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82-401: Tertullian (c. 155 − c. 240) gives examples of apostolic sees: he describes as churches "in which the very thrones of the apostles are still pre-eminent in their places, in which their own authentic writings are read, uttering the voice and representing the face of each of them severally" the following churches: Corinth , Philippi , Ephesus , and Rome . Tertullian says that from these "all

164-477: A Christian should abstain from the theatre and the amphitheatre. There pagan religious rites were applied and the names of pagan divinities invoked; there the precepts of modesty, purity, and humanity were ignored or set aside, and there no place was offered to the onlookers for the cultivation of the Christian graces. Women should put aside their gold and precious stones as ornaments, and virgins should conform to

246-492: A cleansing and preparation process which precedes the reception of the Holy Spirit in post-baptismal anointing ( De Baptismo 6). De Baptismo includes the earliest known mention of a prayer for the consecration of the waters of baptism. Tertullian had an ex opere operato view of the baptism, thus the efficiency of baptism was not dependent upon the faith of the receiver. He also believed that in an emergency,

328-525: A close relationship with God. Tertullian did not have a specific listing of the canon; however, he quotes 1 John , 1 Peter , Jude , Revelation , the Pauline epistles and the four Gospels . In his later books, he also started to use the Shepherd of Hermas . Tertullian made no references to the book of Tobit ; however, in his book Adversus Marcionem he quotes the book of Judith . He quoted most of

410-500: A dispute between the Church and a separating party, the whole burden of proof lies with the latter, as the Church, in possession of the unbroken tradition, is by its very existence a guarantee of its truth. The five books against Marcion, written in 207 or 208, are the most comprehensive and elaborate of his polemical works, invaluable for gauging the early Christian view of Gnosticism. Tertullian has been identified by Jo Ann McNamara as

492-483: A group mentioned by Augustine as founded by Tertullian. There exists differences of opinion on Tertullianists; Augustine seems to have believed that Tertullian, soon after joining the Montanists , started his own sect derived from Montanism, while some scholars believe that Augustine was in error, and that Tertullianists was simply an alternative name of North African Montanism and not a separate sect. Tertullian

574-487: A human form or change shape. He taught fideistic concepts such as the later philosophers William of Ockham and Søren Kierkegaard . The extent and nature of Tertullian's involvement to Montanism is now disputed by modern scholars. Montanism in North Africa seems to have been a counter-reaction against secularism. The form of Montanism in North Africa seems to have differed from the views of Montanus , and thus

656-514: A long distance in the way of approach to it. Tertullian was a defender of the necessity of apostolicity. In his Prescription Against Heretics , he explicitly challenges heretics to produce evidence of the apostolic succession of their communities. Unlike many early Christian writers, Tertullian along with Clement of Alexandria used the word "figure" and "symbol" to define the Eucharist, since in his book Against Marcion implied that: "this

738-469: A married couple. He believed that marital relations coarsened the body and spirit and would dull their spiritual senses and avert the Holy Spirit since husband and wife became one flesh once married. Tertullian has been criticised as misogynistic , on the basis of the contents of his De Cultu Feminarum , section I.I, part 2 (trans. C.W. Marx): "Do you not know that you are Eve ? The judgment of God upon this sex lives on in this age; therefore, necessarily

820-455: A notorious schismatic. Since no ancient writer was more definite (if not indeed fanatical) on this subject of schism than Saint Cyprian, the question must surely be answered in the negative." In the time of Augustine , a group of "Tertullianists" still had a basilica in Carthage, which within the same period passed to the orthodox church. It is unclear whether the name was merely another for

902-401: A period of tribulation, to be followed by a literal 1000-year reign of Christ. He attacked the use of Greek philosophy in Christian theology. For him, philosophy supported religious idolatry and heresy. He believed that many people became heretical because of relying on philosophy. He stated "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" Tertullian's views of angels and demons were influenced by

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984-483: A priest is also questionable. In his extant writings, he never describes himself as ordained in the church and seems to place himself among the laity. His conversion to Christianity perhaps took place about 197–198 (cf. Adolf Harnack , Bonwetsch , and others), but its immediate antecedents are unknown except as they are conjectured from his writings. The event must have been sudden and decisive, transforming at once his own personality. He writes that he could not imagine

1066-529: A truly Christian life without such a conscious breach, a radical act of conversion: "Christians are made, not born" ( Apol ., xviii). Two books addressed to his wife confirm that he was married to a Christian wife. In his middle life (about 207), he was attracted to the "New Prophecy" of Montanism , but today most scholars reject the assertion that Tertullian left the mainstream church or was excommunicated. "[W]e are left to ask whether Saint Cyprian could have regarded Tertullian as his master if Tertullian had been

1148-556: A winged lion. Mark the Evangelist attributes are the lion in the desert ; he can be depicted as a bishop on a throne decorated with lions; as a man helping Venetian sailors. He is often depicted holding a book with pax tibi Marce written on it or holding a palm and book. Other depictions of Mark show him as a man with a book or scroll, accompanied by a winged lion. The lion might also be associated with Jesus' Resurrection because lions were believed to sleep with open eyes, thus

1230-410: Is compared with the greatest of all evils". He argued that before the coming of Christ, the command to reproduce was a prophetic sign pointing to the coming of the Church; after it came, the command was superseded. He also believed lust for one's wife and for another woman were essentially the same, so that marital desire was similar to adulterous desire. He believed that sex even in marriage would disrupt

1312-414: Is debated which one he was referring to) when he challenged him on the Church forgiving capital sinners and letting them back into the church. He believed that the people who committed grave sins, such as sorcery, fornication and murder, should not be let inside the church. As a Montanist, he attacked the church authorities as more interested in their own political power in the church than in listening to

1394-484: Is difficult to decide since the heritage of Carthage had become common to the Berbers. Tertullian's own understanding of his ethnicity has been questioned: He referred to himself as Poenicum inter Romanos ( lit.   ' Punic among Romans ' ) in his book De Pallio and claimed Africa as his patria . According to church tradition, Tertullian was raised in Carthage. Jerome claimed that Tertullian's father held

1476-646: Is discussed by other theorists such as Benjamin H. Dunning. Tertullian had a radical view on the cosmos. He believed that heaven and earth intersected at many points and that it was possible that sexual relations with supernatural beings can occur. Tertullian's writings are edited in volumes 1–2 of the Patrologia Latina , and modern texts exist in the Corpus Christianorum Latinorum . English translations by Sydney Thelwall and Philip Holmes can be found in volumes III and IV of

1558-600: Is distinguished from Mark the Evangelist, John Mark is celebrated on September 27 (as in the Roman Martyrology ) and Mark the Evangelist on April 25. Mark is remembered in the Church of England and in much of the Anglican Communion, with a Festival on 25 April . Mark the Evangelist is most often depicted writing or holding his gospel. In Christian tradition, Mark the Evangelist is symbolized by

1640-592: Is my body" should be interpreted as "a figure of my body". While others have also suggested that he believed in a spiritual presence in the Eucharist . Tertullian advises the postponement of baptism of little children and the unmarried, he mentions that it was customary to baptise infants, with sponsors speaking on their behalf. He argued that an infant ran the risk of growing up and then falling into sin, which could cause them to lose their salvation, if they were baptized as infants. Contrary to early Syrian baptismal doctrine and practice, Tertullian describes baptism as

1722-539: Is no pagan religion against which Christians may offend. Christians do not engage in the foolish worship of the emperors, that they do better: they pray for them, and that Christians can afford to be put to torture and to death, and the more they are cast down the more they grow; "the blood of the Christians is seed" ( Apologeticum , 50). In the De Praescriptione he develops as its fundamental idea that, in

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1804-709: Is observed on April 25 by the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. For those Churches still using the Julian calendar , April 25 according to it aligns with May 8 on the Gregorian calendar until the year 2099. The Coptic Orthodox Church observes the Feast of St Mark on Parmouti 30 according to the Coptic calendar which always aligns with April 25 on the Julian calendar or May 8 on the Gregorian calendar . Where John Mark

1886-568: Is often considered an early proponent of the Nicene doctrine , approaching the subject from the standpoint of the Logos doctrine , though he did not state the later doctrine of the immanent Trinity . In his treatise against Praxeas, who taught patripassianism in Rome, he used the words "trinity", "economy" (used in reference to the three persons), "persons", and "substance", maintaining the distinction of

1968-839: Is perhaps most famous for being the first writer in Latin known to use the term trinity (Latin: trinitas ). Tertullian originated new theological concepts and advanced the development of early Church doctrine. However, some of his teachings, such as the subordination of the Son and Spirit to the Father , were later rejected by the Church. According to Jerome , he later joined the Montanist sect and may have apostasized ; however, modern scholars dispute this. Scant reliable evidence exists regarding Tertullian's life; most knowledge comes from passing references in his own writings. Roman Africa

2050-490: Is referencing John Mark . Modern mainstream Bible scholars find Papias's information difficult to interpret. The Coptic Church accords with identifying Mark the Evangelist with John Mark , as well as that he was one of the Seventy Disciples sent out by Jesus (Luke 10:1), as Hippolytus confirmed. Coptic tradition also holds that Mark the Evangelist hosted the disciples in his house after Jesus's death, that

2132-614: Is said to have held to a view similar to the Protestant priesthood of all believers and that the distinction of the clergy and the laity is only because of ecclesiastical institution and thus in an absence of a priest the laity can act as priests; his theory on the distinction of the laity and clergy is influenced by Montanism and his early writings do not have the same beliefs. He believed in Iconoclasm . He believed in historic premillennialism : that Christians will go through

2214-493: The Ante-Nicene Fathers which are freely available online; more modern translations of some of the works have been made. Saint Mark Mark the Evangelist ( Koinē Greek : Μᾶρκος, romanized : Mârkos ), also known as John Mark ( Koinē Greek : Ἰωάννης Μάρκος, romanized : Iōannēs Mârkos; Aramaic : ܝܘܚܢܢ, romanized: Yōḥannān ) or Saint Mark , is the person who is traditionally ascribed to be

2296-557: The Apologeticus , addressed to the Roman magistrates, is a most pungent defense of Christianity and the Christians against the reproaches of the pagans, and an important legacy of the ancient Church, proclaiming the principle of freedom of religion as an inalienable human right and demanding a fair trial for Christians before they are condemned to death. Tertullian was the first to disprove charges that Christians sacrificed infants at

2378-650: The Coptic Catholic Church all trace their origins to this original community. Aspects of the Coptic liturgy can be traced back to Mark himself. He became the first bishop of Alexandria and he is honoured as the founder of Christianity in Africa . According to Eusebius, Mark was succeeded by Anianus as the bishop of Alexandria in the eighth year of Nero (62/63), probably, but not definitely, due to his coming death. Later Coptic tradition says that he

2460-636: The Holy See and represent the Pope as head of the worldwide Roman Catholic Church and successor of Saint Peter . In Catholic canon law , the term is applied also to the various departments of the Roman Curia . The Code of Canon Law states: "In this Code the terms Apostolic See or Holy See mean not only the Roman Pontiff, but also, unless the contrary is clear from the nature of things or from

2542-623: The Old Testament including many deuterocanonical books , however he never used the books of Chronicles , Ruth , Esther , 2 Maccabees , 2 John and 3 John . He defended the Book of Enoch and he believed that the book was omitted by the Jews from the canon. He believed that the epistle to the Hebrews was made by Barnabas . For Tertullian, scripture was authoritative; he used scripture as

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2624-593: The Roman province of Africa . He was the first Christian author to produce an extensive corpus of Latin Christian literature and was an early Christian apologist and a polemicist against heresy , including contemporary Christian Gnosticism . Tertullian was the first theologian to write in Latin, and so has been called "the father of Latin Christianity ", as well as " the founder of Western theology ". He

2706-476: The anti-Jewish Adversus Iudaeos , Adv. Marcionem , Adv. Praxeam , Adv. Hermogenem , De praescriptione hereticorum , and Scorpiace were written to counteract Gnosticism and other religious or philosophical doctrines. The other group consists of practical and disciplinary writings, e.g., De monogamia , Ad uxorem , De virginibus velandis , De cultu feminarum , De patientia , De pudicitia , De oratione , and Ad martyras . Among his apologetic writings,

2788-520: The celebration of the Lord's Supper and committed incest. He pointed to the commission of such crimes in the pagan world and then proved by the testimony of Pliny the Younger that Christians pledged themselves not to commit murder, adultery, or other crimes. He adduced the inhumanity of pagan customs such as feeding the flesh of gladiators to beasts. He argued that the gods have no existence and thus there

2870-521: The gospel ( Luke 10:1ff.) in Judea . According to Eusebius of Caesarea , Herod Agrippa I , in his first year of reign over the whole of Judea (AD 41), killed James, son of Zebedee and arrested Peter , planning to kill him after the Passover . Peter was saved miraculously by angels , and escaped out of the realm of Herod (Acts 12:1–19). Peter went to Antioch , then through Asia Minor (visiting

2952-682: The 5th century. In the 2nd-century writings of Tertullian, paganus meant a "civilian" who was lacking self-discipline. In De Corona Militis XI.V he writes: The chronology of his writings is difficult to fix with certainty. In his work against Marcion , which he calls his third composition on the Marcionite heresy, he gives its date as the fifteenth year of the reign of Severus ( Adv. Marcionem , i.1, 15) – which would be approximately 208. The writings may be divided according to their subject matter, falling into two groups: Apologetic and polemic writings, like Apologeticus , De testimonio animae ,

3034-402: The 9th century ( De Paradiso, De superstitione saeculi, De carne et anima were all extant in the now damaged Codex Agobardinus in 814 AD). Tertullian's writings cover the whole theological field of the time – apologetics against paganism and Judaism, polemics , polity, discipline, and morals, or the whole reorganization of human life on a Christian basis; they gave a picture of

3116-459: The Apologists in dating His 'perfect generation' from His extrapolation for the work of creation; prior to that moment God could not strictly be said to have had a Son, while after it the term 'Father', which for earlier theologians generally connoted God as author of reality, began to acquire the specialized meaning of Father of the Son." As regards the subjects of subordination of the Son to

3198-530: The Book of Enoch. He held that the Nephilim were born out of fallen angels who mingled with human women and had sexual relations. He believed that because of the actions of the watchers as described in the Book of Enoch, men would later judge angels. He believed that angels are inferior to humans, and not made in the image of God. He believed that Angels are imperceptible to our senses, but they may choose to take on

3280-426: The Christian life and that abstinence was the best way to achieve the clarity of the soul. Tertullian's views would later influence much of the western church . Tertullian was the first to introduce a view of "sexual hierarchy": he believed that those who abstain from sexual relations should have a higher hierarchy in the church than those who do not, because he saw sexual relations as a barrier that stopped one from

3362-459: The Churches themselves. [...] Suppose there arise a dispute relative to some important question among us, should we not have recourse to the most ancient Churches with which the apostles held constant intercourse, and learn from them what is certain and clear in regard to the present question?" Tertullian's arguing is similar: From the apostles the churches they founded received the doctrine that

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3444-518: The Cousin of Barnabas ), and serving with him in Rome (2 Timothy 4:11); from Pentapolis he made his way to Alexandria . When Mark returned to Alexandria, the pagans of the city resented his efforts to turn the Alexandrians away from the worship of their traditional gods . In AD 68, they placed a rope around his neck and dragged him through the streets until he was dead. The Feast of St Mark

3526-577: The Epistles of the Apostle Paul . Tertullian's resolve to never marry again and that no one else should remarry eventually led to his break with Rome because the orthodox church refused to follow him in this resolve. He, instead, favored the Montanist sect where they also condemned second marriage. One reason for Tertullian's disdain for marriage was his belief about the transformation that awaited

3608-540: The Evangelist with John Mark , and John Mark as the cousin of Barnabas . However, Hippolytus of Rome , in On the Seventy Apostles , distinguishes Mark the Evangelist ( 2 Timothy 4 :11), John Mark ( Acts 12 :12, 25; 13:5, 13; 15:37), and Mark the cousin of Barnabas ( Colossians 4 :10; Philemon 24). According to Hippolytus, they all belonged to the "Seventy Disciples" who were sent out by Jesus to disseminate

3690-491: The Father belong also to the Son, including his names, such as Almighty God, Most High, Lord of Hosts, or King of Israel. Though Tertullian considered the Father to be God (Yahweh), he responded to criticism of the Modalist Praxeas that this meant that Tertullian's Christianity was not monotheistic by noting that even though there was one God (Yahweh, who became the Father when the Son became his agent of creation),

3772-564: The Father, the New Catholic Encyclopedia has commented: "In not a few areas of theology, Tertullian's views are, of course, completely unacceptable. Thus, for example, his teaching on the Trinity reveals a subordination of Son to Father that in the later crass form of Arianism the Church rejected as heretical." Though he did not fully state the doctrine of the immanence of the Trinity, according to B. B. Warfield, he went

3854-585: The North African Montanists or that it means that Tertullian later split with the Montanists and founded his own group. Jerome says that Tertullian lived to old age. By the doctrinal works he published, Tertullian became the teacher of Cyprian and the predecessor of Augustine, a key figure of western theology. Thirty-one works are extant, together with fragments of more. Some fifteen works in Latin or Greek are lost, some as recently as

3936-490: The North African Montanists believed Catholic bishops to be successors of the apostles, the New Testament to be the supreme authority on Christianity and they did not deny most doctrines of the Church. Tertullian was drawn to Montanism, if he was, mainly because of its strict moral standards. He believed that the Church had forsaken the Christian way of life and entered a path of destruction. Tertullianists were

4018-567: The Old Testament. Scripture was a record of the earlier Tradition that should not be interpreted outside that tradition: scripture should not be cherry-picked and early interpretations should be preferred over later ones. Tertullian denied Mary's virginity in partu , and he was quoted by Helvidius in his debate with Jerome. He held similar views as Antidicomarians . J. N. D. Kelly argued that Tertullian believed that Mary had imperfections, thus denying her sinlessness . Tertullian

4100-453: The Son could also be referred to as God, when referred to apart from the Father, because the Son, though subordinate to God, is entitled to be called God "from the unity of the Father" in regards to being formed from a portion of His substance. The Catholic Encyclopedia comments that for Tertullian, "There was a time when there was no Son and no sin, when God was neither Father nor Judge." Similarly J.N.D. Kelly stated: "Tertullian followed

4182-459: The Son from the Father as the unoriginate God, and the Spirit from both the Father and the Son ( Adv. Praxeam , xxv). "These three are one substance, not one person; and it is said, 'I and my Father are one' in respect not of the singularity of number but the unity of the substance." The very names "Father" and "Son" indicate the distinction of personality. The Father is one, the Son is another, and

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4264-409: The Spirit is another ( "dico alium esse patrem et alium filium et alium spiritum" Adv. Praxeam , ix)), and yet in defending the unity of God, he says the Son is not other ( "alius a patre filius non est" , ( Adv. Prax. 18) as a result of receiving a portion of the Father's substance. At times, speaking of the Father and the Son, Tertullian refers to "two gods". He says that all things of

4346-464: The Spirit. Tertullian's criticism of Church authorities has been compared to the Protestant reformation . Tertullian's later view of marriage, such as in his book Exhortation to Chastity , may have been heavily influenced by Montanism. He had previously held marriage to be fundamentally good, but after his conversion he denied its goodness. He argues that marriage is considered to be good "when it

4428-450: The apostles as sources for sure Christian doctrine. Irenaeus argues that, to know what is true Christian doctrine, it is enough to learn the teaching of some of the oldest churches or at least one, in particular that of Rome: "If the apostles had known hidden mysteries, which they were in the habit of imparting to 'the perfect' apart and privily from the rest, they would have delivered them especially to those to whom they were also committing

4510-473: The apostles received directly from Christ, and from those churches the more recent churches received the same doctrine. Every heresy is more recent and, being different, is erroneous. Jurisdictional authority of particular episcopal sees over others is not necessarily associated with the apostolic origin of the see. Thus, the fourth canon of the First Council of Nicaea of 325 attributed to the bishop of

4592-510: The appellation God, in the sense of the ultimate originator of all things, to the Father, who made the world out of nothing though his Son, the Word, has corporeity, though he is a spirit ( De praescriptione , vii.; Adv. Praxeam , vii). However Tertullian used 'corporeal' only in the Stoic sense, to mean something with actual material existence, rather than the later idea of flesh. Tertullian

4674-598: The author of the Gospel of Mark . Modern Bible scholars have concluded that the Gospel of Mark was written by an anonymous author rather than an identifiable historical figure. According to Church tradition, Mark founded the episcopal see of Alexandria , which was one of the five most important sees of early Christianity . His feast day is celebrated on April 25, and his symbol is the winged lion . According to William Lane (1974), an "unbroken tradition" identifies Mark

4756-468: The capital (metropolis) of each Roman province (the " metropolitan bishop ") a position of authority among the bishops of the province, without reference to the founding figure of that bishop's see. Its sixth canon the same council recognized the wider authority, extending beyond a single imperial province, traditionally held by Rome and Alexandria , and the prerogatives of the churches in Antioch and

4838-461: The churches in Pontus , Galatia , Cappadocia , Asia , and Bithynia , as mentioned in 1 Peter 1 :1), and arrived in Rome in the second year of Emperor Claudius (AD 42). Somewhere on the way, Peter encountered Mark and took him as travel companion and interpreter. Mark the Evangelist wrote down the sermons of Peter, thus composing the Gospel according to Mark, before he left for Alexandria in

4920-653: The context, the Secretariat of State, the Council for the public affairs of the Church, and the other Institutes of the Roman Curia." The bodies in question are seen as speaking on behalf of the See of Rome. Tertullian Tertullian ( / t ər ˈ t ʌ l i ə n / ; Latin : Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus ; c. 155 – c. 220 AD ) was a prolific early Christian author from Carthage in

5002-504: The continuance of the prophetic gifts. Geoffrey D. Dunn writes that "Some of Tertullian's treatises reveal that he had much in common with Montanism ... To what extent, if at all, this meant that he joined a group that was schismatic (or, to put it another way, that he left the church) continues to be debated". On the principle that we should not look at or listen to what we have no right to practise, and that polluted things, seen and touched, pollute ( De spectaculis , viii, xvii), he declared

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5084-558: The eighth century, but most are of the fifteenth. There are five main collections of Tertullian's works, known as the Cluniacense , Corbeiense , Trecense , Agobardinum and Ottobonianus . Some of Tertullian's works are lost . All the manuscripts of the Corbeiense collection are also now lost, although the collection survives in early printed editions. Tertullian's main doctrinal teachings are as follows: Tertullian reserves

5166-490: The guilt should live on also. You are the gateway of the devil; you are the one who unseals the curse of that tree, and you are the first one to turn your back on the divine law; you are the one who persuaded him whom the devil was not capable of corrupting; you easily destroyed the image of God, Adam . Because of what you deserve, that is, death, even the Son of God had to die." The critic Amy Place notes, however, that "Revisionist studies later rehabilitated" Tertullian. This

5248-460: The jurist Tertullianus, who is quoted in the Pandects . Although Tertullian used a knowledge of Roman law in his writings, his legal knowledge does not demonstrably exceed what could be expected from a sufficient Roman education. The writings of Tertullianus, a lawyer of the same agnomen , exist only in fragments and do not explicitly denote a Christian authorship. The notion of Tertullian being

5330-509: The laity can give the baptism. According to James Puglisi, Tertullian interpreted that in Matthew 16:18–19 "the rock" refers to Peter. For him, Peter is the type of the one Church and its origins, this Church, is now present in a variety of local churches. He also believed that the power to "bind and unbind" has passed from Peter to the apostles and prophets of the Montanist church, not the bishops. He mocked Pope Calixtus or Agrippinus (it

5412-537: The late 19th century Philip Schaff also mentioned other views. The see of Constantinople was elevated to a position of jurisdictional prominence not on the grounds of apostolic origin but because of its political importance as the capital of the Roman Empire . The First Council of Constantinople (381), held in what by then had been the political capital for half a century, decreed in a canon of disputed validity: "The Bishop of Constantinople, however, shall have

5494-435: The law of St. Paul for women and keep themselves strictly veiled ( De virginibus velandis ). He praised the unmarried state as the highest ( De monogamia , xvii; Ad uxorem , i.3) and called upon Christians not to allow themselves to be excelled in the virtue of celibacy by Vestal Virgins and Egyptian priests. He even labeled second marriage a species of adultery ( De exhortatione castitatis , ix), but this directly contradicted

5576-438: The other churches, one after another, derived the tradition of the faith, and the seeds of doctrine, and are every day deriving them, that they may become churches. Indeed, it is on this account only that they will be able to deem themselves apostolic, as being the offspring of apostolic churches". Tertullian himself and the slightly earlier Irenaeus (c. 130 – c. 200) speak of the succession of bishops of sees founded directly by

5658-516: The other provinces. Of Aelia , the Roman city built on the site of the destroyed city of Jerusalem , the council's seventh canon reads: "Since custom and ancient tradition have prevailed that the Bishop of Aelia should be honoured, let him, saving its due dignity to the Metropolis, have the next place of honour." The metropolis in question is generally taken to be Caesarea Maritima , though in

5740-480: The person who originally invested the consecrated virgin as the "bride of Christ", which helped to bring the independent virgin under patriarchal rule. Scholars in the past accepting the Montanist theory have also divided his work into earlier Catholic works and the later supposedly Montanist works (cf. Harnack, ii.262 sqq.), aiming to show the change of views Tertullian's mind underwent. The earliest manuscript (handwritten copy) of any of Tertullian's works dates to

5822-462: The position of centurio proconsularis ("aide-de-camp") in the Roman army in Africa. Tertullian has been claimed to have been a trained lawyer and an ordained priest. Those assertions rely on the accounts of Eusebius of Caesarea , Church History , II, ii. 4, and Jerome 's De viris illustribus ( On famous men ) chapter 53. Tertullian has also been thought to be a lawyer, based on his use of legal analogies and on an identification of him with

5904-599: The prerogative of honour after the Bishop of Rome; because Constantinople is New Rome." It was later ranked second among the sees in the theory of Pentarchy : "[F]ormulated in the legislation of the emperor Justinian I (527–565), especially in his Novella 131, the theory received formal ecclesiastical sanction at the Council in Trullo (692), which ranked the five sees as Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem." For another pentarchic see, that of Alexandria ,

5986-430: The primary source in almost every chapter of his every work, and very rarely anything else. He seems to prioritize the authority of scripture above anything else. When interpreting scripture, he would occasionally believe passages to be allegorical or symbolic, while in other places he would support a literal interpretation. He would especially use allegorical interpretations when dealing with Christological prophecies of

6068-409: The religious life and thought of the time which is of great interest to the church historian. Like other early Christian writers Tertullian used the term paganus to mean "civilian" as a contrast to the "soldiers of Christ". The motif of Miles Christi did not assume the literal meaning of participation in war until Church doctrines justifying Christian participation in battle were developed around

6150-625: The reputed founder and close associate of the apostle Peter, Saint Mark , is not called an apostle in the New Testament . By a long-standing usage, evidenced already in 431, when the Council of Ephesus , the third ecumenical council , employed the phrase "our most holy and blessed pope Cœlestine , bishop of the Apostolic See", the expression, " the Apostolic See ", is used in the singular and capitalized to mean specifically

6232-851: The resurrected Jesus came to Mark's house ( John 20 ), and that the Holy Spirit descended on the disciples at Pentecost in the same house. Furthermore, Mark is also believed to have been among the servants at the Marriage at Cana who poured out the water that Jesus turned to wine ( John 2 :1–11). According to the Coptic tradition, Mark was born in Cyrene , a city in the Pentapolis of North Africa (now Libya ). This tradition adds that Mark returned to Pentapolis later in life, after being sent by Paul to Colossae ( Colossians 4:10; Philemon 24.) Some, however, think these actually refer to Mark

6314-556: The same approach: the author was named Mark, but scholars are undecided who this Mark was. The four canonical gospels are anonymous and most researchers agree that none of them was written by eyewitnesses. Evidence for Mark the Evangelist's authorship of the Gospel of Mark that bears his name originates with Papias ( c.  60  – c.  130 AD ). Scholars of the Trinity Evangelical Divinity School are "almost certain" that Papias

6396-688: The third year of Claudius (AD 43). According to the Acts 15:39, Mark went to Cyprus with Barnabas after the Council of Jerusalem. According to tradition, in AD 49, about 16 years after the Ascension of Jesus , Mark travelled to Alexandria and founded the Church of Alexandria , having already been in Egypt for 4-5 years. The Coptic Orthodox Church , the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria , and

6478-460: Was an advocate of discipline and an austere code of practise, and like many of the African fathers, one of the leading representatives of the rigorist element in the early Church. His writings on public amusements, the veiling of virgins, the conduct of women, and the like, reflect these opinions. His views may have led him to adopt Montanism with its ascetic rigor and its belief in chiliasm and

6560-485: Was famous as the home of orators , and that influence can be seen in his writing style with its archaisms or provincialisms, its glowing imagery and its passionate temper. He was a scholar with an excellent education. He wrote at least three books in Koine Greek ; none of them are extant. Some sources describe him as Berber . The linguist René Braun suggested that he was of Punic origin but acknowledged that it

6642-452: Was martyred in 68. Modern Bible scholars (i.e. most critical scholars) have concluded that the Gospel of Mark was written by an anonymous author rather than by Mark. For instance, the author of the Gospel of Mark knew very little about the geography of the region (having apparently never visited it), "was very far from being a peasant or a fisherman", was unacquainted with Jewish customs (unlikely for someone from Palestine), and

6724-545: Was probably "a Hellenized Jew who lived outside of Palestine". Mitchell Reddish does concede that the name of the author might have been Mark (making the gospel possibly homonymous), but the identity of this Mark is unknown. Similarly, "Francis Moloney suggests the author was someone named Mark, though maybe not any of the Marks mentioned in the New Testament". The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus takes

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