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87-898: Al-Ashraf , either from al-ashraf (Arabic: الأشرف , 'the most noble') or al-ashrāf ( الأشراف , 'the nobles'), may refer to: People [ edit ] Al-Ashraf Al-Barsbay , Burji Mamluk sultan of Egypt (1422–1438) Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghuri , Mamluk Sultan (1501–1516) Al-Ashraf Janbalat , Sultan of Egypt (1500–1501) Al-Ashraf Khalil , Mamluk Sultan (1290–1293) Al-Ashraf Kujuk , Mamluk Sultan (1341–1342) Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Homs (1246–1263) Al-Ashraf Musa, Sultan of Egypt (1250–1254) Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Damascus and Ba'albek (1229–1237) Al-Ashraf Sha'ban , Mamluk Sultan (1363–1377) Al-Ashraf Tuman bay , last Sultan of Egypt (1516–1517) Al-Ashraf Umar II (1242–1296), Rasulid sultan, mathematician and astronomer Places [ edit ] Al Ashraf, Makkah , village in

174-531: A Roman province . Rome's presence afforded relative stability in northern Syria for over three centuries. Although the province was administered by a legate from Rome, Rome did not impose its administrative organization on the Greek-speaking ruling class or Aramaic speaking populace. The Roman era saw an increase in the population of northern Syria that accelerated under the Byzantines well into

261-517: A folk etymology related by the twelfth century CE Rabbi Pethahiah of Regensburg and the traveler Ibn Battuta , the name derives from Hebrew : חלב , lit.   'milk' or Arabic : ḥaleb , lit.   'milk' because Abraham milked his sheep there to feed the poor. From the 11th century, it was common Rabbinic usage to apply the term " Aram-Zobah " to the area of Aleppo, and many Syrian Jews continue to do so. Aleppo has scarcely been touched by archaeologists, since

348-645: A 567-day voyage before returning unsuccessfully to port. Reference is also made to the city in Shakespeare's Othello when Othello speaks his final words (ACT V, ii, 349f.): "Set you down this/And say besides that in Aleppo once,/Where a malignant and a turbanned Turk/Beat a Venetian and traduced the state,/I took by th' throat the circumcised dog/And smote him—thus!" (Arden Shakespeare Edition, 2004). The English naval chaplain Henry Teonge describes in his diary

435-648: A campaign to capture Aleppo during the reign of Sabiq ibn Mahmud of the Mirdasid dynasty , which lasted until 1080, when his reinforcements were ambushed and routed by a coalition of Arab tribesmen led by Kilabi chief Abu Za'ida at Wadi Butnan . After the death of Sharaf al-Dawla of the Uqaylid dynasty in June 1085, the headman in Aleppo Sharif Hassan ibn Hibat Allah Al-Hutayti promised to surrender

522-523: A letter of recognition. The Bengali ruler had died before his gifts could be dispatched to Barsbay. His son and successor, Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah , had slightly delayed the dispatching but nevertheless sending the initial gifts of his father off whilst also adding more gifts of his own. In total, the package was worth over 12,000 red tankas and included clothes, cotton, ginger , myrobalan and other spices. The envoy, travelling from Bengal to Cairo via

609-524: A reputation simultaneously for being greedy and bad-tempered but also generous to the poor and to Sufis (the latter tendency being evident in his mausoleum-khanqah complex in the Northern Cemetery ). He was responsible for a number of administrative reforms in the Mamluk state, including the consolidation of the sultanate as a military magistrature and securing for Egypt exclusive rights over

696-580: A visit he paid to the city in 1675, when there was a colony of Western European merchants living there. The city remained Ottoman until the empire's collapse, but was occasionally riven with internal feuds as well as attacks of cholera from 1823. Around 20–25 percent of the population died of plague in 1827. In 1850, a Muslim mob attacked Christian neighbourhoods, tens of Christians were killed and several churches looted. Though this event has been portrayed as driven by pure sectarian principles, Bruce Masters argues that such analysis of this period of violence

783-631: Is a city in Syria , which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate , the most populous governorate of Syria . With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents as of 2021, it was Syria's largest city until its population was surpassed by Damascus , the capital of Syria, the largest in Syria's northern governorates and also one of the largest cities in the Levant region. Aleppo

870-400: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Barsbay A former slave of the inaugural Burjite sultan, Barquq, Barsbay hailed from Circassian descent. On May 2, 1418, he was designated as the governor of Tripoli . He later assumed the role of tutor to Muhammad , the son of Sultan Tatar , who was just ten years old upon ascending to

957-474: Is known for at least three extant and notable monuments. He built a madrasa-mosque complex in the heart of Cairo on al-Muizz street in 1424. His mausoleum complex , which also included a madrasa and khanqah , was built in Cairo's Northern Cemetery in 1432. He also built a mosque in the town of al-Khanqa, north of Cairo, in 1437. Barsbay's first wife was Khawand Fatima, the daughter Qajqar al-Qardami. She

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1044-510: Is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world ; it may have been inhabited since the sixth millennium BC. Excavations at Tell as-Sawda and Tell al-Ansari, just south of the old city of Aleppo , show that the area was occupied by Amorites by the latter part of the third millennium BC. That is also the time at which Aleppo is first mentioned in cuneiform tablets unearthed in Ebla and Mesopotamia , which speak of it as part of

1131-514: Is that Ḥalab means 'white', as this is the word for 'white' in Aramaic. This may explain how Ḥalab became the Hebrew word for 'milk' or vice versa, as well as offering a possible explanation for the modern-day Arabic nickname of the city, al-Shahbāʾ ( Arabic : الشهباء ), which means "the white-colored mixed with black" and allegedly derives from the white marble found at Aleppo. According to

1218-537: Is too shallow and neglects the tensions that existed among the population due to the commercial favor afforded to certain Christian minorities by the Tanzimat Reforms during this time which played a large role in creating antagonism between previously cooperative groups of Muslim and Christians in the eastern quarters of the city. By 1901, the city's population was around 110,000. In October 1918, Aleppo

1305-554: The Aleppo Eyalet ; the rest of what later became Syria was part of either the eyalets of Damascus, Tripoli, Sidon or Raqqa. Following the Ottoman provincial reform of 1864 Aleppo became the centre of the newly constituted Vilayet of Aleppo in 1866. Aleppo's agriculture was well-developed in the Ottoman period. Archaeological excavations revealed water mills in its river basin. Contemporary Chinese source also suggests Aleppo in

1392-524: The Armenian ruler Hethum I . The city was poorly defended by Turanshah, and as a result the walls fell after six days of siege, and the citadel fell four weeks later. The Muslim population was massacred and many Jews were also killed. The Christian population was spared. Turanshah was shown unusual respect by the Mongols, and was allowed to live because of his age and bravery. The city was then given to

1479-861: The Ayyubid dynasty . When the Ayyubids were toppled in Egypt by the Mamluks , the Ayyubid emir of Aleppo An-Nasir Yusuf became sultan of the remaining part of the Ayyubid Empire. He ruled Syria from his seat in Aleppo until, on 24 January 1260, the city was taken by the Mongols under Hulagu in alliance with their vassals the Frankish knights of the ruler of Antioch Bohemond VI and his father-in-law

1566-735: The Crusades , and again during the Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon of 1923–1946, the name Alep was used. Aleppo represents the Italianised version of this. The original ancient name, Ḥalab , has survived as the current Arabic name of the city. It is of obscure origin. Some have proposed that Ḥalab means "iron" or "copper" in the Amorite language since the area served as a major source of these metals in antiquity. Another possibility

1653-622: The House of Lusignan ) and forced him to pay tribute. In 1430, Egypt was severely struck by famine and plague . Barsbay had good ties with other Muslim rulers of his time, namely Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah , the Sultan of Bengal . According to Al-Sakhawi 's Al-Daw' al-Lāmi` li-Ahl al-Qarn al-Tāsi' , the Mamluk sultan once gifted the Bengali sultan with investiture, a robe of honour and

1740-792: The Indian Ocean , sank whilst at Jeddah 's coast. In 1436, the Governor of Jeddah sent some men to search the Red Sea for the gifts and they came back with the textiles although the spices were damaged by the water. After Barsbay was informed of this by the governor, he ordered for the arrest of all members of the Bengali embassy, the confiscation of their envoy's merchandise, and banned them from ever travelling to Cairo again. The revenues from this military victory and these trade policies may have helped him finance his construction projects, and he

1827-689: The Middle Assyrian Empire , whose king renovated the temple of Hadad which was discovered in 2003. In 2003, a statue of a king named Taita bearing inscriptions in Luwian was discovered during excavations conducted by German archeologist Kay Kohlmeyer in the Citadel of Aleppo . The new readings of Anatolian hieroglyphic signs proposed by the Hittitologists Elisabeth Rieken and Ilya Yakubovich were conducive to

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1914-631: The Ottoman Empire in 1516 as part of the vast expansion of the Ottoman borders during the reign of Selim I . The city then had around 50,000 inhabitants, or 11,224 households according to an Ottoman census. In 1517, Selim I obtained a fatwa from Sunnite religious leaders and unleashed violence on the Alawites , killing 9,400 men, which is known as the Massacre of the Telal . It was the centre of

2001-500: The Red Sea trade between Yemen and Europe. In the process he diverted the Indian Ocean trade routes through Jeddah (closer to Cairo) and also introduced a state monopoly on sugar and pepper. His Red Sea activity included the final destruction in 1426 of ‘Aydhab , a once important port which had been in decline in the previous century. The 15th century saw an international economic recession. During this time, Barsbay knew

2088-744: The Roman Emperor Constantius II . After the Council of Seleucia of 359, called by Constantius, Meletius of Antioch was transferred from Sebastea to Beroea but in the following year was promoted to Antioch. His successor in Beroea, Anatolius, was at a council in Antioch in 363. Under the persecuting Emperor Valens , the bishop of Beroea was Theodotus, a friend of Basil the Great . He was succeeded by Acacius of Beroea , who governed

2175-588: The Silk Road , which passed through Central Asia and Mesopotamia . When the Suez Canal was inaugurated in 1869, much trade was diverted to sea and Aleppo began its slow decline. At the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I , Aleppo lost its northern hinterland to modern Turkey , as well as the important Baghdad Railway connecting it to Mosul . In the 1940s, it lost its main access to

2262-595: The Syrian Revolt erupted in southern Syria in 1925, the French held in Aleppo State new elections that were supposed to lead to the breaking of the union with Damascus and restore the independence of Aleppo State. The French were driven to believe by pro-French Aleppine politicians that the people in Aleppo were supportive of such a scheme. After the new council was elected, however, it surprisingly voted to keep

2349-615: The Turcoman troops who were defending Aleppo. The Mamluk garrisons fled to Hama , until Baibars came north again with his main army, and the Mongols retreated. On 20 October 1280, the Mongols took the city again, pillaging the markets and burning the mosques. The Muslim inhabitants fled for Damascus, where the Mamluk leader Qalawun assembled his forces. When his army advanced following the Second Battle of Homs in October 1281,

2436-583: The Umayyad Caliphate . In 944, it became the seat of an independent Emirate under the Hamdanid prince Sayf al-Dawla , and enjoyed a period of great prosperity, being home to the great poet al-Mutanabbi and the philosopher and polymath al-Farabi . In 962, the city was sacked by the Byzantine general Nikephoros Phokas . Subsequently, the city and its emirate became a temporary vassal of

2523-593: The episcopal see of Beroea, which was in the Roman province of Syria Prima , are recorded in extant documents. The first whose name survives is that of Saint Eustathius of Antioch , who, after being bishop of Beroea, was transferred to the important metropolitan see of Antioch shortly before the 325 First Council of Nicaea . His successor in Beroea Cyrus was for his fidelity to the Nicene faith sent into exile by

2610-647: The 'land of Ḥalab,' was one of the most powerful in the Near East during the reign of Yarim-Lim I , who formed an alliance with Hammurabi of Babylonia against Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria . Yamḥad was devastated by the Hittites under Mursili I in the 16th century BC. However, it soon resumed its leading role in the Levant when the Hittite power in the region waned due to internal strife. Taking advantage of

2697-574: The 5th century. In Late Antiquity , Beroea was the second largest Syrian city after Antioch , the capital of Roman Syria and the third largest city in the Roman world. Archaeological evidence indicates a high population density for settlements between Antioch and Beroea right up to the 6th century. This agrarian landscape still holds the remains of large estate houses and churches such as the Church of Saint Simeon Stylites . The names of several bishops of

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2784-618: The Amorite state of Yamhad , and note its commercial and military importance. Such a long history is attributed to its strategic location as a trading center between the Mediterranean Sea and Mesopotamia. For centuries, Aleppo was the largest city in the Syrian region , and the Ottoman Empire 's third-largest after Constantinople (now Istanbul ) and Cairo . The city's significance in history has been its location at one end of

2871-637: The Byzantine Empire. For the next few decades, the city was disputed by the Fatimid Caliphate and Byzantine Empire , with the nominally independent Hamdanids in between, eventually falling to the Fatimids in 1017. In 1024, Salih ibn Mirdas launched an attack on Fatimid Aleppo, and after a few months was invited into the city by its population. The Mirdasid dynasty then ruled the city until 1080, interrupted only in 1038–1042, when it

2958-706: The Citadel of Aleppo. The two mosques inside the Citadel are known to have been converted by the Mirdasids during the 11th century from churches originally built by the Byzantines. The Sasanian Persians led by King Khosrow I pillaged and burned Aleppo in 540, then they invaded and controlled Syria briefly in the early 7th century. Soon after Aleppo was taken by the Muslims under Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah in 637. It later became part of Jund Qinnasrin under

3045-623: The Great took over the city in 333 BC. Seleucus Nicator established a Hellenic settlement in the site between 301 and 286 BC. He called it Beroea (Βέροια), after Beroea in Macedon ; it is sometimes spelled as Beroia. Beroea is mentioned in 1 Macc. 9:4. Northern Syria was the center of gravity of the Hellenistic colonizing activity, and therefore of Hellenistic culture in the Seleucid Empire . As did other Hellenized cities of

3132-617: The Makkah Region of Saudi Arabia Al-Ashraf (Taiz) , a district in Taiz, Yemen An-Najaf Al-Ashraf , city in central Iraq. Mosques [ edit ] Al-Ashraf Mosque in Cairo, built by Al-Ashraf Al-Barsbay Title [ edit ] Ashrāf or al-Ashrāf, title for those claiming descent from the family of the Islamic prophet Muhammad See also [ edit ] Ashraf (disambiguation) Topics referred to by

3219-589: The Mongols again retreated, back across the Euphrates . In October 1299, Ghazan captured the city, joined by his vassal Armenian King Hethum II , whose forces included some Templars and Hospitallers . In 1400, the Mongol-Turkic leader Tamerlane captured the city again from the Mamluks. He massacred many of the inhabitants, ordering the building of a tower of 20,000 skulls outside the city. After

3306-434: The Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut on 3 September 1260. The Mamluks won a decisive victory, killing the Mongols' Nestorian Christian general Kitbuqa , and five days later they had retaken Damascus. Aleppo was recovered by the Muslims within a month, and a Mamluk governor placed to govern the city. Hulagu sent troops to try to recover Aleppo in December. They were able to massacre a large number of Muslims in retaliation for

3393-422: The Ottoman Empire, never attempted to settle a factor, or agent, in Damascus, despite having had permission to do so. Aleppo served as the company's headquarters until the late 18th century. As a result of the economic development, many European states had opened consulates in Aleppo during the 16th and the 17th centuries, such as the consulate of the Republic of Venice in 1548, the consulate of France in 1562,

3480-468: The Ottoman period had well-developed animal husbandry. During his travels to the Levant in the 17th century, French traveler Jacques Goujon recounted how the Maronite community in Aleppo, facing financial difficulties and considering conversion to Islam due to their inability to pay the jizya tax , was aided by the Franciscans who bought their church, enabling them to meet their tax obligations. Moreover, thanks to its strategic geographic location on

3567-406: The Philistines, as do archaeologists Benjamin Sass and Kay Kohlmeyer. Gershon Galil suggests that King David halted the Arameans' expansion into the Land of Israel on account of his alliance with the southern Philistine kings, as well as with Toi, king of Ḥamath, who is identified with Tai(ta) II, king of Palistin (the northern Sea Peoples). During the early years of the 1st millennium BC, Aleppo

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3654-401: The Popular Party presented a constitution draft that called Damascus a "temporary capital." The first coup d'état in modern Syrian history was carried out in March 1949 by an army officer from Aleppo, Hussni Zaim . However, lured by the absolute power he enjoyed as a dictator, Zaim soon developed a pro-Egyptian, pro-Western orientation and abandoned the cause of union with Iraq. This incited

3741-426: The Seleucid kingdom, Beroea probably enjoyed a measure of local autonomy, with a local civic assembly or boulē composed of free Hellenes. Beroea remained under Seleucid rule until 88 BC when Syria was conquered by the Armenian king Tigranes the Great and Beroea became part of the Kingdom of Armenia . After the Roman victory over Tigranes, Syria was handed over to Pompey in 64 BC, at which time they became

3828-415: The advance of Malik-Shah or because the Fatimids were besieging Damascus. In 1087, Aq Sunqur al-Hajib became the Seljuk governor of Aleppo under Sultan Malik Shah I. During his bid for the Seljuk throne, Tutush had Aq Sunqur executed and after Tutush died in battle, the town was ruled by his son Ridwan . The city was besieged by Crusaders led by the King of Jerusalem Baldwin II in 1124–1125, but

3915-414: The bishop of Beroea Antoninus for rejecting the Council of Chalcedon. The last known bishop of the see is Megas, who was at a synod called by Patriarch Menas of Constantinople in 536. After the Arab conquest, Beroea ceased to be a residential bishopric, and is today listed by the Roman Catholic Church as a titular see . Very few physical remains have been found from the Roman and Byzantine periods in

4002-420: The capital of a large and wealthier state with which it would have been hard for Damascus to compete. The State of Aleppo as drawn by France contained most of the fertile area of Syria: the fertile countryside of Aleppo in addition to the entire fertile basin of river Euphrates . The state also had access to sea via the autonomous Sanjak of Alexandretta . On the other hand, Damascus, which is basically an oasis on

4089-417: The capital of an independent kingdom closely related to Ebla , known as Armi , although this identification is contested. The main temple of the storm god Hadad was located on the citadel hill in the center of the city, when the city was known as the city of Hadad . Naram-Sin of Akkad mentioned his destruction of Ebla and Armanum , in the 23rd century BC. However, the identification of Armani in

4176-422: The city but found it too strongly defended, hence John II moved the army southward to take nearby fortresses. On 11 October 1138, a deadly earthquake ravaged the city and the surrounding area. Although estimates from this time are very unreliable, it is believed that 230,000 people died, making it the seventh deadliest earthquake in recorded history. In 1183, Aleppo came under the control of Saladin and then

4263-448: The city as a vassal to Mitanni and was attacked by Tudhaliya I of the Hittites as a retaliation for his alliance to Mitanni. Later the Hittite king Suppiluliumas I permanently defeated Mitanni, and conquered Aleppo in the 14th century BC. Suppiluliumas installed his son Telepinus as king and a dynasty of Suppiluliumas descendants ruled Aleppo until the Late Bronze Age collapse . However, Talmi-Šarruma, grandson of Suppiluliumas I, who

4350-430: The city during the Syrian Civil War , and many parts of the city had suffered massive destruction. Affected parts of the city are currently undergoing reconstruction. An estimated 31,000 people were killed in Aleppo during the conflict. Modern-day English-speakers commonly refer to the city as Aleppo . It was known in antiquity as Khalpe , Khalibon , and to the Greeks and Romans as Beroea ( Βέροια ). During

4437-433: The city to Sultan Malik-Shah I . When the latter delayed his arrival, Hassan contacted the Sultan's brother Tutush. However, after Tutush defeated Suleiman ibn Qutulmish , who had intended to take Aleppo for himself, in the battle of Ain Salm , Hassan went back on his commitment. In response, Tutush attacked the city and managed to get hold of parts of the walls and towers in July 1086, but he left in September, either due to

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4524-418: The city, and his brother Khwaja Sanos Chelebi , who monopolized Aleppine silk trade and were important patrons of the Armenians. However, the prosperity Aleppo experienced in the 16th and 17th century started to fade as silk production in Iran went into decline with the fall of the Safavid dynasty in 1722. By mid-century, caravans were no longer bringing silk from Iran to Aleppo, and local Syrian production

4611-432: The conclusion that the country ruled by Taita was called Palistin . This country extended in the 11th-10th centuries BC from the Amouq Valley in the west to Aleppo in the east down to Maharda and Shaizar in the south. Due to the similarity between Palistin and Philistines, Hittitologist John David Hawkins (who translated the Aleppo inscriptions) hypothesizes a connection between the Syro-Hittite states Palistin and

4698-401: The consulate of England in 1583 and the consulate of the Netherlands in 1613. The Armenian community of Aleppo also rose to prominence in this period as they moved into the city to take up trade and developed the new quarter of Judayda. The most outstanding among Aleppine Armenian merchants during the late 16th and early 17th centuries were Khwaja Petik Chelebi , the richest merchant in

4785-408: The death of Kitbuqa, but after a fortnight could make no other progress and had to retreat. The Mamluk governor of the city became insubordinate to the central Mamluk authority in Cairo, and in Autumn 1261 the Mamluk leader Baibars sent an army to reclaim the city. In October 1271, the Mongols led by general Samagar took the city again, attacking with 10,000 horsemen from Anatolia , and defeating

4872-424: The federation was Subhi Barakat , an Antioch -born politician from Aleppo. The federation ended in December 1924, when France merged Aleppo and Damascus into a single Syrian State and separated the Alawite State again. This action came after the federation decided to merge the three federated states into one and to take steps encouraging Syria's financial independence, steps which France viewed as too much. When

4959-458: The former Emir of Homs , al-Ashraf , and a Mongol garrison was established in the city. Some of the spoils were also given to Hethum I for his assistance in the attack. The Mongol Army then continued on to Damascus , which surrendered, and the Mongols entered the city on 1 March 1260. In September 1260, the Egyptian Mamluks negotiated for a treaty with the Franks of Acre which allowed them to pass through Crusader territory unmolested, and engaged

5046-438: The fringes of the Syrian Desert , had neither enough fertile land nor access to sea. Basically, Gouraud wanted to satisfy Aleppo by giving it control over most of the agricultural and mineral wealth of Syria so that it would never want to unite with Damascus again. The limited economic resources of the Syrian states made the option of completely independent states undesirable for France, because it threatened an opposite result:

5133-408: The idea of a united Syria after the Battle of Maysaloun . By separating Aleppo from Damascus, Gouraud wanted to capitalize on a traditional state of competition between the two cities and turn it into political division. The people in Aleppo were unhappy with the fact that Damascus was chosen as capital for the new nation of Syria. Gouraud sensed this sentiment and tried to address it by making Aleppo

5220-409: The immigration of numerous "Levantine" (European-origin) families who dominated international trade. Aleppo's mixed commercial tribunal ( ticaret mahkamesi ), one of the first in the Ottoman Empire, was set up around 1855. Reference is made to the city in 1606 in William Shakespeare's Macbeth . The witches torment the captain of the ship the Tiger , which was headed to Aleppo from England and endured

5307-461: The importance of trade for Egypt and acted to strengthen Egyptian rule in the Hejaz and Yemen while securing Egyptian trade in the Mediterranean Sea . He reduced customs duties to attract merchants until Egypt became a monopoly of most trade in the East, angering some European powers at the time. He gained the title of the "Merchant Sultan" ( السلطان التاجر ) . In 1424–26, he invaded and conquered Cyprus , captured its king Janus of Cyprus (from

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5394-420: The inscription of Naram-Sim as Armi in the Eblaite tablets is heavily debated, as there was no Akkadian annexation of Ebla or northern Syria. In the Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian Empire period, Aleppo's name appears in its original form as Ḥalab (Ḥalba) for the first time. Aleppo was the capital of the important Amorite dynasty of Yamḥad . The kingdom of Yamḥad (c. 1800–1525 BC), alternatively known as

5481-659: The later years of the century, creating a long-running famine which by 1798 killed half of its inhabitants." The economy of Aleppo was badly hit by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. This, in addition to political instability that followed the implementation of significant reforms in 1841 by the central government, contributed to Aleppo's decline and the rise of Damascus as a serious economic and political competitor with Aleppo. The city nevertheless continued to play an important economic role and shifted its commercial focus from long-distance caravan trade to more regional trade in wool and agricultural products. This period also saw

5568-431: The modern city occupies its ancient site. The earliest occupation of the site was around 8,000 BC, as shown by excavations in Tallet Alsauda. Aleppo appears in historical records as an important city much earlier than Damascus . The first record of Aleppo comes from the third millennium BC, in the Ebla tablets when Aleppo was referred to as Ha-lam (𒄩𒇴). Some historians, such as Wayne Horowitz , identify Aleppo with

5655-410: The power vacuum in the region, Baratarna , king of the Hurrian kingdom of Mitanni instigated a rebellion that ended the life of Yamhad's last king Ilim-Ilimma I in c. 1525 BC, Subsequently, Parshatatar conquered Aleppo and the city found itself on the frontline in the struggle between the Mitanni, the Hittites and Egypt . Niqmepa of Alalakh who descends from the old Yamhadite kings controlled

5742-428: The province (as well as the Kurds) supported the Turks in this war against the French, including the leader of the Hananu Revolt , Ibrahim Hananu , who directly coordinated with Atatürk and received weaponry from him. The outcome, however, was disastrous for Aleppo, because as per the Treaty of Lausanne , most of the Province of Aleppo was made part of Turkey with the exception of Aleppo and Alexandretta ; thus, Aleppo

5829-454: The result was respected. This was the last time that independence was proposed for Aleppo. Bad economic situation of the city after the separation of the northern countryside was exacerbated further in 1939 when Alexandretta was annexed to Turkey as Hatay State , thus depriving Aleppo of its main port of Iskenderun and leaving it in total isolation within Syria. The increasing disagreements between Aleppo and Damascus led eventually to

5916-537: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Al-Ashraf . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Ashraf&oldid=1255067851 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Human name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Articles containing Arabic-language text Short description

6003-432: The sea, by Antakya and İskenderun , also to Turkey. The growth in importance of Damascus in the past few decades further exacerbated the situation. This decline may have helped to preserve the old city of Aleppo, its medieval architecture and traditional heritage. It won the title of the Islamic Capital of Culture 2006 and has had a wave of successful restorations of its historic landmarks. The battle of Aleppo occurred in

6090-426: The see for over 50 years and was at the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and the Council of Ephesus in 431. In 438, he was succeeded by Theoctistus, who participated in the Council of Chalcedon in 451 and was a signatory of the joint letter that the bishops of the province of Syria Prima sent in 458 to Emperor Leo I the Thracian about the murder of Proterius of Alexandria . In 518, Emperor Justin I exiled

6177-434: The split of the National Block into two factions: the National Party , established in Damascus in 1946, and the People's Party , established in Aleppo in 1948 by Rushdi al-Kikhya , Nazim Qudsi and Mustafa Bey Barmada . An underlying cause of the disagreement, in addition to the union with Iraq, was Aleppo's intention to relocate the capital from Damascus. The issue of the capital became an open debate matter in 1950 when

6264-495: The states collapsing and being forced back into unity. This was why France proposed the idea of a Syrian federation that was realized in 1923. Initially, Gouraud envisioned the federation as encompassing all the states, even Lebanon. In the end however, only three states participated: Aleppo, Damascus , and the Alawite State . The capital of the federation was Aleppo at first, but it was relocated to Damascus. The president of

6351-610: The throne. Afterward, conflict broke out among three groups of emirs, one supporting the Sultan's Mamluks, while emirs Barsbay and Tarabay opposed him. Barsbay and Taribay swiftly gained control, with Barsbay becoming regent and Taribay the military commander-in-chief. Despite quelling a revolt by the Viceroy of Aleppo and imprisoning several emirs, tension between Barsbay and Taribay escalated, resulting in Barsbay's victory. Taribay

6438-584: The trade route between Anatolia and the east, Aleppo rose to high prominence in the Ottoman era, at one point being second only to Constantinople in the empire. By the middle of the 16th century, Aleppo had displaced Damascus as the principal market for goods coming to the Mediterranean region from the east. This is reflected by the fact that the Levant Company of London , a joint-trading company founded in 1581 to monopolize England's trade with

6525-482: The union with Damascus. Syrian nationalists had waged a massive anti-secession public campaign that vigorously mobilized the people against the secession plan, thus leaving the pro-French politicians no choice but to support the union. The result was a big embarrassment for France, which wanted the secession of Aleppo to be a punitive measure against Damascus, which had participated in the Syrian Revolt, however,

6612-552: The withdrawal of the Mongols, all the Muslim population returned to Aleppo. On the other hand, Christians who left the city during the Mongol invasion, were unable to resettle back in their own quarter in the old town, a fact that led them to establish a new neighbourhood in 1420, built at the northern suburbs of Aleppo outside the city walls, to become known as al-Jdeydeh quarter ("new district" Arabic: جديدة ). Aleppo became part of

6699-686: Was Khawand Shahzada . She was the daughter of Ottoman Prince Orhan Çelebi, son of Süleyman Çelebi , who was himself the son of Sultan Bayezid I . She had a younger brother named Süleyman Çelebi. They married in 1537. After Barsbay's death, she married Sultan Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq . One of his concubines was Malikbay. She was a Circassian, and was the mother of his son Ahmed (1438 – 1463 ). After Barsbay's death, she married Qurkmas al-Ashrafi al-Jalab. She died in 1456. Aleppo Aleppo ( / ə ˈ l ɛ p oʊ / ə- LEP -oh ; Arabic : ﺣَﻠَﺐ , ALA-LC : Ḥalab , IPA: [ˈħalab] )

6786-710: Was captured by Prince Feisal 's Sherifial Forces and the 5th Cavalry Division of the Allied forces from the Ottoman Empire during the World War I . At the end of war, the Treaty of Sèvres made most of the Province of Aleppo part of the newly established nation of Syria , while Cilicia was promised by France to become an Armenian state. However, Kemal Atatürk annexed most of the Province of Aleppo as well as Cilicia to Turkey in his War of Independence . The Arab residents in

6873-478: Was buried with her father. Another wife was Khawand Jolban, daughter of Yashbak Tatar, a Circassian. She had been a concubine, and was his favourite wife. Barsbay married her after she gave birth to their son Al-Aziz Jamal ad-Din Yusuf on 14 April 1424. She died on 18 April 1436, after a long illness, and was buried in the tomb mosque of Barsbay. Another wife was the widow of his master, Amir Duqmaq. Another wife

6960-535: Was captured and imprisoned in Alexandria , allowing Barsbay to pursue the throne. With backing from the Viceroy of Damascus and other emirs, Barsbay deposed Sultan Muhammad just two days later, on April 1, 1422. Barsbay's 16-year reign was a relatively long reign by the standards of the Mamluk period in Egypt. His reign was marked by relative security and stability, with few wars or rebellions. He apparently had

7047-660: Was cut from its northern satellites and from the Anatolian cities beyond on which Aleppo depended heavily in commerce. Moreover, the Sykes-Picot division of the Near East separated Aleppo from most of Mesopotamia , which also harmed the economy of Aleppo. The State of Aleppo was declared by French General Henri Gouraud in September 1920 as part of a French plan to make Syria easier to administer by dividing it into several smaller states. France became more concerned about

7134-499: Was in the hands of the Fatimid commander-in-chief in Syria, Anushtakin al-Dizbari , and in 1057–1060, when it was ruled by a Fatimid governor, Ibn Mulhim . Mirdasid rule was marked by internal squabbles between different Mirdasid chieftains that sapped the emirate's power and made it susceptible to external intervention by the Byzantines, Fatimids, Uqaylids , and Turkoman warrior bands. In late 1077, Seljuk emir Tutush I launched

7221-823: Was incorporated into the Aramean realm of Bit Agusi , which held its capital at Arpad . Bit Agusi along with Aleppo and the entirety of the Levant was conquered by the Assyrians in the 8th century BC and became part of the Neo-Assyrian Empire during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser III until the late 7th century BC, before passing through the hands of the Neo-Babylonians and the Achaemenid Persians . The region remained known as Aramea and Eber Nari throughout these periods. Alexander

7308-467: Was insufficient for Europe's demand. European merchants left Aleppo and the city went into an economic decline that was not reversed until the mid-19th century when locally produced cotton and tobacco became the principal commodities of interest to the Europeans. According to Halil İnalcık , "Aleppo ... underwent its worst catastrophe with the wholesale destruction of its villages by Bedouin raiding in

7395-568: Was not conquered after receiving protection by forces of Aqsunqur al Bursuqi arriving from Mosul in January 1125. In 1128, Aleppo became capital of the expanding Zengid dynasty , which ultimately conquered Damascus in 1154. In 1138, Byzantine emperor John II Komnenos led a campaign, which main objective was to capture the city of Aleppo. On 20 April 1138, the Christian army including Crusaders from Antioch and Edessa launched an attack on

7482-656: Was the king of Aleppo, had fought on the Hittite side, along with king Muwatalli II during the Battle of Kadesh against the Egyptian army led by Ramesses II . Aleppo had cultic importance to the Hittites as the center of worship of the Storm-God . This religious importance continued after the collapse of the Hittite empire at the hands of the Assyrians and Phrygians in the 12th century BC, when Aleppo became part of

7569-503: Was the mother of his son Muhammad. She died on 15 May 1424. Abbasid caliph Al-Mu'tadid II and the qadis were involved in her funerary prayer. She was buried at the qubba of Barsbay's madrasa. Another of his wives was Khawand Fatima, the daughter of Sultan Sayf ad-Din Tatar . Her mother was the daughter of Qutlubugha Hajji al-Banaqusi al-Turkmani al-Halabi. She had previously been married to Amir Yashbak. She died on 30 August 1469, and

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