112-791: The Quapaw ( / ˈ k w ɔː p ɔː / KWAW -paw , Quapaw : Ogáxpa ) or Arkansas , officially the Quapaw Nation , is a U.S. federally recognized tribe comprising about 6,000 citizens. Also known as the Ogáxpa or “Downstream” people, their ancestral homelands are traced from what is now the Ohio River , west to the Mississippi River to present-day St. Louis , south across present-day Arkansas and eastern and southern Oklahoma . The government forcibly removed them from Arkansas Territory in 1834. The tribal capital
224-587: A Recollect father who accompanied the LaSalle expedition, planted a cross and attempted to convert the Native Americans to Christianity. La Salle negotiated a peace with the tribe and formally "claimed" the territory for France . The Quapaw were recorded as uniformly kind and friendly toward the French. While villages relocated in the area, four Quapaw villages were generally reported by Europeans along
336-463: A chevron pattern made in Venice for a limited period of time and believed to be indicative of the de Soto expedition. Six metal objects were also found, including a silver pendant and some iron tools. The rarest items were found within what researchers believe was a large council house of the indigenous people whom de Soto was visiting. The expedition continued to present-day South Carolina . There
448-848: A USDA certified meat processing plant located on tribal territory, owned and operated by a tribal nation. In the 20th century, the Quapaw leased some of their lands to European Americans, who developed them for industrial purposes. Before passage of environmental laws, toxic waste was deposited that has created long-term hazards. For instance, the Tar Creek Superfund site has been listed by the Environmental Protection Agency as requiring clean-up of environmental hazards. The Quapaw Nation took over cleanup of this superfund site in October of 2023, when it would become
560-805: A chapel be erected within the Church of San Miguel in Jerez de Los Caballeros, Spain, where De Soto grew up, at a cost of 2,000 ducats, with an altarpiece featuring the Virgin Mary, Our Lady of the Conception , that his tomb be covered in a fine black broadcloth topped by a red cross of the Order of the Knights of Santiago , and on special occasions a pall of black velvet with the De Soto coat of arms be placed on
672-675: A child at each place, De Soto stipulated in his will that his body be interred at Jerez de los Caballeros, where other members of his family were buried. A few years before his birth, the Kingdoms of Castille and Aragon conquered the last Islamic kingdom of the Iberian Peninsula . Spain and Portugal were filled with young men seeking a chance for military fame after the defeat of the Moors . With Christopher Columbus 's discovery of new lands (which he thought to be East Asia ) across
784-591: A consensus (although not total) to end the expedition and try to find a way home, either down the Mississippi River, or overland across Texas to the Spanish colony of Mexico City . They decided that building boats would be too difficult and time-consuming and that navigating the Gulf of Mexico was too risky, so they headed overland to the southwest. Eventually, they reached a region in present-day Texas that
896-534: A ditch. Archaeological remains and local conditions bear out the description. If the migration from the Ohio Valley preceded the entrada , these people may have been the proto-Quapaw. It is notable that the only chronicler of Indigenous heritage described this people as the Capaha. It is notable that this chronicler was often more accurate when recording tribal information. Regardless, Dr. Rankin hypothesized that
1008-452: A fever on 21 May 1542, in the native village of Guachoya . Historical sources disagree as to whether de Soto died near present-day Lake Village, Arkansas McArthur, Arkansas , or Ferriday, Louisiana . Louisiana erected a historical marker at the estimated site on the western bank of the Mississippi River. Before his death, de Soto chose Luis de Moscoso Alvarado , his former maestro de campo (or field commander), to assume command of
1120-409: A fortified city in southern Alabama, to receive the women. De Soto gave the chief a pair of boots and a red cloak to reward him for his cooperation. The Mobilian tribe, under chief Tuskaloosa, ambushed de Soto's army. Other sources suggest de Soto's men were attacked after attempting to force their way into a cabin occupied by Tuskaloosa. The Spaniards fought their way out, and retaliated by burning
1232-453: A historical group of Dhegiha speaking people who lived in the lower Ohio River valley area. The modern descendants of this language group include the Omaha , Ponca , Osage and Kaw , all independent nations. The Quapaw and the other Dhegiha speaking tribes are believed to have migrated west and south from the Ohio River valley after 1200 CE . Scholars are divided as to whether they think
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#17327725814931344-565: A month resting the horses while his men searched for gold. De Soto next entered eastern Tennessee . At this point, de Soto either continued along the Tennessee River to enter Alabama from the north (according to John R. Swanton ), or turned south and entered northern Georgia (according to Charles M. Hudson ). Swanton's final report, published by the Smithsonian, remains an important resource but Hudson's reconstruction of
1456-407: A palatal column. The following chart uses Rankin's analysis. In addition to the vowels Rankin found in the below chart, Siebert included four long oral vowels / aː / , / eː / , / iː / , and / oː / . Ardina Moore taught Quapaw language classes through the tribe. As of 2012, Quapaw language lessons are available online or by DVD. An online audio lexicon of the Quapaw language is available on
1568-768: A passage between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean to enable trade with the Orient, the richest market in the world. Failing that, and without means to explore further, de Soto, upon Pedro Arias Dávila 's death, left his estates in Nicaragua. Bringing his own men on ships which he hired, de Soto joined Francisco Pizarro at his first base of Tumbes shortly before departure for the interior of present-day Peru . Pizarro quickly made de Soto one of his captains. When Pizarro and his men first encountered
1680-401: A pitched battle with Inca troops in front of the city, but the battle had ended before Pizarro arrived with the rest of the Spanish party. The Inca army withdrew during the night. The Spanish plundered Cuzco, where they found much gold and silver. As a mounted soldier, de Soto received a share of the plunder, which made him very wealthy. It represented riches from Atahualpa's camp, his ransom, and
1792-452: A public office in León, Nicaragua . Brave leadership, unwavering loyalty, and ruthless schemes for the extortion of native villages for their captured chiefs became de Soto's hallmarks during the conquest of Central America . He gained fame as an excellent horseman, fighter, and tactician. During that time, de Soto was influenced by the achievements of Iberian explorers: Juan Ponce de León ,
1904-478: A two-year term. The governing body of the tribe is outlined in the governing resolutions of the tribe, which were voted upon and approved in 1956 to create a written form of government. (Prior to 1956 the Quapaw Tribe operated on a chief system). The Chairman is Wena Supernaw. The Fourth of July weekend is also when the tribe convenes the annual general council meeting, during which important decisions regarding
2016-519: Is Quapaw , Oklahoma. Algonquian -speaking people originally referred to the Quapaw as Akansa , an Illini word for “People of the South Wind”. French voyageurs learned this term from Algonquians and adapted it as Arcansas . The French named the river and trading post for them. The Quapaw broke from the other Dhegiha tribes and migrated down the Mississippi River into present-day Arkansas many generations before European contact. After that,
2128-577: Is a Siouan language of the Quapaw people , originally from a region in present-day Arkansas . It is now spoken in Oklahoma . It is similar to the other Dhegihan languages : Kansa , Omaha , Osage and Ponca . The Quapaw language is well-documented in field notes and publications from many individuals including by George Izard in 1827, by Lewis F. Hadly in 1882, from 19th-century linguist James Owen Dorsey , in 1940 by Frank Thomas Siebert , and, in
2240-539: Is also notable that there are carbon dated sites which are strongly correlated to the Dhegiha which demonstrate they were split and moved to the respective regions by 1500. The Quapaw reached their historical territory, the area of the confluence of the Arkansas and Mississippi rivers, at least by the mid-17th century. The timing of the Quapaw migration into their ancestral territory in the historical period has been
2352-527: Is being compiled which incorporates all of the existing source material known to exist into one document using a version of the International Phonetic Alphabet which has been adapted for Siouan languages. Siebert found 23 consonants in his limited research, while Rankin found 26. When compared with Rankin, Siebert does not include / b / , / d / , or / ʔ / . He also puts the velar plosives and postalveolar fricatives together in
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#17327725814932464-530: Is buried adjoining St. Joseph's Church, Pine Bluff. A a memorial window in the church preserves his name. Fr. John M. Odin was the pioneer Lazarist missionary among the Quapaw; he later served as the Catholic Archbishop of New Orleans. In 1834, under another treaty and the federal policy of Indian Removal , the Quapaw were removed from the Mississippi valley areas to their present location in
2576-455: Is disputed only in minor details. His route beyond Mabila is contested. Swanton reported the de Soto trail ran from there through Mississippi , Arkansas , and Texas . Historians have more recently considered archeological reconstructions and the oral history of the various Native American peoples who recount the expedition. Most historical places have been overbuilt and much evidence has been lost. More than 450 years have passed between
2688-497: Is not known. According to one source, de Soto's men hid his corpse in blankets weighted with sand and sank it in the middle of the Mississippi River during the night. De Soto's expedition had explored La Florida for three years without finding the expected treasures or a hospitable site for colonization. They had lost nearly half their men, and most of the horses. By this time, the soldiers were wearing animal skins for clothing. Many were injured and in poor health. The leaders came to
2800-533: Is part of the Dhegiha branch of the Siouan language family . Quapaw was well documented in fieldnotes and publications from many individuals, including George Izard in 1827, Lewis F. Hadley in 1882, 19th-century linguist James Owen Dorsey , Frank T. Siebert in 1940, and linguist Robert Rankin in the 1970s. In the 21st century, there are few remaining native speakers. In the early 20th century, an account noted that
2912-464: Is the first European documented as having crossed the Mississippi River . De Soto's North American expedition was a vast undertaking. It ranged throughout what is now the southeastern United States , searching both for gold, which had been reported by various Native American tribes and earlier coastal explorers, and for a passage to China or the Pacific coast. De Soto died in 1542 on the banks of
3024-607: The Arkansas Post . This began European occupation of the Quapaw country. Tonti arranged for a resident Jesuit missionary to be assigned there, but apparently without result. About 1697, a smallpox epidemic killed the greater part of the women and children of two villages. In 1727, the Jesuits, from their house in New Orleans , again took up the missionary work. In 1729, the Quapaw allied with French colonists against
3136-799: The Arkansas River , as well as portions of Louisiana , Mississippi , and Oklahoma from the Red River to beyond the Arkansas and east of the Mississippi. The treaty required the Quapaws to cede almost 31 million acres (13 million ha) of this area to the U.S. government, giving the Quapaw title to 1.5 million acres (0.61 million ha) between the Arkansas and the Saline in Southeast Arkansas . In exchange for
3248-781: The Caddo of Louisiana , but were refused permission by the United States. Successive floods in the Caddo country near the Red River pushed many of the tribe toward starvation, and they wandered back to their old homes. Sarrasin (alternate spelling Saracen), their last chief before the removal, was a Roman Catholic and friend of the Lazarist missionaries (Congregation of the Missions), who had arrived in 1818. He died about 1830 and
3360-588: The Caddo River , where they clashed with a Native American tribe called the Tula in October 1541. The Spaniards characterized them as the most skilled and dangerous warriors they had encountered. This may have happened in the area of present-day Caddo Gap, Arkansas (a monument to the de Soto expedition was erected in that community). Eventually, the Spaniards returned to the Mississippi River. De Soto died of
3472-590: The Dhegiha language , a branch of Siouan including the "dialects" of the Omaha, Ponca, Osage, Kansa, and Quapaw, has received more extended study. Rev. J.O. Dorsey published material about it under the auspices of the Bureau of American Ethnology , now part of the Smithsonian Institution . Other efforts at language preservation and revitalization are being undertaken. In 2011 the Quapaw participated in
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3584-518: The Gulf of Mexico to meet two ships bearing fresh supplies from Havana . De Soto demanded women and servants, and when Tuskaloosa refused, the European explorers took him hostage. The expedition began making plans to leave the next day, and Tuskaloosa gave in to de Soto's demands, providing bearers for the Spaniards. He informed de Soto that they would have to go to his town of Mabila (or Mauvila ),
3696-643: The Illinois and other Algonquian tribes, they were known as 'Akansea', whence their French names of Akensas and Akansas . According to concurrent tradition of the cognate tribes, the Quapaw and their kinsmen originally lived far east, possibly beyond the Alleghenies , and, pushing gradually westward, descended the Ohio River – hence called by the Illinois the "river of the Akansea" – to its junction with
3808-688: The Natchez , resulting in the practical extermination of the Natchez tribe. The French relocated the Arkansas Post upriver, trying to avoid flooding. After France was defeated by the British in the Seven Years' War , it ceded its North American territories to Britain. This nation exchanged some territory with Spain, which took over "control" of Arkansas and other former French territory west of
3920-581: The Pánuco River and the Spanish frontier town of Pánuco . There they rested for about a month. During this time many of the Spaniards, having safely returned and reflecting on their accomplishments, decided they had left La Florida too soon. There were some fights within the company, leading to some deaths. But, after they reached Mexico City and the Viceroy Don Antonio de Mendoza offered to lead another expedition to La Florida , few of
4032-576: The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire . He was admitted into the prestigious Order of Santiago and "granted the right to conquer Florida". His share was awarded to him by the King of Spain, and he received 724 marks of gold, and 17,740 pesos. He married Isabel de Bobadilla , daughter of Pedrarias Dávila and a relative of a confidante of Queen Isabella . De Soto petitioned King Charles to lead
4144-596: The Uzita while searching for the lost Narváez expedition ; he later escaped to Mocoso . Ortiz had learned the Timucua language and served as an interpreter to de Soto as he traversed the Timucuan-speaking areas on his way to Apalachee . Ortiz developed a method for guiding the expedition and communicating with the various tribes, who spoke many dialects and languages. He recruited guides from each tribe along
4256-544: The anthropologist John R. Swanton published The Final Report of the United States De Soto Expedition Commission in 1939. Among other locations, Manatee County, Florida , claims an approximate landing site for de Soto and has a national memorial recognizing that event. In the early 21st century, the first part of the expedition's course, up to de Soto's battle at Mabila (a small fortress town in present-day central Alabama ),
4368-416: The 1970s by linguist Robert Rankin. The Quapaw language does not conform well to English language phonetics, and a writing system for the language has not been formally adopted. All of the existing source material on the language utilizes different writing systems, making reading and understanding the language difficult for the novice learner. To address this issue, an online dictionary of the Quapaw language
4480-443: The Capaha may have been Tunica based on limited evidence of a single name found in a later Portuguese account, for which the original cursive is not recorded. Archeological sites around 1300 in the region have produced pipes, hides, and other items which are strongly associated with an influx of Dhegiha people that would be the Quapaw. The first certain encounters with Quapaw by Europeans occurred more than 130 years later. In 1673,
4592-746: The Eagle Creek Golf Course and resort, located in Loma Linda, Missouri . Their primary economic drivers have been their gaming casinos, established under federal and state law. The first two are both located in Quapaw: the Quapaw Casino and the Downstream Casino Resort. These have generated most of the revenue for the tribe, which they have used to support welfare, health and education of their members. In 2012
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4704-609: The Gulf of Mexico. From their winter location in the western panhandle of Florida, having heard of gold being mined "toward the sun's rising", the expedition turned northeast through what is now the modern state of Georgia . Based on archaeological finds made in 2009 at a remote, privately owned site near the Ocmulgee River , researchers believe that de Soto's expedition stopped in Telfair County . Artifacts found here include nine glass trade beads , some of which bear
4816-569: The Jesuit Father Jacques Marquette accompanied the French commander Louis Jolliet in traveling down the Mississippi by canoe. He reportedly went to the villages of the Akansea , who gave him warm welcome and listened with attention to his sermons, while he stayed with them a few days. In 1682, La Salle passed by their villages, then five in number, including one on the east bank of the Mississippi. Zenobius Membré ,
4928-471: The Mississippi River in this early period. They corresponded in name and population to four sub-tribes still existing, listed as Ugahpahti , Uzutiuhi , Tiwadimañ , and Tañwañzhita . The French transliterations were: Kappa, Ossoteoue, Touriman, and Tonginga. In 1686, the French commander Henri de Tonti built a post near the mouth of the Arkansas River, which was later known as
5040-441: The Mississippi River. The Spanish built new forts to protect its valued trading post with the Quapaw. During the early years of colonial rule, many of the ethnic French fur traders and voyageurs had an amicable relationship with the Quapaw, as they did with many other trading tribes. Many Quapaw women and French men cohabitated. Pine Bluff, Arkansas , was founded by Joseph Bonne, a man of Quapaw-French ancestry. Shortly after
5152-479: The Mississippi River; sources disagree on the exact location, whether it was what is now Lake Village, Arkansas , or Ferriday, Louisiana . Hernando de Soto was born around the late 1490s or early 1500s in Extremadura , Spain, to parents who were both hidalgos , nobility of modest means. The region was poor and many people struggled to survive; young people looked for ways to seek their fortune elsewhere. He
5264-649: The Mississippi, and claiming the whole of the Arkansas River region up to the border of the territory held by the Osage in the north-western part of the state. They are of Siouan linguistic stock, speaking the same language, spoken also with dialectic variants, by the Osage and Kansa ( Kaw ) in the south and by the Omaha and Ponca in Nebraska . Their name properly is Ogaxpa , which signifies "down-stream people", as distinguished from Umahan or Omaha, "up-stream people". To
5376-409: The Mississippi, whence the Quapaw, then including the Osage and Kansa , descended to the mouth of the Arkansas, while the Omaha , with the Ponca , went up the Missouri . The Town of Quapaw , Oklahoma serves as the tribal capital of the Quapaw Nation, which has a 13,000-acre (53 km) tribal jurisdictional area . The Quapaw people elect a tribal council and the tribal chairman, who serves
5488-422: The Napituca Massacre, the first large-scale massacre by Europeans in the current United States. One of Soto’s most important battles with the natives, along his conquest of Florida, was a 1539 battle with Chief Vitachuco. Unlike other native chiefs who entered into peace with the Spanish, Vitachuco did not trust them and had secretly plotted to kill Soto and his army, but he was betrayed by interpreters who told Soto
5600-472: The Quapaw Nation Culture Division in partnership with the Arkansas State Archives was able to feature a display of the 1824 Quapaw Treaty with the United States, on the 200th anniversary of the signing of this treaty. In addition to the treaty viewing, the event also featured a speeches, Quapaw Jeopardy, a Quapaw Nation Art Competition, a 5k and fun run, and a traditional Quapaw foot race, hand game, food, and dice game. The Quapaw host cultural events throughout
5712-438: The Quapaw Tribal Museum offers classes for adults. This article related to the Indigenous languages of the Americas is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Oklahoma -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Hernando de Soto (explorer) Hernando de Soto ( / d ə ˈ s oʊ t oʊ / ; Spanish: [eɾˈnando ðe ˈsoto] ; c. 1497 – 21 May 1542)
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#17327725814935824-424: The Quapaw Tribe's annual economic impact in the region was measured at more than $ 225,000,000. In 2020 they completed a third casino, Saracen Casino Resort , located in Pine Bluff, Arkansas . It was the first purpose-built casino in the state. Constructed at a cost of $ 350 million, it will employ over 1,100 full-time staff. The Quapaw Nation was also the first tribal nation in the United States to open and operate
5936-403: The Quapaw and other related groups left before or after the Beaver Wars of the 17th century, in which the Five Nations of the Iroquois (based south of the Great Lakes and to the east of this area), drove other tribes out of the Ohio Valley and retained the area for hunting grounds. The oral history of the Quapaw people describes that the Quapaw separated from the Omaha, Ponca, Osage, and Kaw, near
6048-571: The Quapaw for some years. The Quapaw, together with other nearby tribes, the Miami , Seneca , Wyandot and Ottawa , were served from the Mission of "Saint Mary of the Quapaws", at Quapaw, Oklahoma . Historians estimated their number at European encounter as 5000. The Catholic Encyclopedia noted the people had suffered from high fatalities due to epidemics, wars, removals, and social disruption. It documented their numbers as 3200 in 1687, 1600 in 1750, 476 in 1843, and 307 in 1910, including people of mixed-race . The following passages are taken from
6160-416: The Quapaw often view all four of these items as being interconnected and non-separable. Many Quapaw families carry on traditions which connect them to the countless generations of Quapaw who came before. In order to maintain and promote their way of life, some of these traditions take place in community events, and there are community classes and services which are offered by community members and by branches of
6272-411: The Richardson/UF Village site (8AL100) in Alachua County , west of Orange Lake , appears to have been accepted by archaeologists as the site of the town of Potano visited by the de Soto expedition. The 17th-century mission of San Buenaventura de Potano is believed to have been founded here. Many archaeologists believe the Parkin Archeological State Park in northeast Arkansas was the main town for
6384-411: The Spanish held Atahualpa captive in Cajamarca for months while his subjects paid for his ransom by filling a room with gold and silver objects. During this captivity, de Soto became friendly with Atahualpa and taught him to play chess . By the time the ransom had been completed, the Spanish became alarmed by rumors of an Inca army advancing on Cajamarca. Pizarro sent de Soto with 200 soldiers to scout for
6496-449: The United States acquired the territory in 1803 by the Louisiana Purchase , it recorded the Quapaw as living in three villages on the south side of the Arkansas River about 12 miles (19 km) above Arkansas Post. In 1818. as part of a treaty negotiation, the U.S. government acknowledged the Quapaw as rightful owners of approximately 32 million acres (13 million ha), which included all of present-day Arkansas south and west of
6608-574: The altar; that a chaplain be hired at the salary of 12,000 maravedis to perform five masses every week for the souls of De Soto, his parents, and wife; that thirty masses be said for him the day his body was interred, and twenty for our Lady of the Conception, ten for the Holy Ghost , sixty for souls in purgatory and masses for many others as well; that 150000 maravedis be given annually to his wife Isabel for her needs and an equal amount used yearly to marry off three orphan damsels...the poorest that can be found," to assist his wife and also serve to burnish
6720-414: The army of Inca Atahualpa at Cajamarca , Pizarro sent de Soto with fifteen men to invite Atahualpa to a meeting. When Pizarro's men attacked Atahualpa and his guard the next day (the Battle of Cajamarca ), de Soto led one of the three groups of mounted soldiers. The Spanish captured Atahualpa. De Soto was sent to the camp of the Inca army, where he and his men plundered Atahualpa's tents. During 1533,
6832-424: The boats. They survived through the winter, and the spring floods delayed them another two months. By July they set off on their makeshift boats down the Mississippi for the coast. Taking about two weeks to make the journey, the expedition encountered hostile fleets of war canoes along the whole course. The first was led by the powerful paramount chief Quigualtam , whose fleet followed the boats, shooting arrows at
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#17327725814936944-415: The confluence of the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. No correlation with gun bearing Iroquois running the Quapaw into Arkansas along with the Omaha, Ponca, Osage and Kaw is described by historic or modern Quapaw sources, and appears to be an entirely modern conjecture by scholars which is unsupported by the Quapaw. Similar and supporting oral history is well documented and supported by other Dhegiha tribes. It
7056-554: The downriver people". As French explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet encountered and interacted with the Illinois before they did the Quapaw, they adopted this exonym for the more westerly people. In their language, they referred to them as Arcansas . English-speaking settlers who arrived later in the region adopted the name used by the French, adapting it to English spelling conventions. Other spellings in historical use included Akanza , Acansa , Acansea , Acansia , Accance , and Accancea . The Quapaw are descended from
7168-403: The events and current history tellers, but some oral histories have been found to be accurate about historic events that have been otherwise documented. The Governor Martin Site at the former Apalachee village of Anhaica , located about a mile east of the present Florida capital in Tallahassee , has been documented as definitively associated with de Soto's expedition. The Governor Martin Site
7280-415: The expedition recorded being received by a female chief ( The Lady of Cofitachequi ), who gave her tribe's pearls, food and other goods to the Spanish soldiers. The expedition found no gold, however, other than pieces from an earlier coastal expedition (presumably that of Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón .) De Soto headed north into the Appalachian Mountains of present-day western North Carolina , where he spent
7392-419: The expedition. At the time of death, de Soto owned four Indian slaves, three horses, and 700 hogs. De Soto had deceived the local natives into believing that he was a deity, specifically an "immortal Son of the Sun ," to gain their submission without conflict. Some of the natives had already become skeptical of de Soto's deity claims, so his men were anxious to conceal his death. The actual site of his burial
7504-401: The first European to reach Florida ; Vasco Núñez de Balboa , the first European to reach the Pacific Ocean coast of the Americas (he called it the "South Sea" on the south coast of Panama ); and Ferdinand Magellan , who first sailed that ocean to East Asia . In 1530, de Soto became a regidor of León, Nicaragua . He led an expedition up the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula searching for
7616-419: The first annual Dhegiha Gathering. The Osage language program hosted and organized the gathering, held at the Quapaw tribe's Downstream Casino. Language-learning techniques and other issues were discussed and taught in workshops at the conference among the five cognate tribes. The 2012 Annual Dhegiha Gathering was also held at Downstream Casino. To revive the language, the tribe is conducting classes in Quapaw at
7728-453: The first tribal nation in the united states to lead remedial operations at a property on a superfund site. Of the 3,240 enrolled tribal members, 892 live in the state of Oklahoma. Membership in the tribe is based on lineal descent. The Quapaw people maintain traditions and culture which are present in all stages of life. The Quapaw people, culture, language, and land are all primarily centered today in Quapaw, OK. Native American people such as
7840-654: The government of Guatemala , with "permission to create discovery in the South Sea." He was granted the governorship of Cuba instead. De Soto was expected to colonize the North American continent for Spain within 4 years, for which his family would be given a sizable piece of land. Fascinated by the stories of Cabeza de Vaca , who had survived years in North America after becoming a castaway and had just returned to Spain, de Soto selected 620 Spanish and Portuguese volunteers, including some of mixed-race African descent known as Atlantic Creoles, to accompany him to govern Cuba and colonize North America. Averaging 24 years of age,
7952-445: The indigenous province of Casqui , which de Soto had recorded. They base this on similarities between descriptions from the journals of the de Soto expedition and artifacts of European origin discovered at the site in the 1960s. Theories of de Soto's route are based on the accounts of four chroniclers of the expedition. Milanich and Hudson warn that older translations of the chronicles are often "relatively free translations in which
8064-422: The introduction of the horse, and after the initial introduction of corn. In 1541, when the Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto led an expedition that came across the town of Pacaha (also recorded by Garcilaso as Capaha ), between the Mississippi River and a lake on the Arkansas side, apparently in present-day Phillips County . His party described the village as strongly palisaded and nearly surrounded by
8176-525: The land as Espíritu Santo after the Holy Spirit . The ships carried priests, craftsmen, engineers, farmers, and merchants; some with their families, some from Cuba, most from Europe and Africa. Few of the men had traveled before outside of Spain, or even away from their home villages. Near de Soto's port, the party found Juan Ortiz , a Spaniard living with the Mocoso people. Ortiz had been captured by
8288-540: The memory of De Soto as a man of charity and substance. Historians have worked to trace the route of de Soto's expedition in North America, a controversial process over the years. Local politicians vied to have their localities associated with the expedition. The most widely used version of "De Soto's Trail" comes from a study commissioned by the United States Congress . A committee chaired by
8400-463: The men embarked from Havana on seven of the King's ships and two caravels of de Soto's. With tons of heavy armor and equipment, they also carried more than 500 head of livestock, including 237 horses and 200 pigs, for their planned four-year continental expedition. De Soto wrote a new will upon arriving in what is now the Tampa Bay area of Florida. On 10 May 1539, he wrote in his will: That
8512-507: The natural geography has not changed much since de Soto's time, scholars have analyzed those journals with modern topographic intelligence , to develop a more precise account of the De Soto Trail. In May 1539, de Soto landed nine ships with over 620 men and 220 horses in an area generally identified as south Tampa Bay . Historian Robert S. Weddle has suggested that he landed at either Charlotte Harbor or San Carlos Bay . He named
8624-462: The northeast corner of Oklahoma, then Indian Territory . In 1824, the Jesuits of Maryland , under Father Charles Van Quickenborne, took up work among the native and migrant tribes of Indian Territory (present-day Kansas and Oklahoma). In 1846, the Mission of St. Francis was established among the Osage, on Neosho River , by Fathers John Shoenmakers and John Bax. They extended their services to
8736-520: The ocean to the west, young men were attracted to rumors of adventure, glory and wealth. De Soto sailed to the New World with Pedro Arias Dávila , appointed as the first Governor of Panama . In 1520 he participated in Gaspar de Espinosa 's expedition to Veragua , and in 1524, he participated in the conquest of Nicaragua under Francisco Hernández de Córdoba . There he acquired an encomienda and
8848-490: The plan. So, Soto struck first and, in the process, killed thousands of natives. Those that survived were surrounded and cornered by woods and water. Thousands were killed during the 3 hours battle and 900 survivors took refuge in the pond, specifically Two-mile Pond in Melrose, where they continued to fight, while swimming. Most eventually surrendered, but after 30 hours in the water, 7 men remained and had to be dragged out of
8960-532: The plunder from Cuzco. On the road to Cuzco, Manco Inca Yupanqui , a brother of Atahualpa, had joined Pizarro. Manco had been hiding from Atahualpa in fear of his life, and was happy to gain Pizarro's protection. Pizarro arranged for Manco to be installed as the Inca leader. De Soto joined Manco in a campaign to eliminate the Inca armies under Quizquiz , a general who had been loyal to Atahualpa. By 1534, de Soto
9072-499: The policies and resolutions of the Quapaw tribe are voted upon by tribal members over the age of eighteen. The tribe operates a Tribal Police Department and a Fire Department, which handles both fire and EMS calls. They issue their own tribal vehicle tags and have their own housing authority. The tribe owns two smoke shops and motor fuel outlets, known as the Quapaw C-Store and Downstream Q-Store. They also own and operate
9184-490: The process of the Columbian Exchange . For instance, some of the swine brought by de Soto escaped and became the ancestors of feral razorback pigs in the southeastern United States . De Soto was instrumental in contributing to the development of a hostile relationship between many Native American tribes and Europeans. When his expedition encountered hostile natives in the new lands, more often than not it
9296-496: The public domain Catholic Encyclopedia , written early in the 20th century. It describes the Quapaw from the non-native perspective of that time. A tribe now nearly extinct, but formerly one of the most important of the lower Mississippi region, occupying several villages about the mouth of the Arkansas , chiefly on the west ( Arkansas ) side, with one or two at various periods on the east ( Mississippi ) side of
9408-554: The river, the expedition continued traveling westward through modern-day Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. They wintered in Autiamique , on the Arkansas River . After a harsh winter, the Spanish expedition decamped and moved on more erratically. Their interpreter Juan Ortiz had died, making it more difficult for them to get directions and food sources, and generally to communicate with the Natives. The expedition went as far inland as
9520-401: The river, which in his view was an obstacle to his mission. There has been considerable research into the exact location where de Soto crossed the Mississippi River. A commission appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1935 determined that Sunflower Landing, Mississippi , was the "most likely" crossing place. De Soto possibly traveled down Charley's Trace , which had been used as a trail through
9632-532: The route was conducted 40 years later and benefited from considerable advances in archaeological methods. De Soto's expedition spent another month in the Coosa chiefdom a vassal to Tuskaloosa , who was the paramount chief , believed to have been connected to the large and complex Mississippian culture , which extended throughout the Mississippi Valley and its tributaries. De Soto turned south toward
9744-431: The route. A chain of communication was established whereby a guide who had lived in close proximity to another tribal area was able to pass his information and language on to a guide from a neighboring area. Because Ortiz refused to dress as a hidalgo Spaniard, other officers questioned his motives. De Soto remained loyal to Ortiz, allowing him the freedom to dress and live among his native friends. Another important guide
9856-540: The rumored army. While de Soto was gone, the Spanish in Cajamarca decided to kill Atahualpa to prevent his rescue. De Soto returned to report that he found no signs of an army in the area. After executing Atahualpa, Pizarro and his men headed to Cuzco , the capital of the Incan Empire. As the Spanish force approached Cuzco, Pizarro sent his brother Hernando and de Soto ahead with 40 men. The advance guard fought
9968-545: The ships at Mobile Bay , de Soto led them away from the Gulf Coast. He moved into inland Mississippi , most likely near present-day Tupelo , where they spent the winter. In the spring of 1541, de Soto demanded 200 men as porters from the Chickasaw . They refused his demand and attacked the Spanish camp during the night. On 8 May 1541, de Soto's troops reached the Mississippi River . De Soto had little interest in
10080-450: The soldiers for days as they drifted through their territory. The Spanish had no effective offensive weapons on the water, as their crossbows had long since ceased working. They relied on armor and sleeping mats to block the arrows. About 11 Spaniards were killed along this stretch and many more wounded. On reaching the mouth of the Mississippi, they stayed close to the Gulf shore heading south and west. After about 50 days, they made it to
10192-475: The subject of considerable debate by scholars of various fields. It is referred to as the "Quapaw Paradox" by academics. Many professional archaeologists have introduced numerous migration scenarios and time frames, but none has conclusive evidence. Glottochronological studies suggest the Quapaw separated from the other Dhegihan-speaking peoples in a period ranging between AD 950 to as late as AD 1513. Linguistic studies also support an earlier separation date, prior to
10304-563: The survivors volunteered. Of the recorded 700 participants at the start, between 300 and 350 survived (311 is a commonly accepted figure). Most of the men stayed in the New World, settling in Mexico, Peru, Cuba, and other Spanish colonies. The Spanish believed that de Soto's excursion to Florida was a failure. They acquired neither gold nor prosperity and founded no colonies. But the expedition had several major consequences. It contributed to
10416-663: The swamps of the Mississippi Delta , to reach the Mississippi River. De Soto and his men spent a month building flatboats, and crossed the river at night to avoid the Native Americans who were patrolling the river. De Soto had hostile relations with the native people in this area. In the late 20th century, research suggests other locations may have been the site of de Soto's crossing, including three locations in Mississippi: Commerce , Friars Point , and Walls , as well as Memphis, Tennessee . Once across
10528-512: The territory, the U.S. pledged $ 4,000 ($ 80,000 in today's dollars) and an annual payment of $ 1,000 ($ 20,000 in today's dollars). A transcription error in Congress later removed most of Grant County, Arkansas and part of Saline County, Arkansas from the Quapaw claim. Under continued U.S. pressure, in 1824 they ceded this also, excepting 80 acres (320,000 m) occupied by the chief Saracen below Pine Bluff . They expected to incorporate with
10640-633: The town to the ground. During the nine-hour encounter, about 200 Spaniards died, and 150 more were badly wounded, according to the chronicler Elvas. Twenty more died during the next few weeks. They killed an estimated 2,000–6,000 Native Americans at Mabila, making the battle one of the bloodiest in recorded North American history. The Spaniards won a Pyrrhic victory , as they had lost most of their possessions and nearly one-quarter of their horses. The Spaniards were wounded and sickened, surrounded by enemies and without equipment in an unknown territory. Fearing that word of this would reach Spain if his men reached
10752-518: The translators took considerable liberty with the Spanish and Portuguese text." The chronicles describe de Soto's trail in relation to Havana , from which they sailed; the Gulf of Mexico , which they skirted while traveling inland then turned back to later; the Atlantic Ocean , which they approached during their second year; high mountains, which they traversed immediately thereafter; and dozens of other geographic features along their way, such as large rivers and swamps, at recorded intervals. Given that
10864-523: The tribal government as well. The Quapaw people's primary annual event is a dance which is held during the Fourth of July weekend. This powwow was organized shortly after the American Civil War , It began as an annual gathering of local tribes with the Quapaw who had finally received rations. It continued as a traditional Quapaw dance and gathering hosted by various tribal families throughout
10976-494: The tribal museum. An online audio lexicon of the Quapaw language was created by editing old recordings of first language speakers speaking the language. In 2024 the Quapaw Nation Culture Division formed a Language Department. This resulted in the hiring of a Language Department Director and the re-initiation of community language classes and services. Quapaw language Quapaw , or Arkansas ,
11088-410: The tribal website to assist language learners. The lexicon incorporates audio of first language speakers who were born between 1870 and 1918. The 2nd Annual Dhegiha Gathering in 2012 brought Quapaw, Osage , Kaw , Ponca , and Omaha speakers together to share best practices in language revitalization. A Quapaw Tribal Youth Language and Cultural Preservation Camp teaches the language to children, and
11200-548: The tribe began to refer to themselves Ogáxpa, which means the “Downstream” people." This was the name of their primary village or tribal band, and would also sometimes be used to refer to the entire tribe. The term "Quapaw" comes from the American English attempt to say Ogáxpa. The Illinois and other Algonquian -speaking peoples to the northeast referred to the tribe as the Akansea or Akansa , meaning "land of
11312-530: The water by the Spanish. De Soto's first winter encampment was at Anhaica , the capital of the Apalachee people. It is one of the few places on the route where archaeologists have found physical traces of the expedition. The chroniclers described this settlement as being near the "Bay of Horses" . The bay was named for events of the 1527 Narváez expedition , the members of which, dying of starvation, killed and ate their horses while building boats for escape by
11424-403: The way. Hernando de Soto's army seized the food stored in the villages, captured women to be used as slaves for the soldiers' sexual gratification, and forced men and boys to serve as guides and bearers. The army fought two battles with Timucua groups, resulting in heavy Timucua casualties. After defeating the resisting Timucuan warriors, Hernando de Soto had 200 executed, in what was to be called
11536-612: The year, one of the largest events besides the annual powwow is the Quapaw Fall Gathering. This gathering began in 2020 as a way to have a social distanced annual gathering, as the July 4th event had been postponed due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Following this it has grown into an annual social event for the Quapaw people featuring historical and cultural discussions, as well as traditional games, and traditional foods. In 2024,
11648-576: The year, which are primarily held at the tribal museum. These include Indian dice games, traditional singing, and classes in traditional arts, such as finger weaving, shawl making, and flute making. In addition, Quapaw language classes are held there. The Quapaw Nation also hosts also efforts to maintain their culture. A significant manner of engaging Quapaw youth is the Camp Quapaw, an annual summer program that brings together Quapaw youth and other area community members. The traditional Quapaw language
11760-553: The years. It was eventually hosted and funded by the Devils Promenade Indian Club. Ultimately the Quapaw Nation government would fund the gathering, and it is currently ran by an individual who is elected by the Quapaw people for their ability to organize the event, which includes traditional camping, gathering, and also features a large contest powwow which attracts participants from other tribes. 2022
11872-700: Was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who was involved in expeditions in Nicaragua and the Yucatan Peninsula . He played an important role in Francisco Pizarro 's conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru, but is best known for leading the first European expedition deep into the territory of the modern-day United States (through Florida , Georgia , Alabama , North Carolina , South Carolina , Mississippi , and most likely Arkansas ). He
11984-490: Was born in the current province of Badajoz. Three towns— Badajoz , Barcarrota and Jerez de los Caballeros —each claim to be his birthplace. Historian Ursula Lamb writes that the Barcarrota claim can be traced to Inca Garcilaso de la Vega and is probably incorrect, having been written down 45 years after De Soto's death. According to Lamb, his birthplace is most likely Jerez de los Caballeros. Although he spent time as
12096-736: Was discovered by archaeologist B. Calvin Jones in March 1987. It has been preserved as the DeSoto Site Historic State Park . The Hutto/Martin Site, 8MR3447, in southeastern Marion County, Florida , on the Ocklawaha River , is the most likely site of the principal town of Acuera referred to in the accounts of the entrada , as well as the site of the seventeenth-century mission of Santa Lucia de Acuera. As of 2016,
12208-439: Was dry. The native populations were made up mostly of subsistence hunter-gatherers. The soldiers found no villages to raid for food, and the army was still too large to live off the land. They were forced to backtrack to the more developed agricultural regions along the Mississippi, where they began building seven bergantines , or pinnaces . They melted down all the iron, including horse tackle and slave shackles, to make nails for
12320-585: Was serving as lieutenant governor of Cuzco while Pizarro was building his new capital on the coast; it later became known as Lima . In 1535 King Charles awarded Diego de Almagro , Francisco Pizarro's partner, the governorship of the southern portion of the Inca Empire. When de Almagro made plans to explore and conquer the southern part of the Inca empire (now Chile ), de Soto applied to be his second-in-command, but de Almagro turned him down. De Soto packed up his treasure and returned to Spain. De Soto returned to Spain in 1536, with wealth gathered from plunder in
12432-501: Was the 150th anniversary of this dance happening annually in the same general location. Common features of this powwow include gourd dance , war dance, stomp dance , and 49s. Other activities take place such as traditional Quapaw games including Indian football, handgame , traditional Quapaw footraces, Quapaw traditional dinners, turkey dance , Indian Dice, and other dances such as Quapaw Dance, and dances from other area tribes. The Quapaw Nation also hosts additional events throughout
12544-455: Was the seventeen-year-old boy Perico , or Pedro, from what is now Georgia . He spoke several of the local tribes' languages and could communicate with Ortiz. Perico was taken as a guide in 1540. The Spanish had also captured other Indians, whom they used as slave labor. Perico was treated better due to his value to the Spaniards. The expedition traveled north, exploring Florida's West Coast, and encountering native ambushes and conflicts along
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