is one that not only continued but also thrived during the Middle French period (14th–17th centuries). Modern French grew out of this Francien dialect. Grammatically, during the period of Middle French, noun declensions were lost and there began to be standardized rules. Robert Estienne published the first Latin-French dictionary, which included information about phonetics, etymology, and grammar. Politically,
6419-707: The French Sudan merged to form the Mali Federation , which became fully independent on 20 June 1960, as a result of a transfer of power agreement signed with France on 4 April 1960. Due to internal political difficulties, the Federation broke up on 20 August 1960 when Senegal and French Sudan (renamed the Republic of Mali ) each proclaimed independence. Léopold Sédar Senghor was elected Senegal's first president in August 1960. Pro-African, Senghor advocated
6550-817: The International Olympic Committee , the Council of Europe , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , Organization of American States (alongside Spanish, Portuguese and English), the Eurovision Song Contest , one of eighteen official languages of the European Space Agency , World Trade Organization and the least used of the three official languages in the North American Free Trade Agreement countries. It
6681-404: The Niger Delta , retained traditions of having an eastern origin. Senegal joined with The Gambia to form the nominal Senegambia Confederation on 1 February 1982. However, the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peace talks, a southern separatist group ( Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance or MFDC) in the Casamance region has clashed sporadically with government forces since 1982 in
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#17327796320246812-420: The Oaths of Strasbourg and the Sequence of Saint Eulalia , while Old French literature began to be produced in the eleventh century, with major early works often focusing on the lives of saints (such as the Vie de Saint Alexis ), or wars and royal courts, notably including the Chanson de Roland , epic cycles focused on King Arthur and his court , as well as a cycle focused on William of Orange . It
6943-520: The United Nations , the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the World Trade Organization , the International Olympic Committee , the General Conference on Weights and Measures , and the International Committee of the Red Cross . French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended primarily from Vulgar Latin ) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in northern France. The language's early forms include Old French and Middle French . Due to Roman rule, Latin
7074-409: The United States . Between February and 22 April 1804, Dessalines did not trust the remaining white population and he ordered squads of black and mulatto soldiers to move from house to house throughout Haiti, torturing and killing entire white families. Between 3,000 and 5,000 white people were killed. He declared Haiti to become all-black nation and forbade whites from owning property or land there. It
7205-480: The loa , the sect has influences from Native American folklore zemis . The entire northern area of Haiti is influenced by the practices of the Congo. In the north, these are often called Rites Congo or Lemba. In the south, the Congo influence is called Petwo (Petro). Many loa are of Congolese origin, such as Basimbi and Lemba. Polygyny persists alongside Catholic marriages. The dances and some forms of recreation tie in with African activities. The preparation of beans
7336-541: The 1600s, two hundred years after the first slaves were bought from Africa by Spain and France to produce sugar, coffee, cacao, indigo, and cotton. France had many colonies in the Caribbean including Martinique in which slavery supported a plantation economy that produced sugar, coffee, and cotton. The most important was Saint Domingue, which had 500,000 slaves, in which 32,000 were whites, and 28,000 free blacks (which included both blacks and mulattos). Some free blacks owned slaves in Haiti. The slave system in Saint-Domingue
7467-455: The 1990s) but these varieties are severely endangered or presumed extinct. French is one of two official languages in Haiti alongside Haitian Creole . It is the principal language of education, administration, business, and public signage and is spoken by all educated Haitians. It is also used for ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations, and church masses. The vast majority of the population speaks Haitian Creole as their first language;
7598-414: The 19th century. It was only in the 1850s that the French began to expand onto the Senegalese mainland, after they abolished slavery and began promoting an abolitionist doctrine, adding native kingdoms like the Waalo, Cayor, Baol, and Jolof. French colonists under Governor Louis Faidherbe progressively invaded and took over all the kingdoms, except the Serer Kingdoms of Sine and Saloum . Yoro Dyao
7729-408: The 2023 V-Dem Democracy Indices , Senegal is ranked 52nd in electoral democracy worldwide and 4th in electoral democracy in Africa . The state was formed as part of the independence of French West Africa from French colonial rule . Because of this history, French is the official language, but it is understood by only a minority of the population. Over 30 languages are spoken in Senegal. Wolof
7860-474: The 20th century, when it was replaced by English as the United States became the dominant global power following the Second World War . Stanley Meisler of the Los Angeles Times said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language. During the Grand Siècle (17th century), France, under the rule of powerful leaders such as Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV , enjoyed
7991-510: The Canadian capital, is also effectively bilingual, as it has a large population of federal government workers, who are required to offer services in both French and English, and is just across the river from the Quebecois city of Gatineau . According to the United States Census Bureau (2011), French is the fourth most spoken language in the United States after English, Spanish, and Chinese, when all forms of French are considered together and all dialects of Chinese are similarly combined. French
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#17327796320248122-614: The Caribbean that are collectively referred to as the French West Indies , namely Guadeloupe , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Martin , and Martinique . French is the official language of both French Guiana on the South American continent, and of Saint Pierre and Miquelon , an archipelago off the coast of Newfoundland in North America. French was the official language of the colony of French Indochina , comprising modern-day Vietnam , Laos , and Cambodia . It continues to be an administrative language in Laos and Cambodia, although its influence has waned in recent decades. In colonial Vietnam,
8253-408: The Empire, this local elite had been slowly abandoning Gaulish entirely, but the rural and lower class populations remained Gaulish speakers who could sometimes also speak Latin or Greek. The final language shift from Gaulish to Vulgar Latin among rural and lower class populations occurred later, when both they and the incoming Frankish ruler/military class adopted the Gallo-Roman Vulgar Latin speech of
8384-402: The French in 1697 and renamed the western portion of the island as Saint-Domingue , of what will later become known as Haiti , while the other still maintained their Spanish colony in the eastern two thirds of what later became the Dominican Republic. French buccaneers started settling the abandoned area until the French crown claimed that part of the island. The French imported African slaves in
8515-449: The French. Toussaint, who was a French general and had an ambiguous policy towards France and other black slaves (he was a slave-owner himself), was treacherously captured by the order of Napoleon and died in France in 1803, leaving Dessalines to defeat the French for the final time at the Battle of Vertières on 18 November. On 1 January 1804, the former French colony of Saint-Domingue with its overwhelmingly African population as well as
8646-409: The G2 variant occurs at a 3%-8% rate among populations of western Central African ancestry and origin. Culture, religion and social organization are the result in Haiti of a process of syncretism between French and African traditions, mainly Dahomey-Nigerian. A small minority cultural practice in Haiti is Haitian Vodou . This probably originated in Benin, although there are strong elements added from
8777-416: The Germanic Frankish language , which non-exhaustively included the use in upper-class speech and higher registers of V2 word order , a large percentage of the vocabulary (now at around 15% of modern French vocabulary ) including the impersonal singular pronoun on (a calque of Germanic man ), and the name of the language itself. Up until its later stages, Old French , alongside Old Occitan , maintained
8908-408: The Netherlands, and Great Britain—competed for trade in the area from the 15th century onward. In 1677, France gained control of what had become a minor departure point in the Atlantic slave trade : the island of Gorée next to modern Dakar, used as a base to purchase slaves from the warring chiefdoms on the mainland. European missionaries introduced Christianity to Senegal and the Casamance in
9039-433: The Northern African countries were added to the index in 2009, Senegal's 2008 position was retroactively downgraded to 15th place (with Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco placing ahead of Senegal). As of 2012 , Senegal's Ibrahim Index rank has declined another point to 16th of 52 African countries. On 22 February 2011, Senegal severed diplomatic ties with Iran , saying it supplied rebels with weapons which killed Senegalese troops in
9170-421: The Senegal's presidential election over candidate of the ruling coalition, becoming the youngest president in Senegal's history. Senegal is a republic with a presidency; the president is elected every five years as of 2016, previously being seven years from independence to 2001, five years from 2001 to 2008, and seven years again from 2008 to 2016, by adult voters. The first president, Léopold Sédar Senghor ,
9301-471: The War of the Knives in Haiti, many of the blacks in Haiti were African-born and had no non-African admixture. This was because the average African slave in colonial Haiti had a short life span and France continuously imported thousands of Africans yearly to keep the slave population up, by 1790 there were nearly 600,000 slaves, outnumbering whites about 20 to 1. Although Haiti averages approximately 250 people per square kilometre (650 per sq mi.), its population
9432-502: The agreement to convene a World Constituent Assembly. Senegal is subdivided into 14 regions, each administered by a Conseil Régional (Regional Council) elected by population weight at the Arrondissement level. The country is further subdivided by 45 Départements , 113 Arrondissements (neither of which have administrative function) and by Collectivités Locales , which elect administrative officers. Regional capitals have
9563-525: The area indicate that Senegal was inhabited in prehistoric times and has been continuously occupied by various ethnic groups. Some kingdoms were created around the seventh century: Takrur in the sixth century, Namandiru and the Jolof Empire during the 13th and 14th centuries. Eastern Senegal was once part of the Ghana Empire . Islam was introduced through Toucouleur and Soninke contact with
9694-453: The contracts to whoever offered Senegal the best deal. They also believed France was pushing Macky Sall to run for an unconstitutional third term. After debating whether to run a third time for months, Sall did not. Senegal enjoys mostly cordial relations with its neighbors. In spite of clear progress on other issues with Mauritania (border security, resource management, economic integration, etc.), an estimated 35,000 Mauritanian refugees (of
9825-708: The country near French-speaking Quebec, however, it is the foreign language more commonly taught. Vowel phonemes in French Senegal Senegal , officially the Republic of Senegal , is the westernmost country in West Africa , situated on the Atlantic Ocean coastline. It borders Mauritania to the north , Mali to the east , Guinea to the southeast and Guinea-Bissau to the southwest . Senegal nearly surrounds The Gambia ,
9956-519: The demographic prospects of the French-speaking nations of Africa, researcher Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry wrote in 2014 that French "could be the language of the future". However, some African countries such as Algeria intermittently attempted to eradicate the use of French, and as of 2024 it was removed as an official language in Mali and Burkina Faso . Significant as a judicial language, French
10087-403: The east and north. The climate is typically Sahelian , though there is a rainy season . Senegal covers a land area of almost 197,000 square kilometres (76,000 sq mi) and has a population of around 18 million. The state is a unitary presidential republic ; since the country's foundation in 1960, it has been recognized as one of the most stable countries on the African continent. On
10218-448: The economic power of the countries using the language, the number of major areas in which the language is used, and the linguistic prestige associated with the mastery of the language (Weber highlighted that French in particular enjoys considerable linguistic prestige). In a 2008 reassessment of his article, Weber concluded that his findings were still correct since "the situation among the top ten remains unchanged." Knowledge of French
10349-648: The eighteenth century). Haitian culture is very tied to West African culture, especially that of pre-colonialism Benin, Haitian Vodou mostly has origins from the original West African Vodun of Benin and the French-based Haitian Creole language has influences from several African languages including the Fon language . At the time of the Haitian Revolution , an event that involved the massacre of many whites (mostly French) and mulattoes in
10480-594: The elites primarily spoke French, while many servants who worked in French households spoke a French pidgin known as " Tây Bồi " (now extinct). After French rule ended, South Vietnam continued to use French in administration, education, and trade. However, since the Fall of Saigon and the opening of a unified Vietnam's economy, French has gradually been effectively displaced as the first foreign language of choice by English in Vietnam. Nevertheless, it continues to be taught as
10611-476: The estimated 40,000 who were expelled from their home country in 1989) remain in Senegal. Morocco–Senegal relations have also been courteous, as the new Bassirou Diomaye Faye invited the king of Morocco on his swearing ceremony in 2024. Senegal is well integrated with the main bodies of the international community, including the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the African Union (AU), and
10742-473: The executive. By 2014, it had recovered its Free status. In 2008, Senegal finished in 12th position on the Ibrahim Index of African Governance . The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African governance (limited to sub-Saharan Africa until 2008), based on a number of different variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to their citizens. When
10873-539: The famed Lawrence of Arabia . French and British diplomacy in the area were thrown into disarray. The Battle of Dakar (September 23–25, 1940) was an unsuccessful attempt by the Allies to capture the strategic port and overthrow the pro-German Vichy French administration in the colony. On 25 November 1958, Senegal became an autonomous republic within the French Community . In January 1959, Senegal and
11004-500: The fifth democratically elected president. Senegal has more than 80 political parties. The unicameral parliament consists of the National Assembly , which has 150 seats (a Senate was in place from 1999 to 2001 and 2007 to 2012). An independent judiciary also exists in Senegal. The nation's highest courts that deal with business issues are the constitutional council and the court of justice, members of which are named by
11135-516: The first government authority to adopt Modern French as official was the Aosta Valley in 1536, while the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) named French the language of law in the Kingdom of France . During the 17th century, French replaced Latin as the most important language of diplomacy and international relations ( lingua franca ). It retained this role until approximately the middle of
11266-494: The first round. On 2 April 2024, his successor Bassirou Diomaye Faye was sworn in. Senegal has been one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution . As a result, in 1968, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth . Léopold Sédar Senghor , then president of Senegal signed
11397-620: The former Kongo kingdom ( Kongo ), Benin ( Ewe , Yoruba ) and Togoland . Many other people trace so much of their DNA from the native people. Others in Haiti were brought from Senegal, Guinea (imported by the Spanish since the sixteenth century and then by the French), Sierra Leone , Windward Coast , Angola , Cameroon , Nigeria , Ghana , Togo , and Southeast Africa (such as the Bara tribesmen of Madagascar , who were brought to Haiti in
11528-915: The former Yugoslavia , International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda , the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea the International Criminal Court and the World Trade Organization Appellate Body . It is the sole internal working language of the Court of Justice of the European Union , and makes with English the European Court of Human Rights 's two working languages. In 1997, George Weber published, in Language Today ,
11659-829: The gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish. The estimated number of French words that can be attributed to Gaulish is placed at 154 by the Petit Robert , which is often viewed as representing standardized French, while if non-standard dialects are included, the number increases to 240. Known Gaulish loans are skewed toward certain semantic fields, such as plant life ( chêne , bille , etc.), animals ( mouton , cheval , etc.), nature ( boue , etc.), domestic activities (ex. berceau ), farming and rural units of measure ( arpent , lieue , borne , boisseau ), weapons, and products traded regionally rather than further afield. This semantic distribution has been attributed to peasants being
11790-406: The island by Spain and France to work on plantations. Since the Haitian Revolution , Afro-Haitians have been the largest racial group in the country, accounting for 95% of the population in the early 21st century. The remaining 5% of the population is made up of mixed persons (mixed African and European descent) and other minor groups (European, Arab, and Asian descent). The Island of Hispaniola
11921-454: The language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world. French is the second most commonly spoken language in Canada and one of two federal official languages alongside English. As of the 2021 Canadian census , it was the native language of 7.7 million people (21% of the population) and the second language of 2.9 million (8% of the population). French
12052-479: The language, although it has now given way to Tamil and English. A former French mandate , Lebanon designates Arabic as the sole official language, while a special law regulates cases when French can be publicly used. Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used". The French language in Lebanon
12183-612: The language. The Act applies to areas of the province where there are significant Francophone communities, namely Eastern Ontario and Northern Ontario . Elsewhere, sizable French-speaking minorities are found in southern Manitoba, Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island and the Port au Port Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, where the unique Newfoundland French dialect was historically spoken. Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all other provinces. The Ontarian city of Ottawa ,
12314-479: The last to hold onto Gaulish. The beginning of French in Gaul was greatly influenced by Germanic invasions into the country. These invasions had the greatest impact on the northern part of the country and on the language there. A language divide began to grow across the country. The population in the north spoke langue d'oïl while the population in the south spoke langue d'oc . Langue d'oïl grew into what
12445-464: The mighty French colonial empire , where the French decided to take revenge against Sine following their humiliating defeat at the Battle of Djilor . The Battle of Logandème was the first battle on Senegambian soil where the French decided to employ cannonball. In 1915, over 300 Senegalese came under Australian command, ahead of the taking of Damascus by Australians, before the expected arrival of
12576-638: The mulatto and black leadership and renamed the island nation of Ayiti , meaning ( Land of High Mountains ) in the Taïno language. Haiti became the world's first and oldest black republic in the New World, the first country to abolish slavery, the first Caribbean nation and the first Latin American country as a whole in the Americas to win independence from France and the second republic in the modern era after
12707-420: The necessity and means to annihilate the patois and to universalize the use of the French language". When public education was made compulsory , only French was taught and the use of any other ( patois ) language was punished. The goals of the public school system were made especially clear to the French-speaking teachers sent to teach students in regions such as Occitania and Brittany . Instructions given by
12838-589: The official use or teaching of French. It is spoken as a first language (in descending order of the number of speakers) in France; Canada (especially in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and New Brunswick); Belgium ( Wallonia and the Brussels-Capital Region ); western Switzerland (specifically the cantons forming the Romandy region); parts of Luxembourg; parts of the United States (the states of Louisiana, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont); Monaco;
12969-534: The other main foreign language in the Vietnamese educational system and is regarded as a cultural language. All three countries are full members of La Francophonie (OIF). French was the official language of French India , consisting of the geographically separate enclaves referred to as Puducherry . It continued to be an official language of the territory even after its cession to India in 1956 until 1965. A small number of older locals still retain knowledge of
13100-536: The overseers and white plantation owners, they retreated further into the mountainous forests of Saint-Domingue. In 1791, as the French Revolution came to affect, Toussaint Louverture , Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henri Christophe all rose up against their plantation owners and overseers with a Voodoo ceremony that took place in Bois Caïman led by Boukman Dutty but was captured and executed by
13231-826: The population are mostly of mixed-race and European background, and a number of other ethnicities. Afro-Haitians, who were sampled in 2012, were found to have carried haplogroup E1b1a-M2 (63.4%), within which were more specific sub-haplogroups, such as haplogroups E1b1a7-M191 (26.8%) and E1b1a8-U175 (26%), and subgroups within those sub-haplogroups, such as E1b1a7a-U174 (26.8%) and E1b1a8a-P278 (13%); there were also various sub-haplogroups of haplogroup R1b (e.g., R1b1b1-M269 , R1b1b1a1b2-M529, R1b1b1a1b*-S116, R-M306, R1b2*-V88 ) as well as haplogroup R1a-M198 . The ancestry of Afro-Haitians, who were sampled in 2013, were found to be 84% African . Risk allele variants G1 and G2 are associated with chronic kidney disease , which are common among populations of Sub-Saharan African ancestry;
13362-404: The population was enslaved , typically as a result of being taken captive in warfare. In the 14th century the Jolof Empire grew more powerful, having united Cayor and the kingdoms of Baol , Siné , Saloum , Waalo , Futa Tooro and Bambouk , or much of present-day West Africa. The empire was a voluntary confederacy of various states rather than being built on military conquest. The empire
13493-493: The population, but spoken by a minority of black and biracial residents, in Port-au-Prince and other cities. Haitian Creole , with roots in French, Spanish, Taino. Portuguese, English and African languages, is a language with dialectal forms in different regions. It is spoken throughout the country, but is used extensively in rural areas. The music of Haiti is heavily influenced by the rhythms which came from Africa with
13624-471: The preferred language of certain institutions or administrations such as the Court of Justice of the European Union , where it is the sole internal working language, or the Directorate-General for Agriculture . Since 2016, Brexit has rekindled discussions on whether or not French should again hold greater role within the institutions of the European Union. A leading world language , French
13755-539: The president. Currently, Senegal has a quasi-democratic political culture, one of the more successful post-colonial democratic transitions in Africa. Local administrators are appointed and held accountable by the president. Marabouts , religious leaders of the various Muslim brotherhoods of Senegal , have also exercised a strong political influence in the country especially during Wade's presidency. In 2009, Freedom House downgraded Senegal's status from "Free" to "Partially Free", based on increased centralisation of power in
13886-471: The rest largely speak French as a first language. As a French Creole language , Haitian Creole draws the large majority of its vocabulary from French, with influences from West African languages, as well as several European languages. It is closely related to Louisiana Creole and the creole from the Lesser Antilles . French is the sole official language of all the overseas territories of France in
14017-612: The river may derive from a Portuguese transliteration of the name of the Zenaga , also known as the Sanhaja . Alternatively, it could be a combination of the supreme deity in Serer religion ( Rog Sene ) and o gal meaning body of water in the Serer language . French author and priest David Boilat put forward the theory that the name derives from the Wolof phrase "sunuu gaal", which means "our canoe". Archaeological findings throughout
14148-672: The same name as their respective regions: Senegal has a high profile in many international organizations and was a member of the UN Security Council in 1988–89 and 2015–2016. It was elected to the UN Commission on Human Rights in 1997. Friendly to the West, especially to the United States, Senegal has vigorously advocated for more assistance from developed countries to the Third World . The Foreign Minister of Senegal
14279-551: The slaves. Two of these rhythms come directly from the harbour and the Congo; a third rhythm, the "petro", developed on the island during the colonial era. All are part of the rhythms used in Vodou ceremonies. These rhythms have created a musical style, rasin , where percussion is the most important musical instrument, and despite being closely related to religion has become a popular kind of folk music. Another type of music, which arises spontaneously from people with hand-held instruments,
14410-466: The total number of French speakers will reach approximately 500 million in 2025 and 650 million by 2050, largely due to rapid population growth in sub-Saharan Africa . OIF estimates 700 million French speakers by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa. In a study published in March 2014 by Forbes , the investment bank Natixis said that French could become the world's most spoken language by 2050. In
14541-679: The two official languages—along with Dutch —of the Brussels-Capital Region , where it is spoken by the majority of the population (approx. 80%), often as their primary language. French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland, along with German, Italian, and Romansh , and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland, called Romandy , of which Geneva is the largest city. The language divisions in Switzerland do not coincide with political subdivisions, and some cantons have bilingual status: for example, cities such as Biel/Bienne and cantons such as Valais , Fribourg and Bern . French
14672-508: The urban intellectual elite. The Gaulish language likely survived into the sixth century in France despite considerable Romanization . Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French contributing loanwords and calques (including oui , the word for "yes"), sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence, and influences in conjugation and word order. Recent computational studies suggest that early gender shifts may have been motivated by
14803-485: The use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words. In Belgium, French is an official language at the federal level along with Dutch and German. At the regional level, French is the sole official language of Wallonia (excluding a part of the East Cantons , which are German-speaking ) and one of
14934-536: The workplace. In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese . In English-speaking Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, French is the first foreign language taught and in number of pupils is far ahead of other languages. In the United States, French is the second-most commonly taught foreign language in schools and universities, although well behind Spanish. In some areas of
15065-402: The world's French-speaking population lives in Africa. According to a 2023 estimate from the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie , an estimated 167 million African people spread across 35 countries and territories can speak French as either a first or a second language . This number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as
15196-513: Was Senghor's rival, ran for election in 1983 against Diouf, but lost. Senghor moved to France, where he died at the age of 95. In the 1980s, Boubacar Lam discovered Senegalese oral history that was initially compiled by the Tuculor noble, Yoro Dyâo , not long after World War I , which documented migrations into West Africa from the Nile Valley ; ethnic groups, from the Senegal River to
15327-513: Was a poet and writer, and was the first African elected to the Académie française . Senegal's second president, Abdou Diouf , later served as general secretary of the Organisation de la Francophonie . The third president was Abdoulaye Wade , a lawyer. The fourth president was Macky Sall , elected in March 2012 and reelected in February 2019 . On March 25, 2024, Bassirou Diomaye Faye became
15458-417: Was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the ( Germanic ) Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to the French colonial empire , there are numerous French-based creole languages , most notably Haitian Creole . A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French
15589-695: Was considerably more tolerant of opposition than most African leaders became in the 1960s. Nonetheless, political activity was somewhat restricted for a time. Senghor's party, the Senegalese Progressive Union (now the Socialist Party of Senegal ), was the only legally permitted party from 1965 until 1975. In the latter year, Senghor allowed the formation of two opposition parties that began operation in 1976—a Marxist party (the African Independence Party ) and
15720-462: Was considered quite harsh, with high levels of both mortality and violence. To supply the plantation system, French slaveholders imported around 800,000 Africans to the colony. During the mid to late 1700s, African slaves fled to remote mountainous to join the maroons, meaning 'escaped slave'. The maroons formed close-knit communities that practised small-scale agriculture and hunting. They were known to return to plantations to free family and friends from
15851-819: Was during the period of the Crusades in which French became so dominant in the Mediterranean Sea that became a lingua franca ("Frankish language"), and because of increased contact with the Arabs during the Crusades who referred to them as Franj , numerous Arabic loanwords entered French, such as amiral (admiral), alcool (alcohol), coton (cotton) and sirop (syrop), as well as scientific terms such as algébre (algebra), alchimie (alchemy) and zéro (zero). Within Old French many dialects emerged but
15982-407: Was founded by Ndiadiane Ndiaye, a part Serer and part Toucouleur, who was able to form a coalition with many ethnicities, but collapsed around 1549 with the defeat and killing of Lele Fouli Fak by Amari Ngone Sobel Fall. In the mid-15th century, the Portuguese landed on the Senegal coastline, followed by traders representing other countries, including the French. Various European powers—Portugal,
16113-463: Was gradually adopted by the inhabitants of Gaul. As the language was learned by the common people, it developed a distinct local character, with grammatical differences from Latin as spoken elsewhere, some of which is attested in graffiti. This local variety evolved into the Gallo-Romance tongues, which include French and its closest relatives, such as Arpitan . The evolution of Latin in Gaul
16244-478: Was hailed by many foreign observers, such as the EU as a show of "maturity". On 19 September 2012, lawmakers voted to do away with the Senate to save an estimated $ 15 million. In August 2017, the ruling party won a landslide victory in the parliamentary election . President Macky Sall's ruling coalition took 125 seats in the 165-seat National Assembly. In 2019 president Macky Sall easily won re-election in
16375-541: Was in command of the canton of Foss-Galodjina and was set over Wâlo (Ouâlo) by Louis Faidherbe, where he served as a chief from 1861 to 1914. Senegalese resistance to the French expansion was led in part by Lat-Dior , Damel of Cayor, and Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene Famak Joof (the Maad a Sinig , King of Sine), resulting in the famous Battle of Logandème ―the battle in which the Serer King of Sine went to war against
16506-536: Was known in the Occitan-speaking region as Vergonha . Spoken by 19.71% of the European Union's population, French is the third most widely spoken language in the EU, after English and German and the second-most-widely taught language after English. Under the Constitution of France , French has been the official language of the Republic since 1992, although the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts made it mandatory for legal documents in 1539. France mandates
16637-568: Was originally inhabited by the Taino, the Arawak and the Ciboney. Italian explorer Christopher Columbus sighted Quisqueya on December 6, 1492, and named the place La Isla Española (“The Spanish Island”), later Anglicized as Hispaniola. The indigenous people died of European diseases, mestizaje with the Spanish, and harsh working conditions. The Spanish later abandoned the western third of the island to
16768-550: Was reduced from seven years to five. Since 3 March 2021, Senegal has been rocked by a series of mass protests in response to the arrest of Ousmane Sonko for alleged rape and mishandling of the COVID-19 pandemic . In June 2023, the response to the protests turned increasingly violent, with Amnesty International counting 23 fatalities, most of which were caused by bullets fired by police or armed police collaborators. In March 2024, Opposition candidate Bassirou Diomaye Faye won
16899-594: Was shaped by its coexistence for over half a millennium beside the native Celtic Gaulish language , which did not go extinct until the late sixth century, long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire . The population remained 90% indigenous in origin; the Romanizing class were the local native elite (not Roman settlers), whose children learned Latin in Roman schools. At the time of the collapse of
17030-447: Was stated by Dessalines of proclamation of 8 April 1804, "We have given these true cannibals war for war, crime for crime, outrage for outrage. Yes, I have saved my country, I have avenged America." The African people of Haiti derived from various areas, spanning from Senegal to the Congo . Most of which were brought from West Africa , with a considerable number also brought from Central Africa . Some of these groups include those from
17161-570: Was the language they use the most at home rose from 67% at the 2007 census to 74% at the 2017 census. In Wallis and Futuna, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 10% at the 2008 census to 13% at the 2018 census. According to a demographic projection led by the Université Laval and the Réseau Démographie de l'Agence universitaire de la Francophonie ,
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