The Amorites ( / ˈ æ m ə ˌ r aɪ t s / ) were an ancient Northwest Semitic -speaking Bronze Age people from the Levant . Initially appearing in Sumerian records c. 2500 BC, they expanded and ruled most of the Levant, Mesopotamia and parts of Egypt from the 21st century BC to the late 17th century BC.
132-713: The Amorites established several prominent city-states in various locations, such as Isin , Kurda , Larsa , Mari , and Ebla , and later founded Babylon and the Old Babylonian Empire . They also founded the Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the fragmented era of the Second Intermediate Period in the Nile Delta , which was characterized by rulers bearing Amorite names such as Yakbim Sekhaenre , and were likely part of
264-702: A Jerusalem city-state under the control of United Nations Trusteeship Council . Although the plan had some international support and the UN accepted this proposal (and still officially holds the stance that Jerusalem should be held under this regime), implementation of the plan failed as the 1948 Palestine war broke out with the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine , ultimately resulting in Jerusalem being split into West Jerusalem and East Jerusalem . Israel would eventually gain control of East Jerusalem in
396-551: A city-state separate from the United Kingdom. Elam Elam ( / ˈ iː l ə m / ) was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran , stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq . The modern name Elam stems from the Sumerian transliteration elam(a) , along with the later Akkadian elamtu , and
528-670: A city-state. In Northern and Central Italy during the medieval and Renaissance periods, city-states — with various amounts of associated land — became the standard form of polity. Some of them, despite being de facto independent states, were formally part of the Holy Roman Empire . The era of the Italian states, in particular from the 11th to the 15th centuries, featured remarkable economic development, trade, manufacture, and mercantile capitalism, together with increasing urbanization, with remarkable influence throughout much of
660-666: A construct imposed from without on the peoples of the southwestern highlands of the Zagros mountain range, the coast of Fars and the alluvial plain drained by the Karun-Karkheh river system. Prehistorically the area was well settled during the Ubaid period and shared many aspects of Ubaid cultures. Knowledge of Elamite history remains largely fragmentary, reconstruction being based on mainly Mesopotamian ( Sumerian , Akkadian , Assyrian and Babylonian ) sources. The history of Elam
792-531: A country appears to have been Hatamti ( [REDACTED] in Linear Elamite ), or Haltamti ( Cuneiform Elamite : 𒁹𒄬𒆷𒁶𒋾 halatamti ). Exonyms included the Sumerian names ELAM.MA 𒉏𒈠𒆠 and ELAM , the Akkadian Elamû (masculine/neuter) and Elamītu (feminine) meant "resident of Susiana, Elamite". The Sumerian term elam also referred to the highlands. In prehistory, Elam
924-649: A crucial role during the Persian Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded Elam, when the Elamite language remained among those in official use. Elamite is generally considered a language isolate unrelated to any other languages. According to Daniel T. Potts, Walther Hinz was less cautious in suggesting that the Elamites were ‘Proto-Lurs’, that is, the ancestors of inhabitants of modern-day Lurestan in western Iran. The Elamite language endonym of Elam as
1056-669: A federation, and as such can be accurately described as non-sovereign city-states with a high degree of autonomy, include: The Sovereign State of the Bektashi Order is a proposed city-state in Albanian capital of Tirana which will be established if approved by the Albanian Parliament and a national referendum. The state, which would be led by the Bektashi Order , is planned to be similar in structure to
1188-418: A group of five rulers of uncertain affiliation. They are identified by their use of the older title, "king of Susa and of Anshan", and by calling themselves "servant of Kirwashir ", an Elamite deity, thereby introducing the pantheon of the highlands to Susiana. The city of Susa itself is one of the oldest in the world dating back to around 4200 BC. Since its founding Susa was known as a central power location for
1320-557: A new army to help the Babylonians and Chaldeans against the Assyrians at the battle of Halule in 691. Both sides claimed the victory in their annals, but Babylon was destroyed by Sennacherib only two years later, and its Elamite allies defeated in the process. The reigns of Humban-Haltash I (688–681 BC) and Humban-Haltash II (680–675 BC) saw a deterioration of Elamite-Babylonian relations, and both of them raided Sippar . At
1452-404: A part of it. Until September 1870, the city of Rome had been controlled by the pope as part of his Papal States . When King Victor Emmanuel II seized the city in 1870, Pope Pius IX refused to recognize the newly formed Kingdom of Italy . Because he could not travel without effectively acknowledging the authority of the king, Pius IX and his successors each claimed to be a " Prisoner in
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#17327659471721584-492: A petty king in the first half of the 6th century). Elamite royalty in the final century preceding the Achaemenids was fragmented among different small kingdoms, the united Elamite nation having been destroyed and colonised by the Assyrians. The three kings at the close of the 7th century (Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, Khallutush-In-Shushinak and Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak) still called themselves "king of Anzan and of Susa" or "enlarger of
1716-450: A population of less than 1,000 (mostly clergymen), it is by far the smallest sovereign country in the world. The Principality of Monaco is a very small independent city-state bordering France. Monaco-Ville (the ancient fortified city) and Monaco's well-known area Monte Carlo are districts of a continuous urban zone, not distinct cities, though they were three separate municipalities ( communes ) until 1917. The Principality of Monaco and
1848-563: A regional power at the time, needed to define their territories for negotiation with the European powers so the Siamese government established a nation-state system, incorporated their tributary cities ( Lan Xang , Cambodia and some Malay cities) into their territory and abolished the mueang and the tributary system. In early Philippine history, the barangay was a complex sociopolitical unit which scholars have historically considered
1980-475: A response to invasion from Sumer during the Old Elamite period. Elamite strength was based on an ability to hold these various areas together under a coordinated government that permitted the maximum interchange of the natural resources unique to each region. Traditionally, this was done through a federated governmental structure. The Proto-Elamite city of Susa was founded around 4000 BC in the watershed of
2112-616: A robust military , and substantial international influence in its own right. The Economist refers to the nation as the "world's only fully functioning city-state". Several non-sovereign cities enjoy a high degree of autonomy and are often confused for city-states. Hong Kong , Macau , and cities of the United Arab Emirates —most notably Dubai and Abu Dhabi —are often cited as such. Historical city-states included Sumerian cities such as Uruk and Ur ; Ancient Egyptian city-states, such as Thebes and Memphis ;
2244-464: A series of bitter internal civil wars which also spread to Babylonia. The Iranian Medes , Parthians , Persians and Sagartians , who had been largely subject to Assyria since their arrival in the region around 1000 BC, quietly took full advantage of the anarchy in Assyria, and in 616 BC freed themselves from Assyrian rule. The Medians took control of Elam during this period. Cyaxares the king of
2376-540: A single city; in the cases of Luxembourg, Djibouti and Kuwait, this primate city is so dominant as to give its name to the country. These countries are distinct from true city-states such as Singapore in that they comprise both their primate city (such as Luxembourg City ) and a number of peripheral cities and towns (such as Esch-sur-Alzette and ten other towns in Luxembourg) with autonomous municipal authorities , and may also include substantial rural areas (such as
2508-533: A treaty forced upon them by Ashur-Dan I . Kutir-Nakhkhunte's son Khutelutush-In-Shushinak was probably born of Kutir-Nakhkhunte and his own daughter, Nakhkhunte-utu. He was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon, who sacked Susa and returned the statue of Marduk , but who was then himself defeated by the Assyrian king Ashur-resh-ishi I . He fled to Anshan, but later returned to Susa, and his brother Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar may have succeeded him as last king of
2640-414: A tributary relationship now described as mandala or as over-lapping sovereignty , in which smaller city-states paid tribute to larger ones that paid tribute to still larger ones—until reaching the apex in cities like Ayutthaya , Bagan , Bangkok and others that served as centers of Southeast Asian royalty. The system existed until the 19th century, when colonization by European powers occurred. Siam ,
2772-712: A wide range of views regarding the Amorite homeland. One extreme is the view that kur mar.tu / māt amurrim covered the whole area between the Euphrates and the Mediterranean Sea , the Arabian Peninsula included. The most common view is that the "homeland" of the Amorites was a limited area in central Syria identified with the mountainous region of Jebel Bishri . The Amorites are regarded as one of
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#17327659471722904-519: Is an independent sovereign city which serves as the center of political, economic, and cultural life over its contiguous territory. They have existed in many parts of the world since the dawn of history, including cities such as Rome , Carthage , Athens and Sparta and the Italian city-states during the Middle Ages and Renaissance , such as Florence , Venice , Genoa and Milan . With
3036-602: Is conventionally divided into three periods, spanning more than two millennia. The period before the first Elamite period is known as the proto-Elamite period: Proto-Elamite civilization grew up east of the Tigris and Euphrates alluvial plains; it was a combination of the lowlands and the immediate highland areas to the north and east. At least three proto-Elamite states merged to form Elam: Anshan , Awan , and Shimashki. References to Awan are generally older than those to Anshan, and some scholars suggest that both states encompassed
3168-487: Is one who eats what (the Moon-god) Nanna forbids and does not show reverence. They never stop roaming about ..., they are an abomination to the gods' dwellings. Their ideas are confused; they cause only disturbance. (The Amorite) is clothed in sack-leather ... , lives in a tent, exposed to wind and rain, and cannot properly recite prayers. He lives in the mountains and ignores the places of gods, digs up truffles in
3300-554: Is possibly an Amorite dialect. A bilingual list of the names of ten Amorite deities alongside Akkadian counterparts from the Old Babylonian period was translated in 2022. These deities are as follows: This list is not thought to represent a full Amorite pantheon, as it does not include important members such as the sun and weather deities. The term Amorites is used in the Bible to refers to certain highlanders who inhabited
3432-486: The 2nd-most-densely populated country in the world after Monaco. Singapore was part of the Federation of Malaysia for two years before it was expelled from the federation in 1965, becoming an independent republic , a city and a sovereign country. The Economist refers to the nation as the "world's only fully functioning city-state". In particular, it has its own currency , a large commercial airport , one of
3564-682: The Chalcolithic period (Copper Age). The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history, where slightly earlier records have been found. In the Old Elamite period ( Middle Bronze Age ), Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau , centered in Anshan , and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played
3696-649: The Décapole (1354–1679) in the Alsace, or the Old Swiss Confederacy ( c. 1300 – 1798). The Swiss cantons of Zürich , Bern , Lucerne , Fribourg , Solothurn , Basel , Schaffhausen , and Geneva originated as city-states. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, some cities – then members of different confederacies – officially became sovereign city-states, such as
3828-538: The Elamite haltamti. Elamite states were among the leading political forces of the Ancient Near East . In classical literature , Elam was also known as Susiana ( US : / ˌ s uː ʒ i ˈ æ n ə / UK : / ˌ s uː z i ˈ ɑː n ə / ; Ancient Greek : Σουσιανή Sousiānḗ ), a name derived from its capital Susa . Elam was part of the early urbanization of the Near East during
3960-651: The Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (1806–11 and again 1813–71), the Free City of Frankfurt upon Main (1815–66), the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (1806–11 and again 1814–71), the Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck (1806–11 and again 1813–71), and the Free City of Kraków (1815–1846). Under Habsburg rule the city of Fiume had the status of a corpus separatum (1779–1919), which – while falling short of an independent sovereignty – had many attributes of
4092-595: The Hittite Empire in 1595 BC. The Kassite king of Babylon Kurigalzu II who had been installed on the throne by Ashur-uballit I of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1366–1020 BC), temporarily occupied Elam around 1320 BC, and later (c. 1230 BC) another Kassite king, Kashtiliash IV , fought Elam unsuccessfully. Kassite-Babylonian power waned, as they became dominated by the northern Mesopotamian Middle Assyrian Empire . Kiddin-Khutran of Elam repulsed
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4224-885: The Kingdom of Dublin , as city-states. In Cyprus , the Phoenician settlement of Kition (in present-day Larnaca) was a city-state that existed from around 800 BC until the end of the 4th century BC. Some of the most well-known examples of city-state culture in human history are the ancient Greek city-states and the merchant city-states of Renaissance Italy , which organised themselves as independent centers. The success of regional units coexisting as autonomous actors in loose geographical and cultural unity, as in Italy and Greece , often prevented their amalgamation into larger national units. However, such small political entities often survived only for short periods because they lacked
4356-648: The Mayan and other cultures of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica (including cities such as Chichen Itza , Tikal , Copán and Monte Albán ); the central Asian cities along the Silk Road ; the city-states of the Swahili coast ; Ragusa ; states of the medieval Russian lands such as Novgorod and Pskov ; and many others. Danish historian Poul Holm has classed the Viking colonial cities in medieval Ireland , most importantly
4488-532: The Medes , Persians , Parthians and Sagartians entered into an alliance with a coalition of fellow former vassals of Assyria, including Nabopolassar of Babylon and Chaldea , and also the Scythians and Cimmerians , against Sin-shar-ishkun of Assyria, who was faced with unremitting civil war in Assyria itself. This alliance then attacked a disunited and war weakened Assyria, and between 616 BC and 599 BC at
4620-641: The Median dominated Iranian peoples , and was incorporated into the Median Empire (612–546 BC) and then the succeeding Achaemenid Empire (546–332 BC), with Assyria suffering the same fate. (see Achaemenid Assyria , Athura). The prophet Ezekiel describes the status of their power in the 12th year of the Hebrew Babylonian Captivity in 587 BC: There is Elam and all her multitude, All around her grave, All of them slain, fallen by
4752-643: The Middle Assyrian Empire . They then appear to have been displaced or absorbed by other semi-nomadic West Semitic -speaking peoples, known collectively as the Ahlamu during the Late Bronze Age collapse . The Arameans rose to be the prominent group amongst the Ahlamu. From c. 1200 BC onward, the Amorites disappeared from the pages of history, but the name reappeared in the Hebrew Bible . The language
4884-565: The Nave's Topical Bible , to refer to the Amorites as "giants". In Deuteronomy , the Amorite king Og is described as the last "of the remnant of the Rephaim " ( Deut 3:11 ). The terms Amorite and Canaanite seem to be used more or less interchangeably, but sometimes Amorite refers to a specific tribe living in Canaan. The Biblical Amorites seem to have originally occupied the region stretching from
5016-1757: The Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg . In the Levant: In Mesopotamia: In Egypt: ( Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi ( Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon
5148-604: The Neo-Assyrian Empire until the late 7th century. More details are known from the late 8th century BC, when the Elamites were allied with the Chaldean chieftain Merodach-baladan to defend the cause of Babylonian independence from Assyria. Humban-nikash I (743–717 BC) supported Merodach-baladan against Sargon II , apparently without success; while his successor, Shutruk-Nahhunte II (716–699 BC),
5280-500: The Nile Delta , had rulers bearing Amorite names such as Yakbim . Furthermore, increasing evidence suggests that the succeeding Hyksos of Egypt were an amalgam of peoples from Syria of which the Amorites were also part. Based on temple architecture, Manfred Bietak argues for strong parallels between the religious practices of the Hyksos at Avaris with those of the area around Byblos , Ugarit , Alalakh and Tell Brak and defines
5412-606: The Peace of Westphalia of 1648. Some, like three of the earlier Hanseatic cities – Bremen , Hamburg and Lübeck – pooled their economic relations with foreign powers and were able to wield considerable diplomatic clout. Individual cities often made protective alliances with other cities or with neighbouring regions, including the Hanseatic League (1358 – 17th century), the Swabian League of Cities (1331–1389),
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5544-800: The Phoenician cities (such as Tyre and Sidon ); the five Philistine city-states; the Berber city-states of the Garamantes ; the city-states of ancient Greece (the poleis such as Athens , Sparta , Thebes , and Corinth ); the Roman Republic (which grew from a city-state into a vast empire); the Italian city-states from the Middle Ages to the early modern period, such as Florence , Siena , Ferrara , Milan (which as they grew in power began to dominate neighboring cities) and Genoa and Venice , which became powerful thalassocracies ;
5676-722: The Six-Day War in 1967. The Klaipėda Region or Memel Territory was defined by the Treaty of Versailles in 1920 when it was put under the administration of the Council of Ambassadors . The Memel Territory was to remain under the control of the League of Nations until a future day when the people of the region would be allowed to vote on whether the land would return to Germany or not. The then predominantly ethnic German Memel Territory ( Prussian Lithuanians and Memellanders constituted
5808-437: The Sukkalmah dynasty (c. 1970 – c. 1770 BC) after "Great regents", the title borne by its members, also called the Epartid dynasty after the name of its founder Ebarat/ Eparti, was roughly contemporary with the Old Assyrian Empire , and Old Babylonian period in Mesopotamia, being younger by approximately sixty years than the Akkadian-speaking Old Assyrian Empire in Upper Mesopotamia , and almost seventy-five years older than
5940-443: The Sumerian king list . Elamite history can only be traced from records dating to beginning of the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) onwards. The Proto-Elamite states in Jiroft and Zabol (not universally accepted), present a special case because of their great antiquity. In ancient Luristan , bronze-making tradition goes back to the mid-3rd millennium BC, and has many Elamite connections. Bronze objects from several cemeteries in
6072-470: The Sumerians of Mesopotamia and also Gutians from northwestern Iran, alternating with periods of peace and diplomatic approaches. The Elamite state of Simashki at this time also extended into northern Iran, and possibly even as far as the Caspian Sea. Shu-Sin of Ur gave one of his daughters in marriage to a prince of Anshan . But the power of the Sumerians was waning; Ibbi-Sin in the 21st century did not manage to penetrate far into Elam, and in 2004 BC,
6204-428: The Uruk period . Proto-Elamite influence from Mesopotamia in Susa becomes visible from about 3200 BC, and texts in the still undeciphered Proto-Elamite writing system continue to be present until about 2700 BC. The Proto-Elamite period ends with the establishment of the Awan dynasty . The earliest known historical figure connected with Elam is the king Enmebaragesi of Kish (c. 2650 BC?), who subdued it, according to
6336-417: The Vatican City . The idea has been proposed by Albanian Prime Minister Edi Rama and leader of the Bektashi Order Baba Mondi in the hope that sovereignty would help promote moderate Muslim values instead of radical ideologies. The Sovereign State of the Bektashi Order would be surrounded by the suburbs of eastern Tirana and would be the smallest nation in the world . The London independence movement seeks
6468-467: The ancient Semitic-speaking peoples . Ancient DNA analysis on 28 human remains dating to the Middle and Late Bronze Age from ancient Alalakh , an Amorite city with a Hurrian minority, found that the inhabitants of Alalakh were a mixture of Copper age Levantines and Mesopotamians, and were genetically similar to contemporaneous Levantines. The view that Amorites were fierce and tall nomads led to an anachronistic theory among some racialist writers in
6600-410: The "spiritual home" of the Hyksos as "in northernmost Syria and northern Mesopotamia", areas typically associated with Amorites at the time. In 1650 BC, the Hyksos established the Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt and ruled most of Lower and Middle Egypt contemporaneously with the Sixteenth and Seventeenth dynasties of Thebes during the chaotic Second Intermediate Period . In the 16th century BC,
6732-537: The 12th century BC, gold and silver figurines of Elamite worshippers are shown carrying a sacrificial goat. These divine and royal statues were meant to assure the king of the enduring protection of the deity, well-being and a long life. Works which showed a ruler and his performance of a ritual action were intended to eternalize the effectiveness of such deeds. Found near the Temple of Inshushinak in Susa , these statuettes would have been considered charged with beneficial power. While archaeologists cannot be certain that
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#17327659471726864-404: The 19th century that they were a tribe of " Aryan " warriors, who at one point dominated the Israelites. This belief, which originated with Felix von Luschan , fit models of Indo-European migrations posited during his time, but Luschan later abandoned that theory. Houston Stewart Chamberlain claims that King David and Jesus were both Aryans of Amorite extraction. The argument was repeated by
6996-455: The 20th century West Berlin , though lacking sovereignty, functioned from 1948 until 1990 as a state legally not belonging to any other state, but ruled by the Western Allies . They allowed – notwithstanding their overlordship as occupant powers – its internal organisation as one state simultaneously being a city, officially called Berlin (West). Though West Berlin maintained close ties to the West German Federal Republic, it never legally formed
7128-465: The Akkadian literature of this era speaks disparagingly of the Amorites and implies that the Akkadian- and Sumerian-speakers of Mesopotamia viewed their nomadic and primitive way of life with disgust and contempt. In the Sumerian myth "Marriage of Martu", written early in the 2nd millennium BC , a goddess considering marriage to the god of the Amorites is warned: Now listen, their hands are destructive and their features are those of monkeys; (An Amorite)
7260-433: The Amorite era ended in Mesopotamia with the decline and fall of Babylon and other Amorite-ruled cities. The Kassites occupied Babylon and reconstituted it under the Kassite dynasty under the name of Karduniaš around 1595 BC. In far southern Mesopotamia, the native First Sealand dynasty had reigned over the Mesopotamian Marshes region until the Kassites brought the region under their control. In northern Mesopotamia ,
7392-425: The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (668–627 BC), who sent wheat to Susiana during a famine. But these friendly relations were only temporary, and Urtaku was killed in battle during a failed Elamite attack on Assyria. His successor Tepti-Humban-Inshushinak (664–653 BC) attacked Assyria, but was defeated and killed by Ashurbanipal following the battle of the Ulaï in 653 BC; and Susa itself was sacked and occupied by
7524-404: The Assyrians. In this same year the Assyrian vassal Median state to the north fell to the invading Scythians and Cimmerians under Madyes , and displacing another Assyrian vassal people, the Parsu ( Persians ) to Anshan which their king Teispes captured that same year, turning it for the first time into an Indo-Iranian kingdom under Assyrian dominance that would a century later become
7656-403: The Awan dynasty collapsed as Elam was temporarily overrun by the Guti , another pre-Iranic people from what is now north west Iran who also spoke a language isolate . About a century later, the Sumerian king Shulgi of the Neo-Sumerian Empire retook the city of Susa and the surrounding region. During the first part of the rule of the Simashki dynasty, Elam was under intermittent attack from
7788-433: The British-led occupation of Istanbul recognised Turkey as de jure sovereign, while the Greek occupation of Smyrna was an attempted annexation . The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne re-established Turkish control of both areas. The Shanghai International Settlement (1845–1943) was an international zone with its own legal system, postal service, and currency. The international zone within the city of Tangier , in North Africa
7920-703: The Elamite dynasty were referred to as "great king" and "father" by kings in Syria and Mesopotamia and were the only kings that the Mesopotamian Kings considered to be higher in status than themselves. Siwe-Palar-Khuppak , who for some time was the most powerful person in the area, respectfully addressed as "Father" by Mesopotamian kings such as Zimrilim of Mari , Shamshi-Adad I of Assyria , and even Hammurabi of Babylon. During his reign alone, Elam interfered extensively with Mesopotamian politics, allowing messengers and envoys to travel far west to Emar and Qatna in Syria. His messenger reached Emar and sent his three servants to King Amut-piʾel II of Qatna (1772–1762 BC), and
8052-434: The Elamites and for later Persian dynasties. Susa's power would peak during the Middle Elamite period, when it would be the region's capital. Of the Igehalkids (c. 1400 – 1210 BC), ten rulers are known, though their number was possibly larger. Some of them married Kassite princesses. The Kassites were also a language isolate speaking people from the Zagros Mountains who had taken Babylonia shortly after its sacking by
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#17327659471728184-439: The Elamites defeated the Kassites permanently, killing the Kassite king of Babylon, Zababa-shuma-iddin , and replacing him with his eldest son, Kutir-Nakhkhunte, who held it no more than three years before being ejected by the native Akkadian-speaking Babylonians . The Elamites then briefly came into conflict with Assyria , managing to take the Assyrian city of Arrapha (modern Kirkuk ) before being ultimately defeated and having
8316-415: The Elamites, allied with the people of Susa and led by king Kindattu , the sixth king of Simashki, managed to sack Ur and lead Ibbi-Sin into captivity, ending the third dynasty of Ur . The Akkadian kings of Isin , successor state to Ur, managed to drive the Elamites out of Ur, rebuild the city, and to return the statue of Nanna that the Elamites had plundered. The succeeding dynasty, often called
8448-424: The Elamites, overthrew Rim-Sin of Larsa, and established a short lived Babylonian Empire in Mesopotamia. Little is known about the latter part of this dynasty, since sources again become sparse with the Kassite rule of Babylon (from c. 1595 BC). Many archaeological finds suggest that maritime trade along the shores of Africa and Asia started several millennia ago. Trade between the Indus Valley civilization and
8580-648: The Elder Siamun Psusennes II Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef ( Sargonid dynasty ) Tiglath-Pileser Shalmaneser Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II City-state List of forms of government A city-state
8712-406: The Hebrews ( 2 Samuel 21:2 ). When Saul later broke that vow and killed some of the Gibeonites, God is said to have sent a famine to Israel ( 2 Samuel 21:1 ). In 2017, Philippe Bohstrom of Haaretz observed similarities between the Amorites and the Jews, since both historically existed as well-connected diasporic communities. He also believes that Abraham was among the Amorites who migrated to
8844-411: The Hittites, with its empire assumed by the Kassites . West of Mari, Yamhad ruled from its capital Halab, today's Aleppo, until it was destroyed by the Hittites in 16th century BC. The city of Ebla , under the control of Yamhad in this period, also had Amorite rulership. There is thought to have been an Amorite presence in Egypt from the 19th century BC. The Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt , centred in
8976-418: The Indus were found in Susa in the excavation of the tell of the citadel. In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique of acid-etching developed by the Harappans . Exchanges seem to have waned after 1900 BC, together with the disappearance of the Indus valley civilization. The Middle Elamite period began with
9108-477: The Iranian plateau, and military expeditions to the area became more common. With the collapse of Akkad under Sargon's great-great-grandson, Shar-kali-sharri , Elam declared independence under the last Awan king, Kutik-Inshushinak (c. 2240 – c. 2220 BC), and threw off the Akkadian language, promoting in its place the brief Linear Elamite script. Kutik-Inshushinnak conquered Susa and Anshan, and seems to have achieved some sort of political unity. Following his reign,
9240-523: The Iranian plateau. Assyrian sources beginning around 800 BC distinguish the "powerful Medes", i.e. the actual Medes , Persians , Parthians , Sagartians , etc. Among these pressuring tribes were the Parsu , first recorded in 844 BC as living on the southeastern shore of Lake Urmiah , but who by the end of this period would cause the Elamites' original home, the Iranian Plateau, to be renamed Persia proper. These newly arrived Iranian peoples were also conquered by Assyria, and largely regarded as vassals of
9372-511: The Isin-Larsa period and peaking in the Old Babylonian period. In the north, the Amorite ruler of Ekallatum , Shamshi-Adad I conquered Assur and formed the large, though short-lived Kingdom of Upper Mesoptamia. In the south, Babylon became the major power under the Amorite ruler Sumu-la-El and his successors, including the notable Hammurabi . Higher up the Euphrates, to the northwest, the Amorite kingdom of Mari arose, later to be destroyed by Hammurabi. Babylon itself would later be sacked by
9504-615: The Israelites ( Numbers 21:21–35 )—though in the case of the war led by Og/Bashan it appears none of them survived, and the land became part of Israel ( Numbers 21:35 ). The Amorites seem to have been linked to the Jerusalem region, and the Jebusites may have been a subgroup of them ( Ezek. 16:3 ). The southern slopes of the mountains of Judea are called the "mount of the Amorites" ( Deut. 1:7, 19, 20 ). The Book of Joshua states
9636-732: The Kassites by defeating Enlil-nadin-shumi in 1224 BC and Adad-shuma-iddina around 1222–1217 BC. Under the Igehalkids, Akkadian inscriptions were rare, and Elamite highland gods became firmly established in Susa. Under the Shutrukids (c. 1210 – 1100 BC), the Elamite empire reached the height of its power. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte and his three sons, Kutir-Nakhkhunte II, Shilhak-In-Shushinak, and Khutelutush-In-Shushinak were capable of frequent military campaigns into Kassite Babylonia (which
9768-664: The Levant, around the same time that the Amorites conquered Ur at 1750 BC, due to his north Syrian heritage and shepherding-based lifestyles. Nonetheless, the Biblical authors only applied the Amorite ethnonym to the pre-Israelite inhabitants of the high mountains. Reasons include the polemical need to associate them with the "barbaric raw meat eating" Amorites that the Sumerians imagined them as. The authors also wanted to portray these inhabitants as having an ancient history. There are
9900-623: The Mediterranean world and Europe as a whole. During this time, most of the Italian city-states were ruled by one person, such as the Signoria or by a dynasty, such as the House of Gonzaga and the House of Sforza . In the history of Mainland Southeast Asia , aristocratic groups, Buddhist leaders, and others organized settlements into autonomous or semi-autonomous city-states. These were referred to as mueang , and were usually related in
10032-512: The Old Babylonian Empire . This period is said by many to be confusing and difficult to reconstruct. It was apparently founded by Eparti I. During this time, Susa was under Elamite control, but Akkadian-speaking Mesopotamian states such as Larsa and Isin continually tried to retake the city. Around 1850 BC Kudur-Mabuk , apparently king of another Akkadian state to the north of Larsa, managed to install his son, Warad-Sin , on
10164-800: The Old Babylonian period, Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta and Lugalbanda and the Anzu Bird , the Early Dynastic ruler of Uruk Enmerkar (listed in the Sumerian King List ) mentions "the land of the mar.tu ". It is not known to what extent these reflect historical facts. There are also sparse mentions about Amorites (often as MAR-DU) in tablets from the East Semitic -speaking kingdom of Ebla , dating from 2500 BC to
10296-465: The Shutrukid dynasty. Following Khutelutush-In-Shushinak, the power of the Elamite empire began to wane seriously, as after the death of this ruler, Elam disappears into obscurity for more than three centuries. Very little is known of this period. Anshan was still at least partially Elamite. There appear to have been unsuccessful alliances of Elamites, Babylonians, Chaldeans and other peoples against
10428-680: The Vatican ", unable to leave the 0.44 km (0.17 sq mi) papal enclave once they had ascended the papal throne . The impasse was resolved in 1929 by the Lateran Treaties negotiated by the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini between King Victor Emmanuel III and Pope Pius XI . Under this treaty, Vatican City was recognized as an independent state, with the Pope as its head. The Vatican City State has its own citizenship , diplomatic corps , flag , and postage stamps . With
10560-551: The areas in southern Mesopotamia with Amorites were no exception. Elsewhere, the armies of Elam were attacking and weakening the empire, making it vulnerable. Ur was eventually occupied by the Elamites. They remained until they were rejected by the Isin ruler Ishbi-Erra , which marked the beginning of the Isin-Larsa period. After the decline of Ur III, Amorite rulers gained power in a number of Mesopotamian city-states beginning in
10692-510: The beginning of Esarhaddon 's reign in Assyria (681–669 BC), Nabu-zer-kitti-lišir, an ethnically Elamite governor in the south of Babylonia, revolted and besieged Ur , but was routed by the Assyrians and fled to Elam where the king of Elam, fearing Assyrian repercussions, took him prisoner and put him to the sword. Urtaku (674–664 BC) for some time wisely maintained good relations with
10824-516: The busiest trans-shipment maritime ports in the world , and fully fledged armed forces to safeguard the nation's sovereignty against potential regional aggressors. Singapore is also referred to as the only island city-state in the world by WorldAtlas. A number of other small states share many of these characteristics, and are sometimes cited as modern city-states. Luxembourg , Djibouti , Qatar , Brunei , Kuwait , Bahrain , and Malta are each politically and economically centered on
10956-454: The cities of Mesopotamia and Elam, can be inferred from numerous find of Indus artifacts, particularly in the excavation at Susa . Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly Trubinella pyrum and Fasciolaria trapezium , have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia and Susa dating from around 2500–2000 BC. Carnelian beads from
11088-572: The city of Fiume (now in Croatia and, since the end of World War II, known as Rijeka ) and rural areas to its north, with a corridor to its west connecting it to Italy . Under the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine of 1947, Mandatory Palestine was to be partitioned into three states: a Jewish state of Israel , an Arab state of Palestine , and a corpus separatum ( Latin for " separated body ") consisting of
11220-522: The city of Monaco (each having specific powers) govern the same territory. Though they maintain a small military , largely for ceremonial purposes, they would still have to rely on France for defence in the face of an aggressive power. Singapore is an island city-state in Southeast Asia bordering Malaysia to the north and Indonesia to the south. 6 million people live and work within 728.3 square kilometres (281.2 sq mi), making Singapore
11352-412: The conception which the peoples of highland Iran had of themselves. They were Anshanites, Marhashians, Shimashkians, Zabshalians, Sherihumians, Awanites, etc. That Anshan played a leading role in the political affairs of the various highland groups inhabiting southwestern Iran is clear. But to argue that Anshan is coterminous with Elam is to misunderstand the artificiality and indeed the alienness of Elam as
11484-468: The context of the sovereign state to which they belong. Historian Mogens Herman Hansen describes this aspect of self-government as: "The city-state is a self-governing, but not necessarily independent political unit." A city with more limited self-government may be referred to as an independent city . Some non-sovereign cities which have a high degree of autonomy, and have been described as city-states, include: Some cities that are constituent states in
11616-504: The definitions were changed again. Some modern scholars argued that the center of Elam lay at Anshan and in the highlands around it, and not at Susa in lowland Khuzistan. Potts disagrees suggesting that the term 'Elam' was primarily constructed by the Mesopotamians to describe the area in general terms, without referring specifically either to the lowlanders or the highlanders, Elam is not an Iranian term and has no relationship to
11748-458: The destruction of the city in c. 2250 BC. From the perspective of the Eblaites, the Amorites were a rural group living in the narrow basin of the middle and upper Euphrates in northern Syria. The Eblaites used the term MAR.TU in an early time for a state and people east to Ebla (around Emar and Tuttul ), which means the name Amurru for the west is later than the name for the state or
11880-474: The dominant organizational pattern among the various peoples of the Philippine archipelago . These sociopolitical units were sometimes also referred to as barangay states, but are more properly referred to using the technical term polity . Evidence suggests a considerable degree of independence as city states ruled by Datus , Rajahs and Sultans . Early chroniclers record that the name evolved from
12012-534: The extremely limited extant knowledge of the Amorite language are the proper names and loanwords, not Akkadian in style, that are preserved in such texts. Amorite proper names were found throughout Mesopotamia in the Old Babylonian period, as well as places as far afield as Alalakh in Turkey and modern day Bahrain ( Dilmun ). They are also found in Egyptian records. Ugaritic is also a Northwest Semitic language and
12144-511: The first two dynasties, those of Awan (or Avan ; c. 2400 – c. 2100 BC) and Simashki (c. 2100 – c. 1970 BC), are known from a list from Susa dating to the Old Babylonian period . Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan and Hamazi ; and likewise, several of the stronger Sumerian rulers, such as Eannatum of Lagash and Lugal-anne-mundu of Adab , are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam. The Awan dynasty (2350–2150 BC)
12276-411: The five kings of the Amorites were first defeated with great slaughter by Joshua ( Josh. 10:5 ). Then, more Amorite kings were defeated at the waters of Merom by Joshua ( Josh. 11:8 ). It is mentioned that in the days of Samuel , there was peace between them and the Israelites ( 1 Sam. 7:14 ). The Gibeonites were said to be their descendants, being an offshoot of the Amorites who made a covenant with
12408-466: The foothills, does not know how to bend the knee (in prayer), and eats raw flesh. He has no house during his life, and when he dies he will not be carried to a burial-place. My girlfriend, why would you marry Martu? As the centralized structure of the Third Dynasty of Ur slowly collapsed, the city-states of the south such as Isin, Larsa and Eshnunna, began to reassert their former independence, and
12540-533: The heights west of the Dead Sea ( Gen. 14:7 ) to Hebron ( Gen. 13:8; Deut. 3:8; 4:46–48 ), embracing "all Gilead and all Bashan " ( Deut. 3:10 ), with the Jordan Valley on the east of the river ( Deut. 4:49 ), the land of the "two kings of the Amorites", Sihon and Og ( Deut. 31:4 and Joshua 2:10; 9:10 ). Sihon and Og were independent kings whose people were displaced from their land in battle with
12672-675: The king of Qatna also sent two messengers to Elam. The Elamite rulers had become increasingly involved in Mesopotamian politics during the Sukkalmah dynasty . In fact, Rim-Sin of Larsa himself was of Elamite descent, notwithstanding his Akkadian name. Kudur-Nahhunte , who plundered the temples of southern Mesopotamia, the north being under the control of the Old Assyrian Empire . But Elamite influence in southern Mesopotamia did not last. Around 1760 BC, Hammurabi drove out
12804-633: The kingdom of Anzan and of Susa", at a time when the Achaemenid Persians were already ruling Anshan under Assyrian dominance. The various Assyrian Empires , which had been the dominant force in the Near East , Asia Minor , the Caucasus , North Africa , Arabian peninsula and East Mediterranean for much of the period from the first half of the 14th century BC, began to unravel after the death of Ashurbanipal in 631 BC, descending into
12936-649: The land of Canaan , described in Genesis as descendants of Canaan, the son of Ham ( Gen. 10:16 ). This aligns with Akkadian and Babylonian traditions that equate Syro-Palestine with the "land of the Amorites". They are described as a powerful people of great stature "like the height of the cedars" ( Amos 2:9 ) who had occupied the land east and west of the Jordan . The height and strength mentioned in Amos 2:9 has led some Christian scholars, including Orville J. Nave, who wrote
13068-467: The last Elamite to claim the old title "king of Anshan and Susa", was murdered by his brother Hallutash-Inshushinak I , who managed to briefly capture the Assyrian governor of Babylonia Ashur-nadin-shumi and the city of Babylon in 694 BC. Sennacherib soon responded by invading and ravaging Elam. Khallushu was in turn assassinated by Kutir-Nahhunte III , who succeeded him but soon abdicated in favor of Humban-numena III (692–689 BC). Khumma-Menanu recruited
13200-566: The later Hyksos . The term Amurru in Akkadian and Sumerian texts refers to the Amorites, their principal deity , and an Amorite kingdom . The Amorites are mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as inhabitants of Canaan both before and after the conquest of the land under Joshua . It is thought that terms like mar.tu were used to represent what we now call the Amorites: In two Sumerian literary compositions written long afterward in
13332-492: The location also exist in the Jewish historical sources says Daniel T. Potts. Some ancient sources draw a distinction between Elam as the highland area of Khuzestan, and Susiana as the lowland area. Yet in other ancient sources 'Elam' and 'Susiana' seem equivalent. The uncertainty in this area extends also to modern scholarship. Since the discovery of ancient Anshan , and the realization of its great importance in Elamite history,
13464-411: The location where these figures were found indicates a date before or in the time of the Elamite king Shilhak-Inshushinak, stylistic features can help ground the figures in a specific time period. The hairstyle and costume of the figures which are strewn with dots and hemmed with short fringe at the bottom, and the precious metals point to a date in the latter part of the second millennium BC rather than to
13596-516: The nucleus of the Achaemenid dynasty . The Assyrians successfully subjugated and drove the Scythians and Cimmerians from their Iranian colonies, and the Persians , Medes and Parthians remained vassals of Assyria. A brief respite to the Elamites was provided by the civil war between Ashurbanipal and his own brother Shamash-shum-ukin , whom their father Esarhaddon had installed as
13728-541: The other ethnic groups), situated between the river and the town of that name, was occupied by Lithuania in the Klaipėda Revolt of 1923. Some proposals for the partition of the Ottoman Empire envisaged international zones at Istanbul /Constantinople or the wider Turkish straits , and possibly also at İzmir /Smyrna. Although the allies of World War I occupied both after the 1918 Armistice of Mudros ,
13860-486: The people. For the Akkadian emperors of central Mesopotamia, mar.tu was one of the "Four Quarters" surrounding Akkad, along with Subartu (north), Sumer (south), and Elam (east). Naram-Sin of Akkad records in a royal inscription defeating a coalition of Sumerian cities and Amorites near Jebel Bishri in northern Syria c. 2240 BC. His successor, Shar-Kali-Sharri , recorded in one of his year names "In
13992-572: The power vacuum left by the Amorites brought the rise of the Mitanni (Ḫanigalbat) c. 1600 BC. From the 15th century BC onward, the term Amurru is usually applied to the region extending north of Canaan as far as Kadesh on the Orontes River in northern Syria. After the mid-2nd millennium BC, Syrian Amorites came under the domination of first the Hittites and, from the 14th century BC,
14124-527: The powerful Neo Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC); the Babylonian king Mar-biti-apla-ushur (984–979 BC) was of Elamite origin, and Elamites are recorded to have fought unsuccessfully with the Babylonian king Marduk-balassu-iqbi against the Assyrian forces under Shamshi-Adad V (823–811 BC). The later Neo-Elamite period is characterized by a significant migration of Indo-European speaking Iranians to
14256-568: The region date to the Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia) I, and to Ur-III period c. 2900–2000 BC. These excavations include Kalleh Nisar, Bani Surmah, Chigha Sabz, Kamtarlan, Sardant, and Gulal-i Galbi. The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by Enmebaragesi , the Sumerian king of Kish in Mesopotamia . Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of
14388-426: The resources to defend themselves against incursions by larger states (such as Roman conquest of Greece). Thus they inevitably gave way to larger organisations of society, including the empire and the nation-state . In the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806) over 80 Free Imperial Cities came to enjoy considerable autonomy in the Middle Ages and in early modern times, buttressed legally by international law following
14520-411: The rise of nation states worldwide, there remains some disagreement on the number of modern city-states that still exist; Singapore , Monaco and Vatican City are the candidates most commonly discussed. Out of these, Singapore is the largest and most populous, and is generally considered to be the last real city-state left in the world, with full sovereignty, international borders, its own currency ,
14652-652: The rise of the Anshanite dynasties around 1500 BC. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While the first of these dynasties, the Kidinuids continued to use the Akkadian language frequently in their inscriptions, the succeeding Igihalkids and Shutrukids used Elamite with increasing regularity. Likewise, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana. The Kidinuids (c. 1500 – 1400 BC) are
14784-466: The river Karun . In ancient times, several names were used to describe this area. The ancient geographer Ptolemy was the earliest to call the area Susiana , referring to the country around Susa. Another ancient geographer, Strabo , viewed Elam and Susiana as two different geographic regions. He referred to Elam ("land of the Elymaei") as primarily the highland area of Khuzestan. Disagreements over
14916-477: The river Karun . It is considered to be the site of Proto-Elamite cultural formation. During its early history, it fluctuated between submission to Mesopotamian and Elamite power. The earliest levels (22–17 in the excavations conducted by Le Brun, 1978) exhibit pottery that has no equivalent in Mesopotamia, but for the succeeding period, the excavated material allows identification with the culture of Sumer of
15048-479: The same territory, in different eras (see Hanson, Encyclopædia Iranica). To this core Shushiana was periodically annexed and broken off. In addition, some Proto-Elamite sites are found well outside this area, spread out on the Iranian plateau ; such as Warakshe , Sialk (now a suburb of the modern city of Kashan ) and Jiroft in Kerman Province . The state of Elam was formed from these lesser states as
15180-412: The sparsely-populated Éislek forest of northern Luxembourg). Occasionally, microstates with high population densities such as San Marino are cited as city-states, despite lacking a large urban centre. Some cities or urban areas, while not sovereign states, may nevertheless be constituent states of a federation , or enjoy a high degree of autonomy. As such, they function as "city-states" within
15312-472: The sword, Who have gone down uncircumcised to the lower parts of the earth, Who caused their terror in the land of the living; Now they bear their shame with those who go down to the Pit. ( Ezekiel 32:24) Their successors Khumma-Menanu and Shilhak-In-Shushinak II bore the simple title "king", and the final king Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak used no honorific at all. In 540 BC, Achaemenid rule began in Susa. Elymaïs
15444-534: The temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and on their lands I sowed salt. The devastation was a little less complete than Ashurbanipal boasted, and a weak and fragmented Elamite rule was resurrected soon after with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Humban-umena III (not to be confused with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Indada,
15576-534: The term balangay , which refers to a plank boat widely used by various cultures of the Philippine archipelago prior to the arrival of European colonizers. The Free City of Danzig was a semi- autonomous city-state that existed between 1920 and 1939, consisting of the Baltic Sea port of Danzig (now Gdańsk , Poland ) and nearly 200 towns in the surrounding areas. It was created on 15 November 1920 under
15708-425: The terms of Article 100 (Section XI of Part III) of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles after the end of World War I . After a prolonged period where the city of Fiume enjoyed considerable autonomy under Habsburg rule (see Corpus separatum (Fiume) ), The Free State of Fiume was proclaimed as a fully independent free state which existed between 1920 and 1924. Its territory of 28 km (11 sq mi) comprised
15840-464: The throne of Larsa, and Warad-Sin's brother, Rim-Sin , succeeded him and conquered much of southern Mesopotamia for Larsa . Notable Eparti dynasty rulers in Elam during this time include Suruhduh/Siruk-tuh/Sirukdukh (c. 1850 BC), who entered various military coalitions to contain the power of the south Mesopotamian states. Siruk-tuh was the king of Elam when Hammurabi first ruled, he and later kings of
15972-727: The vassal king of Babylon. The Elamites gave support to Shamash-shum-ukin, but also engaged in fighting among themselves. Babylon was besieged in midsummer of 650 BC, and fell by 648 BC; Shamash-shum-ukin died in a fire. The Elamite kingdom was greatly weakened by rebellions and civil wars; kings from 651 to 640 had short reigns before being usurped, overthrown, or captured by the Assyrians. Having dealt with his brother, Ashurbanipal sensed an opportunity to devastate Elam. In 646 BC Ashurbanipal devastated Susiana with ease, and sacked Susa. He installed several vassal kings such as Tammaritu , although these quickly broke off relations with Assyria over their pillages. The last Elamite king, Humban-Haltash III ,
16104-719: The very latest, had conquered its vast empire which stretched from the Caucasus Mountains to Egypt , Libya and the Arabian Peninsula , and from Cyprus and Ephesus to Persia and the Caspian Sea . The major cities in Assyria itself were gradually taken; Arrapha (modern Kirkuk ) and Kalhu (modern Nimrud ) in 616 BC, Ashur , Dur-Sharrukin and Arbela (modern Erbil ) in 613, Nineveh falling in 612, Harran in 608 BC, Carchemish in 605 BC, and finally Dur-Katlimmu by 599 BC. Elam, already largely destroyed and subjugated by Assyria, thus became easy prey for
16236-559: The year in which Szarkaliszarri was victorious over Amurru in the [Jebel Bishri]". By the time of the last days of the Third Dynasty of Ur , the immigrating Amorites had become such a force that kings such as Shu-Sin were obliged to construct a 270-kilometre (170 mi) wall from the Tigris to the Euphrates to hold them off. The Amorites are depicted in contemporary records as nomadic tribes under chiefs, who forced themselves into lands they needed to graze their herds. Some of
16368-638: Was also being ravaged by the empire of Assyria during this period), and at the same time were exhibiting vigorous construction activity—building and restoring luxurious temples in Susa and across their Empire. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte raided Babylonia, carrying home to Susa trophies like the statues of Marduk and Manishtushu , the Manishtushu Obelisk , the Stele of Hammurabi and the stele of Naram-Sin . In 1158 BC, after much of Babylonia had been annexed by Ashur-Dan I of Assyria and Shutruk-Nakhkhunte,
16500-724: Was an independent territory situated in Central Europe between northern Italy and Yugoslavia, facing the north part of the Adriatic Sea, under direct responsibility of the United Nations Security Council in the aftermath of World War II, from 1947 to 1954. The UN attempted to make the Free Territory of Trieste into a city state, but it never gained real independence and in 1954 its territory was divided between Italy and Yugoslavia . In
16632-571: Was approximately 373 km (144 sq mi). It was at first under the joint administration of France, Spain, and the United Kingdom, plus later Portugal, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the United States. The international zone was initially attached to Morocco. It then became a French-Spanish protectorate from 1923 until 29 October 1956, when it was reintegrated into the state of Morocco. The Free Territory of Trieste
16764-466: Was captured in 640 BC by Ashurbanipal, who annexed and destroyed the country. In a tablet unearthed in 1854 by Austen Henry Layard , Ashurbanipal boasts of the destruction he had wrought: Susa, the great holy city, abode of their Gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed ... I destroyed the ziggurat of Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced
16896-461: Was centered primarily in modern Khuzestān and Ilam . The name Khuzestān is derived ultimately from Old Persian : 𐎢𐎺𐎩 ( hūja ) meaning Susa/Elam. This became Middle Persian : 𐭧𐭥𐭰 ( hūz ) "Susiana", and in modern Persian : خوز ( xuz ), compounded with the toponymic suffix -stån "place". In geographical terms, Susiana basically represents the Iranian province of Khuzestan around
17028-678: Was first attested in the 21st–20th centuries BC and was found to be closely related to the Canaanite , Aramaic and Sam'alian languages. In the 18th century BC at Mari Amorite scribes wrote in an Eshnunna dialect of the East Semitic Akkadian language . Since the texts contain Northwest Semitic forms, words and constructions, the Amorite language is thought to be a Northwest Semitic language. The main sources for
17160-458: Was partly contemporary with that of the Mesopotamian emperor Sargon of Akkad , who not only defeated the Awan king Luh-ishan and subjected Susa , but attempted to make the East Semitic Akkadian the official language there. From this time, Mesopotamian sources concerning Elam become more frequent, since the Mesopotamians had developed an interest in resources (such as wood, stone, and metal) from
17292-410: Was routed by Sargon's troops during an expedition in 710, and another Elamite defeat by Sargon's troops is recorded for 708. The Assyrian dominion over Babylon was underlined by Sargon's son Sennacherib , who defeated the Elamites, Chaldeans and Babylonians and dethroned Merodach-baladan for a second time, installing his own son Ashur-nadin-shumi on the Babylonian throne in 700. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte II,
17424-666: Was the location of the death of Antiochus III the Great who was killed while pillaging a temple of Bel in 187 BC. Following the rise and fall of the Achaemenid Empire and the Seleucid Empire , a new dynasty of Elamite rulers established Elymais from 147 BC to 224 AD, usually under the suzerainty of the Parthian Empire , until the advent of the unified Sasanian Empire in 224 AD. Dated to approximately
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