106-537: Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar ( ( 1542-10-15 ) 15 October 1542 – ( 1605-10-27 ) 27 October 1605), popularly known as Akbar the Great , and also as Akbar I ( Persian pronunciation: [ak.baɾ] ), was the third Mughal emperor , who reigned from 1556 to 1605. Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun , under a regent, Bairam Khan , who helped the young emperor expand and consolidate Mughal domains in
212-406: A centralised system of administration and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage and diplomacy. To preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, he adopted policies that won him the support of his non-Muslim subjects, including abolishing the sectarian tax and appointing them to high civil and military posts. Under Akbar, Mughal India developed
318-592: A country to which they were accustomed", according to Fazl. Akbar made clear that he would stay in India, reintroducing the historical legacy of the Timurid Renaissance , in contrast to his grandfather and father, who reigned as transient rulers. By 1559, the Mughals had launched a drive to the south into Rajputana and Malwa . However, Akbar's disputes with his regent, Bairam Khan, temporarily put an end to
424-450: A distinct style of Mughal arts, including painting and architecture . Disillusioned with orthodox Islam and perhaps hoping to bring about religious unity within his empire, Akbar promulgated Din-i Ilahi , a syncretic creed derived mainly from Islam and Hinduism as well as elements of Zoroastrianism and Christianity . Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Prince Salim, later known as Jahangir . After Mughal Emperor Humayun
530-513: A hostage to the Mughal court. Yousuf Shah surrendered immediately to the Mughals, but another of his sons, Yaqub Shah , crowned himself as king, leading a resistance against the Mughal armies. In June 1589, Akbar travelled from Lahore to Srinagar to receive the surrender of Yaqub and his rebel forces. Baltistan and Ladakh , which were Tibetan provinces adjacent to Kashmir, pledged their allegiance to Akbar. The Mughals also moved to conquer Sindh in
636-535: A key to holding the interior parts of Rajputana. Udai Singh retreated to the hills of Mewar, leaving two Rajput warriors, Jaimal and Patta , in charge of the defence of his capital. Chittorgarh fell in February 1568 after a siege of four months . The fall of Chittor was proclaimed by Akbar as "the victory of Islam over infidels [ i.e. , non-Muslims]." In his Fathnama (dispatches announcing victory) issued on 9 March 1575 conveying his news of victory, Akbar wrote: "With
742-570: A rebellion by Afghan nobles supported by the Rajput ruler of Idar , as well as the renewed intrigues of the Mirzas , forced his return to Gujarat. Akbar crossed Rajputana and reached Ahmedabad in 11 days—a journey that normally took six weeks. The outnumbered Mughal army won a decisive victory on 2 September 1573. Akbar slew the rebel leaders and erected a tower out of their severed heads. The conquest and subjugation of Gujarat proved highly profitable for
848-591: A region, the Mughals always sought to occupy a strategic fortress in some region, which would serve as a nodal point from which the Mughal army would emerge to take on any enemy that challenged the empire. This system was not only expensive but also made the army somewhat inflexible as the assumption was always the enemy would retreat into a fortress to be besieged or would engage in a set-piece decisive battle of annihilation on open ground. The Hindu Marathas were expert horsemen who refused to engage in set-piece battles, but rather engaged in campaigns of guerrilla warfare upon
954-737: A sign of humiliation. Mughal emperors The emperors of the Mughal Empire , who were all members of the Timurid dynasty ( House of Babur ), ruled the empire from its inception on 21 April 1526 to its dissolution on 21 September 1857. They were the supreme monarchs of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent , mainly corresponding to the modern countries of India , Pakistan , Afghanistan and Bangladesh . They ruled many parts of India from 1526, and by 1707, and ruled most of
1060-432: A strong and stable economy, which tripled in size and wealth, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of an Indo-Persian culture . Akbar's courts at Delhi , Agra , and Fatehpur Sikri attracted holy men of many faiths, poets, architects, and artisans, and became known as centres of the arts, letters, and learning. Timurid and Perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements into
1166-418: A syncretistic mixture of Hinduism and Islam. Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion, Din-i-Ilahi , with strong characteristics of a ruling cult. He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge. Akbar
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#17327658304971272-479: A territory of more than 4 million square kilometres (1.5 million square miles). Mughal power rapidly dwindled during the 18th century and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II , was deposed in 1857, with the establishment of the British Raj . The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur , a Timurid prince and ruler from Central Asia . Babur was a direct descendant of Timur , the 14th century founder of
1378-607: A unique 'mehrab' (lozenge) shaped coin. Akbar's portrait type gold coin (Mohur) is generally attributed to his son, Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir), who had rebelled and then sought reconciliation by minting and presenting his father with gold Mohurs bearing Akbar's portrait. During the latter part of Akbar's reign, coins portrayed the concept of Akbar's newly promoted religion, with the Ilahi type and Jalla Jalal-Hu types. Prior to Akbar's reign, marriages between Hindu princesses and Muslim kings failed to produce stable relations between
1484-621: The mansabdari system, establishing a hierarchical scale of military and civil ranks. Organisational reforms were accompanied by innovations in cannons , fortifications , and the use of elephants . Akbar also took an interest in matchlocks and effectively employed them during various conflicts. He sought the help of the Ottomans , as well as Europeans, especially the Portuguese and Italians, in procuring advanced firearms and artillery. Akbar's vizier Abul Fazl once declared that "with
1590-459: The Indian subcontinent . He is generally considered one of the greatest emperors in Indian history and led a successful campaign to unify the various kingdoms of Hindūstān or India proper . Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include much of the Indian subcontinent through Mughal military, political, cultural, and economic dominance. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established
1696-626: The Khandesh Sultanate refused to relinquish Khandesh . Akbar then established the Subahs of Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Khandesh under Prince Daniyal. "By the time of his death in 1605, Akbar controlled a broad sweep of territory from the Bay of Bengal to Qandahar and Badakshan. He touched the western sea in Sind and at Surat and was well astride central India." Akbar's system of central government
1802-664: The Makran coast, became a part of the Mughal Empire. Kandahar (also known as the ancient Indian kingdom of Gandhara ) had connections with the Mughals from the time of the Empire's ancestor, Timur , the warlord who had conquered much of Western, Central, and parts of South Asia in the 14th century. However, the Safavids considered it to be an appanage of the Persian-ruled territory of Khorasan , and declared its association with
1908-628: The Rajput Fortress of Amarkot in Rajputana (in modern-day Sindh), where his parents had been given refuge by the local Hindu ruler Rana Prasad. During the extended period of Humayun's exile, Akbar was brought up in Kabul by his paternal uncles, Kamran Mirza and Askari Mirza , and aunts, in particular, Kamran Mirza's wife. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, and although he never learned to read or write, when he retired in
2014-631: The Timurid empire on his father's side, and Genghis Khan on his mother's side. Ousted from his ancestral domains in Turkestan by Shaybani Khan , the 40-year-old prince Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass . Babur's forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow
2120-400: The mansabdari . Under this system, each officer in the army was assigned a rank (a mansabdar ) and assigned a number of cavalry , which he was required to supply to the imperial army. The mansabdars were divided into 33 classes. The top three commanding ranks, ranging from 7,000 to 10,000 troops, were normally reserved for princes. Ranks between 10 and 5,000 were assigned to other members of
2226-535: The Emperor of Persia, himself beleaguered by the Ottoman Turks, was unable to send reinforcements. In 1593, Akbar received the exiled Safavid prince, Rostam Mirza. Rostam Mirza pledged allegiance to the Mughals; he was granted a rank (mansab) of command over 5,000 men and received Multan as a jagir . The Safavid prince and governor of Kandahar, Mozaffar Hosayn, also agreed to defect to the Mughals. Hosayn, who
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#17327658304972332-550: The Empire's holdings in Afghanistan; they were, according to Abul Fazl "afraid of the cold of Afghanistan". Likewise, Hindu officers in the Mughal army were inhibited by the traditional taboo against crossing the Indus . To encourage them, Akbar provided them with pay eight months in advance. In August 1581, Akbar seized Kabul and took up residence at Babur's old citadel . He stayed there for three weeks and his brother fled into
2438-699: The Indo-Gangetic plains. The Mughals had already established domination over parts of northern Rajputana in Mewat , Ajmer , and Nagor. Akbar sought to conquer Rajputana's heartlands, which had rarely previously submitted to the Muslim rulers of the Delhi Sultanate . Beginning in 1561, the Mughals actively engaged the Rajputs in warfare and diplomacy. Most Rajput states accepted Akbar's suzerainty; however,
2544-506: The Marathas. The Indian campaign of Nader Shah of Persia culminated with the Sack of Delhi and shattered the remnants of Mughal power and prestige, as well as capturing the imperial treasury, thus drastically accelerating its decline. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their own affairs and broke away to form independent kingdoms. The Mughal emperor, however, continued to be
2650-534: The Mirzas who, after offering token resistance, fled for refuge in the Deccan . Surat , the commercial capital of the region, and other coastal cities soon capitulated to the Mughals. The king, Muzaffar Shah III , was caught hiding in a corn field; he was pensioned off by Akbar with a small allowance. Akbar then returned to Fatehpur Sikiri, where he built the Buland Darwaza to commemorate his victories. But,
2756-471: The Mughal capital in Bengal. Following his conquests of Gujarat and Bengal, Akbar was preoccupied with domestic concerns. He did not leave Fatehpur Sikri on a military campaign until 1581, when Punjab was again invaded by his brother, Mirza Muhammad Hakim. Akbar expelled his brother to Kabul and waged a campaign to remove him from power. At the same time, Akbar's nobles were resisting leaving India to administer
2862-458: The Mughal emperors to be a usurpation. In 1558, while Akbar was consolidating his rule over northern India, Safavid Shah Tahmasp I seized Kandahar and expelled its Mughal governor. The recovery of Kandahar had not been a priority for Akbar, but after his military activity in the northern frontiers, he moved to restore Mughal control. At the time, the region was also under threat from the Uzbeks, but
2968-478: The Mughal governor of Bihar, was ordered to chastise Daud Khan. Eventually, Akbar himself set out to Bengal, and in 1574, the Mughals seized Patna from Daud Khan, who fled to Bengal. Akbar then returned to Fatehpur Sikri and left his generals to finish the campaign. The Mughal army was subsequently victorious at the Battle of Tukaroi in 1575, which led to the annexation of Bengal and parts of Bihar that had been under
3074-421: The Mughal supply lines. The Marathas were unable to take the Mughal fortresses via a storm or formal siege as they lacked the artillery, but by constantly intercepting supply columns, they were able to starve Mughal fortresses into submission. Successive Mughal commanders refused to adjust their tactics and develop an appropriate counter-insurgency strategy, which led to the Mughals losing more and more ground to
3180-649: The Mughals and was able to retain most of his kingdom during Akbar's reign. Akbar's next military objectives were the conquest of Gujarat and Bengal, which connected India with the trading centres of Asia, Africa, and Europe through the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal . Gujarat had also been a haven for rebellious Mughal nobles. In Bengal, the Afghans still held considerable influence under their ruler, Sulaiman Khan Karrani . Akbar first moved against Gujarat, which lay in
3286-562: The Mughals. The outnumbered Mughal forces defeated the Sindhi forces at the Battle of Sehwan. After suffering further defeats, Jani Beg surrendered to the Mughals in 1591, and in 1593, paid homage to Akbar in Lahore. As early as 1586, about half a dozen Baluchi chiefs, under nominal Pani Afghan rule, had been persuaded to subordinate themselves to Akbar. In preparation for taking Kandahar from
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3392-416: The Mughals; after expenses, the territory yielded a revenue of more than five million rupees annually to Akbar's treasury. After conquering Gujarat, the remaining centre of Afghan power was Bengal. In 1572, Sulaiman Khan's son, Daud Khan , succeeded him. Daud Khan defined Mughal rule, assuming the insignia of royalty and ordering that the khutbah be proclaimed in his name, rather than Akbar's. Munim Khan ,
3498-613: The Punjab. In 1558, Akbar took possession of Ajmer , the aperture to Rajputana , after the defeat and flight of its Muslim ruler. The Mughals also besieged and defeated the Sur forces in control of Gwalior Fort , a stronghold north of the Narmada river. Royal begums (ladies), along with the families of Mughal amirs, were brought from Kabul to India at the time, "so that men might become settled and be restrained in some measure from departing to
3604-452: The Rajput kings had submitted to the Mughals; only the clans of Mewar continued to resist. Udai Singh's son and successor, Maharana Pratap , was later defeated by the Mughals at the Battle of Haldighati in 1576. Akbar would celebrate his conquest of Rajputana by laying the foundation of a new capital, 23 miles (37 km) west-southwest of Agra, in 1569. It was called Fatehpur Sikri , or the "City of Victory". Pratap Singh continued to attack
3710-577: The Rajputs. During this period of his reign, Akbar was still devoted to Islam and sought to impress the superiority of his faith over what were regarded by contemporaries as the most prestigious warriors in Hinduism. In 1567, Akbar attacked the Chittor Fort in Mewar. The fortress-capital of Mewar was of strategic importance as it lay on the shortest route from Agra to Gujarat and was also considered
3816-495: The Safavids, Akbar ordered the Mughal forces to conquer the rest of the Afghan-held parts of Baluchistan in 1595. The Mughal general Mir Masum led an attack on the stronghold of Sibi, which was northeast of Quetta , and defeated a coalition of local chieftains in battle. They were required to acknowledge Mughal supremacy and attend Akbar's court. As a result, the modern-day Pakistani and Afghan parts of Baluchistan, including
3922-549: The Sur rulers, who had proclaimed himself Hindu emperor and expelled the Mughals from the Indo-Gangetic Plains . Urged by Bairam Khan, who re-marshalled the Mughal army before Hemu could consolidate his position, Akbar marched on Delhi to reclaim it. His army, led by Bairam Khan, defeated Hemu and the Sur army on 5 November 1556 at the Second Battle of Panipat , 50 miles (80 km) north of Delhi. Soon after
4028-742: The Uzbek invasion of Safavid-held Khorasan . In return, Abdullah Khan agreed to refrain from supporting, subsidising, or offering refuge to the Afghan tribes hostile to the Mughals. Akbar, in turn, began a series of campaigns to pacify the Yusufzais and other rebels. Akbar ordered Zain Khan to lead an expedition against the Afghan tribes. Raja Birbal , a renowned minister in Akbar's court, was also given military command. The expedition failed, and on their retreat from
4134-457: The authority of the emperor, accepting him only as 'King of Delhi' and removing all references to him from their coinage. After the Indian rebellion which he nominally led from 1857–58, the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar , was deposed by the British, who then assumed formal control of a large part of the former empire, marking the start of the British Raj . Titular emperors Over
4240-405: The battle, Mughal forces occupied Delhi and then Agra. Akbar made a triumphant entry into Delhi, where he stayed for a month. Then, he and Bairam Khan returned to Punjab to deal with Sikandar Shah Suri, who had become active again. In the next six months, the Mughals won another major battle against Sikander, who fled east to Bengal . Akbar and his forces occupied Lahore and then seized Multan in
4346-468: The capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. Historians have advanced several reasons for the move, including an insufficient or poor quality water supply at Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar's campaigns in the northwest areas of the Empire or loss of interest. In 1599, Akbar moved his capital back to Agra, where he ruled until his death. Akbar was a patron of the arts and culture. He had Sanskrit literature translated and participated in native festivals. Akbar established
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4452-418: The command of his foster brother, Adham Khan , and a Mughal commander, Pir Muhammad Khan, began the Mughal conquest of Malwa. The Afghan ruler, Baz Bahadur , was defeated at the Battle of Sarangpur and fled to Khandesh for refuge, leaving behind his harem, treasure, and war elephants. Despite initial success, Akbar was ultimately displeased with the aftermath of the campaign; his foster brother retained all of
4558-1093: The course of the empire, there were several claimants to the Mughal throne who ascended the throne or claimed to do so but were never recognized. Here are the claimants to the Mughal throne historians recognise as titular Mughal emperors. (4 years, 8 months and 6 days) (9 years, 4 months and 21 days) 22 February 1555 – 27 January 1556 (11 months and 5 days) (49 years, 8 months and 16 days) (21 years, 11 months and 25 days) (30 years, 6 months and 12 days) Alamgir عالمگیر (48 years, 7 months and 3 days) (3 months 6 days) Shah Alam I (4 years, 253 days) (0 years, 350 days) (6 years, 48 days) (0 years, 98 days) (0 years, 105 days) (28 years, 212 days) (6 years, 37 days) (5 years, 180 days) (0 years, 282 days) (27 years, 301 days) (0 years, 63 days) (18 years, 339 days) (30 years, 321 days) (19 years, 360 days) Islam Shah Islam Shah Suri (Jalal Khan; 1507 – 22 November 1554) also known as Salim Shah Suri ,
4664-525: The court, however, began to exceed the revenue being levied. Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh , became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness. Dara championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim religion and culture. With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy, however, a younger son of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb , seized the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed. Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, there
4770-400: The crook of the Mughal provinces of Rajputana and Malwa. Gujarat possessed areas of rich agricultural production in its central plain, an impressive output of textiles and other industrial goods, and the busiest seaports of India. Akbar intended to link the maritime state with the massive resources of the Indo-Gangetic plains. Akbar's ostensible casus belli for warring with Gujarat was that
4876-469: The dominion of Daud Khan. Only Orissa was left in the hands of the Karrani dynasty , albeit as a fief of the Mughal Empire. A year later, however, Daud Khan rebelled and attempted to regain Bengal. He was defeated by the Mughal general Khan Jahan Quli and fled into exile. Daud Khan was later captured and executed by Mughal forces. His severed head was sent to Akbar, while his limbs were gibbeted at Tandah,
4982-471: The emperor for military appointments and promotion. The mir saman was in charge of the imperial household, including the harems, and supervised the functioning of the court and royal bodyguard. The judiciary was a separate organisation headed by a chief qazi , who was also responsible for religious beliefs and practices. Akbar reformed the administration land revenues by adopting a system that had been used by Sher Shah Suri . The village continued to remain
5088-543: The empire heavily in both militarily and financially. A further problem for Aurangzeb was the army had always been based upon the land-owning aristocracy of northern India who provided the cavalry for the campaigns, and the empire had nothing equivalent to the janissary corps of the Ottoman Empire. The long and costly conquest of the Deccan had badly diminished the "aura of success" that surrounded Aurangzeb, and from
5194-766: The empire's decline, but he ultimately had to seek the protection of outside powers. In 1784, the Marathas under Mahadaji Shinde won acknowledgement as the protectors of the emperor in Delhi, a state of affairs that continued until after the Second Anglo-Maratha War . Thereafter, the East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi . After 1835 the Company no longer recognised
5300-458: The evening, he would have someone read to him. On 20 November 1551, Humayun's youngest brother, Hindal Mirza, died in a battle against Kamran Mirza's forces. Upon hearing the news of his brother's death, Humayun was overwhelmed with grief. About the time of nine-year-old Akbar's first appointment as governor of Ghazni , he married Hindal's daughter, Ruqaiya Sultan Begum , his first wife. Humayun gave Akbar command of Hindal's troops and conferred on
5406-510: The exception of Turkey, there is perhaps no country in which its guns has more means of securing the Government than [India]." Scholars and historians have used the term " gunpowder empire " to analyse the success of the Mughals in India. Akbar's father Humayun had regained control of the Punjab , Delhi , and Agra with Safavid support, but Mughal rule was still precarious when Akbar took
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#17327658304975512-407: The expansion. The young emperor, at the age of eighteen, wanted to take a more active part in managing the Empire's affairs. Urged on by his foster mother, Maham Anga , and other relatives, Akbar dismissed Bairam Khan following a dispute at court in the spring of 1560 and ordered him to leave on Hajj to Mecca . Bairam Khan left for Mecca, but on his way, was persuaded by his opponents to rebel. He
5618-457: The fabulous wealth of the Mughal court, but the glittering court hid darker realities, namely that about a quarter of the empire's gross national product was owned by 655 families while the bulk of India's 120 million people lived in appalling poverty. After suffering what appears to have been an epileptic seizure in 1578 while hunting tigers, which he regarded as a religious experience , Akbar grew disenchanted with Islam, and came to embrace
5724-520: The families involved; the women were lost to their families and did not return after marriage. Akbar departed from that practice, providing that the Hindu Rajputs who married their daughters or sisters to him would be treated equally to his Muslim fathers- and brothers-in-law, except that they would not be allowed to dine or pray with him or take Muslim wives. Akbar also made those Rajputs members of his court. Some Rajputs considered marriage to Akbar
5830-422: The forces of his brother, Muhammad Hakim, who had marched into the Punjab with the intention of seizing the imperial throne. Following a brief confrontation, Muhammad Hakim accepted Akbar's supremacy and retreated back to Kabul. In 1564, Mughal forces began the conquest of Garha , a thinly populated, hilly area in central India that was of interest to the Mughals because of its herd of wild elephants. The territory
5936-477: The help of our blood-thirsty sword we have erased the signs of infidelity in their minds and destroyed the temples in those places and all over Hindustan." Akbar had the surviving defenders and 30,000 non-combatants massacred and their heads displayed upon towers erected throughout the region to demonstrate his authority. Akbar remained in Chittorgarh for three days, then returned to Agra, where, to commemorate
6042-522: The highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgements of the emperor as the sovereign of India. In the next decades, the Afghans , Sikhs , and Marathas battled against each other and the Mughals, revealing the fragmented state of the empire. The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II made futile attempts to reverse
6148-552: The imperial couple all of Hindal's wealth. Akbar's marriage to Ruqaiya was solemnised in Jalandhar , Punjab, when they were both 14 years old. Following chaos over the succession of Sher Shah Suri's son Islam Shah , Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, leading an army partly provided by his Persian ally Tahmasp I . A few months later, Humayun died. Akbar's guardian, Bairam Khan , concealed his death to prepare for Akbar's succession. Akbar succeeded Humayun on 14 February 1556, while in
6254-463: The kingdom stretched to 3.2 million square kilometres, including parts of what are now India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. After his death in 1707, "many parts of the empire were in open revolt." Aurangzeb's attempts to reconquer his family's ancestral lands in Central Asia were not successful while his successful conquest of the Deccan region proved to be a pyrrhic victory that cost
6360-568: The late 17th century onwards, the aristocracy became increasingly unwilling to provide forces for the empire's wars as the prospect of being rewarded with land as a result of a successful war was seen as less and less likely. Furthermore, at the conclusion of the conquest of the Deccan, Aurangzeb had very selectively rewarded some of the noble families with confiscated land in the Deccan, leaving aristocrats unrewarded with confiscated land feeling strongly disgruntled and unwilling to participate in further campaigns. Aurangzeb's son, Shah Alam , repealed
6466-638: The library of Fatehpur Sikri exclusively for women, and he decreed the establishment of schools for the education of both Muslims and Hindus throughout the realm. He also encouraged bookbinding to become a high art. Akbar's government prioritized commercial expansion, encouraging traders, providing protection and security for transactions, and levying a low custom duty to stimulate foreign trade. It also required that local administrators provide restitution to traders for goods stolen while in their territories. To minimise such incidents, bands of highway police called rahdars were enlisted to patrol roads and ensure
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#17327658304976572-400: The lower Indus valley. Since 1574, the northern fortress of Bhakkar had remained under imperial control. In 1586, the Mughal governor of Multan tried and failed to secure the capitulation of Mirza Jani Beg , the independent ruler of Thatta in southern Sindh. Akbar responded by sending a Mughal army to besiege Sehwan , the river capital of the region. Jani Beg mustered a large army to meet
6678-445: The midst of a war against Sikandar Shah to reclaim the Mughal throne. In Kalanaur, Punjab , the 14-year-old Akbar was enthroned by Bairam Khan on a newly constructed platform (which still stands) and was proclaimed Shahanshah ( Persian for "King of Kings"). Bairam Khan ruled on his behalf until he came of age. Akbar's military campaigns consolidated Mughal rule in the Indian subcontinent . Akbar introduced organisational changes to
6784-483: The mountain fortress of the Gonds. The Mughals seized immense wealth, including an uncalculated amount of gold and silver, jewels, and 1,000 elephants. Kamala Devi, a younger sister of Durgavati, was sent to the Mughal harem. The brother of Durgavati's deceased husband was installed as the Mughal administrator of the region. As with Malwa, Akbar entered into a dispute with his vassals over the conquest of Gondwana. Asaf Khan
6890-588: The mountains, Birbal and his entourage were ambushed and killed by Afghans at the Malandarai Pass in February 1586. Akbar immediately fielded new armies to reinvade the Yusufzai lands under the command of Raja Todar Mal . Over the next six years, the Mughals contained the Yusufzai in the mountain valleys, forcing the submission of many chiefs in Swat and Bajaur. Dozens of forts were built and occupied to secure
6996-474: The mountains. Akbar left Kabul in the hands of his sister, Bakht-un-Nissa Begum , and returned to India. He then pardoned his brother, who took up de facto control of the Mughal administration in Kabul; Bakht-un-Nissa continued to be the official governor. In 1585, after Muhammad Hakim died, Kabul passed into the hands of Akbar and was officially incorporated as a province of the Mughal Empire. The Kabul expedition
7102-689: The new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India. The instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun , who was driven into exile in Persia by rebels. Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal courts and led to increasing West Asian cultural influence in the Mughal court. The restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from an accident shortly afterwards. Humayun's son, Akbar , succeeded to
7208-445: The next year, Akbar sent another Mughal army to invade and annexe the kingdom. Malwa became a province of the nascent imperial administration of Akbar's regime. Baz Bahadur survived as a refugee at various courts until, eight years later in 1570, he took service under Akbar. When Adham Khan confronted Akbar following another dispute in late 1561, the emperor threw him from a terrace into the palace courtyard at Agra. Still alive, Adham Khan
7314-432: The nobility to the crown. He continued his father's policies of efficient administration and increased centralization. He had little opportunity for military campaigning; the fugitive Mughal emperor Humayun , whom his father had overthrown, made one abortive attempt to attack him. He did however lead one major campaign against Kalinjar . Islam Shah died on 22 November 1554. He was succeeded by his son Firuz Shah Suri , who
7420-517: The nobility. The empire's permanent standing army was small and the imperial forces mostly consisted of contingents maintained by the mansabdars . Persons were normally appointed to a low mansab and then promoted based on merit and the favour of the emperor. Each mansabdar was required to maintain a certain number of cavalrymen and twice that number of horses. The number of horses was greater because they had to be rested and rapidly replaced in times of war. Akbar employed strict measures to ensure that
7526-518: The northwestern frontiers of the Mughal Empire. The Uzbeks also subsidised Afghan tribes on the border that were hostile to the Mughals. The tribes felt challenged by the Yusufzai of Bajaur and Swat and were motivated by a new religious leader, Bayazid, the founder of the Roshaniyya sect. In 1586, Akbar negotiated a pact with Abdullah Khan in which the Mughals agreed to remain neutral during
7632-728: The one at Attock near the crossing of the Grand Trunk Road and the Indus river . He also constructed a network of smaller forts called thanas throughout the frontier to secure the overland trade route with Persia and Central Asia. He also established an international trading business for his chief consort, Mariam-uz-Zamani , who ran an extensive trade of indigo, spices, and cotton to Gulf nations through merchant's vessels. Akbar introduced coins with decorative features, including floral motifs, dotted borders, and quatrefoil . The coins were issued in both round and square shapes, including
7738-571: The power equation between the two had now changed in favour of the Mughals. In 1593, Akbar began military operations against the Deccan Sultans, who had not submitted to his authority. He besieged Ahmednagar Fort in 1595, forcing Chand Bibi to cede Berar . A subsequent revolt forced Akbar to take the fort in August 1600. Akbar occupied Burhanpur and besieged Asirgarh Fort in 1599, and took it on 17 January 1601, when Miran Bahadur Shah of
7844-448: The primary unit of revenue assessment. Cultivated areas were measured and taxed through fixed rates—on the basis of prices prevailing the imperial court—based on the type of crop and productivity. This system burdened the peasantry because prices at the imperial court were often higher than those in the countryside. Akbar also introduced a decentralised system of annual assessment, which resulted in corruption among local officials. The system
7950-399: The quality of the armed forces was maintained at a high level; horses were regularly inspected and usually only Arabian horses were employed. The mansabdars were the highest paid military service in the world at the time. Akbar was a follower of Salim Chishti , a holy man who lived in the region of Sikri near Agra. Believing the area to be lucky, Akbar had a mosque constructed there for
8056-493: The rebel Mirzas, who had previously been driven out of India, were now operating out of a base in southern Gujarat. Moreover, Akbar had received invitations from cliques in Gujarat to oust the reigning king, which further served as justification for his military expedition. In 1572, Akbar moved to occupy Ahmedabad , the capital, and other northern cities, and was proclaimed the lawful sovereign of Gujarat. By 1573, he had driven out
8162-490: The rebellious leaders, hoping to conciliate them, but they rebelled again; Akbar quelled their second uprising. Following a third revolt, with the proclamation of Mirza Muhammad Hakim —Akbar's brother and the Mughal ruler of Kabul—several Uzbek chieftains were slain and the rebel leaders trampled to death under elephants. Simultaneously, the Mirzas, a group of Akbar's distant cousins who held important fiefs near Agra, rebelled and were defeated by Akbar. In 1566, Akbar moved to meet
8268-505: The region. Despite his pact with the Uzbeks, Akbar nurtured a secret hope of reconquering Central Asia, but Badakshan and Balkh remained firmly part of the Uzbek dominion. Abdullah Khan died in 1598 and the last of the rebellious Afghan tribes were subdued by 1600. The Roshaniyya movement was suppressed, its leaders were captured or driven into exile, and the Afridi and Orakzai tribes which had risen up under them were subjugated. Jalaluddin,
8374-466: The reign of Aurangzeb , the empire, as the world's largest economy and manufacturing power, worth over 25% of global GDP, controlled nearly all of the Indian subcontinent, extending from Dhaka in the east to Kabul in the west and from Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri River in the south. Its population at the time is estimated to be 158,400,000 (a quarter of the world's population), over
8480-611: The religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds. In the year 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne". During the reign of Muhammad Shah , the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughals to the Marathas hands. Mughal warfare had always been based upon heavy artillery for sieges, heavy cavalry for offensive operations and light cavalry for skirmishing and raids. To control
8586-557: The rulers of Mewar and Marwar— Udai Singh II and Chandrasen Rathore —remained outside the imperial fold. Udai Singh was descended from the Sisodia ruler, Rana Sanga , who had fought Babur at the Battle of Khanwa in 1527. As the head of the Sisodia clan , he possessed the highest ritual status of all the Rajput kings and chieftains in India. The Mughals viewed defeating Udai Singh as essential to asserting their imperial authority among
8692-526: The safety of traders. Other active measures taken included the construction and protection of routes of commerce and communications. Akbar made concerted efforts to improve roads to facilitate the use of wheeled vehicles through the Khyber Pass, the most popular route frequented by traders and travellers journeying from Kabul into Mughal India. He also strategically occupied the northwestern cities of Multan and Lahore in Punjab and constructed forts, such as
8798-528: The son of the Roshaniyya movement's founder, Bayazid, was killed in 1601 in a fight with Mughal troops near Ghazni . While Akbar was in Lahore dealing with the Uzbeks, he sought to subjugate the Indus valley to secure the frontier provinces. In 1585, he sent an army to conquer Kashmir in the upper Indus basin after Yousuf Shah , the reigning king of the Shia Chak dynasty , refused to send his son as
8904-547: The spoils and followed through with the Central Asian practice of slaughtering the surrendered garrison, their wives and children, and many Muslim theologians and Sayyids, who were descendants of Muhammad . Akbar personally rode to Malwa to confront Adham Khan and relieve him of command. Pir Muhammad Khan was then sent in pursuit of Baz Bahadur, but was beaten back by the alliance of the rulers of Khandesh and Berar . Baz Bahadur temporarily regained control of Malwa until, in
9010-704: The subcontinent. Afterwards, they declined rapidly, but nominally ruled territories until the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , where they gave their last stand against the invading British forces in India. The Mughal dynasty was founded by Babur ( r. 1526–1530 ), a Timurid prince from the Fergana Valley (modern-day Uzbekistan ), was a direct descendant of both Timur and Genghis Khan . The Mughal emperors had significant Indian Rajput and Persian ancestry through marriage alliances as emperors were born to Rajput and Persian princesses. During
9116-575: The throne under a regent, Bairam Khan , who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India. Through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari river . He created a new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. He increased trade with European trading companies. The Indian historian Abraham Eraly wrote that foreigners were often impressed by
9222-479: The throne. When the Surs reconquered Agra and Delhi following the death of Humayun, Akbar's young age and the lack of military assistance from the Mughal stronghold of Kabul —which was in the midst of an invasion by the ruler of Badakhshan , Prince Mirza Suleiman—aggravated the situation. When his regent, Bairam Khan , called a council of war to marshall the Mughal forces, none of Akbar's chieftains approved. Bairam Khan
9328-463: The title "Islam Shah". He was still worried that his brother would threaten his power and tried to have him captured. But Adil Khan evaded his grasp and raised an army. It marched on Islam Shah while he was at Agra . In the battle Islam Shah came out victorious and Adil Khan fled eastwards, never to be seen again. The support some nobles had given his brother made Islam Shah suspicious, leading him to ruthlessly purge their ranks and strictly subordinate
9434-410: The use of the priest. Subsequently, he celebrated the victories over Chittor and Ranthambore by laying the foundations of a new walled capital, 23 miles (37 km) west of Agra in 1569, which was named Fatehpur ("Town of Victory") after the conquest of Gujarat in 1573, and subsequently came to be known as Fatehpur Sikri to distinguish it from other similarly named towns. The city was soon abandoned and
9540-563: The victory, he set up statues of Jaimal and Patta mounted on elephants at the gates of his fort. Thereafter, Udai Singh never ventured out of his mountain refuge in Mewar. The fall of Chittorgarh was followed up by a Mughal attack on the Ranthambore Fort in 1568. Ranthambore was held by the Hada Rajputs and reputed to be the most powerful fortress in India. However, it fell only after a couple of months. At that point, most of
9646-402: The zamindars were given a hereditary right to collect a share of the produce. Peasants had a hereditary right to cultivate the land as long as they paid the land revenue. Revenue officials were guaranteed only three-quarters of their salary, with the remaining quarter dependent on their full realisation of the revenue assessed. Akbar organised his army and the nobility by means of a system called
9752-479: Was Sultan of Hindustan from 27 May 1545 until his death in 1554. He was the second ruler of the Suri dynasty which ruled parts of India in the mid-16th century. He was the second son of Sher Shah Suri . On his father's death, an emergency meeting of nobles chose Jalal Khan to be successor instead of his elder brother Adil Khan, since he had shown greater military ability. Jalal Khan was crowned on 26 May 1545 and took
9858-438: Was a succession war for the throne between Dara and Aurangzeb. Finally, Aurangzeb succeeded the throne and kept Shah Jahan under house arrest. During Aurangzeb's reign, the empire gained political strength once more, and it became the world's largest economy, over a quarter of the world GDP, but his establishment of Sharia caused huge controversies. Aurangzeb expanded the empire to include a huge part of South Asia. At its peak,
9964-469: Was abandoned in 1580 and replaced with the dahsala (also known as zabti ), under which revenue was calculated as one-third of the average produce of the previous ten years, to be paid to the state in cash. This system was later refined, taking into account local prices and grouping areas with similar productivity into assessment circles. Remission was given to peasants when the harvest failed during times of flood or drought. The dahsala system
10070-400: Was accused of keeping most of the treasures and sending back only 200 elephants to Akbar. When summoned to give accounts, he fled Gondwana. He went first to the Uzbeks, then returned to Gondwana where he was pursued by Mughal forces. Finally, he submitted and Akbar restored him to his previous position. In January 1564, an assassin shot an arrow at Akbar, which pierced his right shoulder, as he
10176-476: Was also interested in elevating the way individuals view leaders with the stylings of his clothes and ensemble. Akbar's son, Jahangir , was addicted to opium , neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques . During the reign of Jahangir's son, Shah Jahan , the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by the Taj Mahal . The cost of maintaining
10282-448: Was based on the system that had evolved since the Delhi Sultanate . Akbar reorganised the sections with a detailed set of regulations. The revenue department was headed by a wazir , responsible for finances and management of jagir and inam land. The head of the military was called the mir bakshi , appointed from among the leading nobles of the court. The mir bakshi was in charge of intelligence gathering, and made recommendations to
10388-413: Was defeated at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540) by the forces of Sher Shah Suri , Humayun fled westward to modern-day Sindh . There, he met and married the 14-year-old Hamida Banu Begum , daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a Persian teacher of Humayun's younger brother Hindal Mirza . Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar was born to them the next year on 25 October 1542 (the fifth day of Rajab , 949 AH ) at
10494-462: Was defeated by the Mughal army in the Punjab and forced to submit. Akbar forgave him and gave him the option of either continuing in his court or resuming his pilgrimage; Bairam chose the latter. Bairam Khan was assassinated on his way to Mecca, by a group of Afghans led by Mubarak Khan Lohani, whose father had been killed while fighting with the Mughals at the Battle of Machhiwara in 1555. In 1560, Akbar resumed military operations. A Mughal army under
10600-459: Was dragged up and thrown to the courtyard once again by Akbar to ensure his death. After Adham Khan's death, Akbar distributed authority among specialised ministerial posts relating to different aspects of imperial governance to prevent any one noble from becoming too powerful. When a powerful clan of Uzbek chiefs broke out in rebellion in 1564, Akbar routed them in Malwa and then Bihar . He pardoned
10706-523: Was in an adversary relationship with his overlord, Shah Abbas , was granted a rank of 5,000 men, and his daughter Kandahari Begum was married to Akbar's grandson, the Mughal prince Khurram . Kandahar was secured in 1595 with the arrival of a garrison headed by the Mughal general, Shah Bayg Khan. The reconquest of Kandahar did not overtly disturb Mughal-Persian relations. Akbar and the Persian Shah continued to exchange ambassadors and presents. However,
10812-478: Was returning from a visit to the Dargah of Hazrat Nizamuddin near Delhi. The Emperor ordered the apprehended assassin, a slave of Mirza Sharfuddin—a noble in Akbar's court whose recent rebellion had been suppressed—to be beheaded. Having established Mughal rule over northern India, Akbar turned his attention to the conquest of Rajputana , which was strategically important as it was a rival centre of power that flanked
10918-467: Was ruled over by Raja Vir Narayan, a minor, and his mother, Durgavati , a Rajput warrior queen of the Gonds. Akbar did not personally lead the campaign because he was preoccupied with the Uzbek rebellion, leaving the expedition in the hands of Asaf Khan, the Mughal governor of Kara. Durgavati committed suicide after her defeat at the Battle of Damoh, while Raja Vir Narayan was slain at the Fall of Chauragarh,
11024-547: Was set out by Raja Todar Mal , who also served as a revenue officer under Sher Shah Suri, in a detailed memorandum submitted to the emperor in 1582–1583. Other local methods of assessment continued in some areas. Lands which were fallow or uncultivated were assessed at concessional rates. Akbar also encouraged the improvement and extension of agriculture. Zamindars were required to provide loans and agricultural implements in times of need, and to encourage farmers to plough as much land as possible and sow high-quality seeds. In turn,
11130-486: Was the beginning of a long period of activity over the northern frontiers of the empire. For thirteen years, beginning in 1585, Akbar remained in the north, shifting his capital to Lahore while he dealt with challenges from Uzbek tribes, which had driven his grandfather, Babur, out of Central Asia. The Uzbeks were organised under Abdullah Khan Shaybanid , a military chieftain who had seized Badakhshan and Balkh from Akbar's distant Timurid relatives, and whose troops challenged
11236-402: Was ultimately able to prevail over the nobles and it was decided that the Mughals would march against the strongest of the Sur rulers, Sikandar Shah Suri , in Punjab. Delhi was left under the regency of Tardi Baig Khan . Sikandar Shah Suri, his army weakened by earlier lost battles, withdrew to avoid combat as the Mughal army approached. Akbar also faced Hemu , a minister and general of one of
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