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42-414: " Arabid race " was a historical term used by ethnologists during the late 19th century and early 20th century in an attempt to categorize a historically perceived racial division between peoples of Semitic ethnicities and peoples of other ethnicities. The term "Arabid race" was used in the late nineteenth, and early twentieth centuries. Its proponents saw it as part of the so called Caucasian race or even of

84-526: A polygenist view, that human races had evolved separately from local varieties of Homo erectus . Dividing humans into five main races, and argued that each evolved in parallel but at different rates, so that some races had reached higher levels of evolution than others. He argued that the Caucasoid race had evolved 200,000 years prior to the "Congoid race", and hence represented a higher evolutionary stage. Coon argued that Caucasoid traits emerged prior to

126-487: A Caucasian physical stock existed. He divided this racial element into two main groups: a shorter and darker Mediterranean or Iberian race and a taller and lighter Nordic race. Wells asserted that Semitic and Hamitic populations were mainly of Mediterranean type, and Aryan populations were originally of Nordic type. He regarded the Basques as descendants of early Mediterranean peoples, who inhabited western Europe before

168-564: A change from the Supreme Court's earlier opinion in Ozawa v. United States , in which it had expressly approved of two lower court cases holding "high caste Hindus" to be "free white persons" within the meaning of the naturalization act. Government lawyers later recognized that the Supreme Court had "withdrawn" this approval in Thind . In 1946, the U.S. Congress passed a new law establishing

210-470: A focus on skeletal anatomy, and especially cranial morphology, without regard to skin tone . Ancient and modern "Caucasoid" populations were thus not exclusively "white", but ranged in complexion from white-skinned to dark brown. Since the second half of the 20th century, physical anthropologists have switched from a typological understanding of human biological diversity towards a genomic and population-based perspective, and have tended to understand race as

252-429: A separate origin. He was a very early practitioner of scientific racism . Meiners studied the physical, mental and moral characteristics of each race, and built a race hierarchy based on the evidence that was considered common in scientific and anthropological circles at the time. In Meiners's book The Outline of History of Mankind he claimed that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. He viewed only

294-406: A sharp nasal sill. Many anthropologists in the 20th century used the term "Caucasoid" in their literature, such as William Clouser Boyd , Reginald Ruggles Gates , Carleton S. Coon , Sonia Mary Cole , Alice Mossie Brues and Grover Krantz replacing the earlier term "Caucasian" as it had fallen out of usage. In the 19th century Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885–1890), Caucasoid was one of

336-533: A small immigration quota for Indians, which also permitted them to become citizens. Major changes to immigration law, however, only later came in 1965, when many earlier racial restrictions on immigration were lifted. This resulted in confusion about whether American Hispanics are included as "white", as the term Hispanic originally applied to Spanish heritage but has since expanded to include all people with origins in Spanish speaking countries . In other countries,

378-533: A small mouth, facial angle of 100–90°, and orthognathism, exemplified by what Blumenbach saw in most ancient Greek crania and statues. Later anthropologists of the 19th and early 20th century such as James Cowles Prichard , Charles Pickering , Broca , Paul Topinard , Samuel George Morton , Oscar Peschel , Charles Gabriel Seligman , Robert Bennett Bean , William Zebina Ripley , Alfred Cort Haddon and Roland Dixon came to recognize other Caucasoid morphological features, such as prominent supraorbital ridges and

420-485: A social classification of humans based on phenotype and ancestry as well as cultural factors, as the concept is also understood in the social sciences. In the United States , the root term Caucasian is still in use as a synonym for white or of European , Middle Eastern , or North African ancestry, a usage that has been criticized. In the eighteenth century, the prevalent view among European scholars

462-537: A subspecies labelled Homo sapiens europaeus . It has been considered significantly outdated in the years since. Modern scientific consensus based on genetics rejects the concept of distinct human races in a biological sense. In the early 20th century, Charles Gabriel Seligman described his perception of the occurrence of the "Arabid race" in the Sudan region : In the Sudan area, classic Arabid types can be found among

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504-626: The Dravidians and the Sinhalese were Caucasoid or a separate Dravida race, but by and in the 20th century, anthropologists predominantly declared Dravidians to be Caucasoid. Historically, the racial classification of the Turkic peoples was sometimes given as " Turanid ". Turanid racial type or "minor race", subtype of the Europid (Caucasian) race with Mongoloid admixtures, situated at

546-565: The Kababish and certain other Arabic-speaking desert tribes collectively known as Sudanese Arabs . Here, they often occur in solution with the local Hamitic Mediterranean type, which was the morphological taxon to which belonged the A-Group , C-Group and Meroitic culture makers, among certain other early populations in the region. Elsewhere, Arabid elements fuse with the Negroid type of

588-745: The Mesolithic and Neolithic (e.g. Afalou , Hvellinge, Fjelkinge). Coon's theories on race were much disputed in his lifetime, and are considered pseudoscientific in modern anthropology. After discussing various criteria used in biology to define subspecies or races, Alan R. Templeton concludes in 2016: "[T]he answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no." Drawing from Petrus Camper 's theory of facial angle , Blumenbach and Cuvier classified races, through their skull collections based on their cranial features and anthropometric measurements. Caucasoid traits were recognised as: thin nasal aperture ("nose narrow"),

630-656: The polygenist theory of human origins. He was a member of the Göttingen school of history . Christoph Meiners was born in Warstade (now a part of Hemmoor ) near Otterndorf . He started at a gymnasium in Bremen in 1763, and was a student at Göttingen from 1767 to 1770. In 1772 he became extraordinary professor, and in 1775 full professor, of Weltweisheit at the University of Göttingen . From 1788 to 1791 he co-edited

672-494: The "Mediterranean type" which he considered to be distinct from Caucasians, rather than a subtype of it as others had done. While Blumenbach had erroneously thought that light skin color was ancestral to all humans and the dark skin of southern populations was due to sun, Coon thought that Caucasians had lost their original pigmentation as they moved North. Coon used the term "Caucasoid" and "White race" synonymously. In 1962, Coon published The Origin of Races , wherein he proposed

714-544: The 1780s by members of the Göttingen school of history – notably Christoph Meiners in 1785 and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in 1795 —it had originally referred in a narrow sense to the native inhabitants of the Caucasus region. In his The Outline of History of Mankind (1785), the German philosopher Christoph Meiners first used the concept of a "Caucasian" ( Kaukasisch ) race in its wider racial sense. Meiners' term

756-760: The Cro-Magnons, and were present in the Skhul and Qafzeh hominids . However, these fossils and the Predmost specimen were held to be Neanderthaloid derivatives because they possessed short cervical vertebrae , lower and narrower pelves, and had some Neanderthal skull traits. Coon further asserted that the Caucasoid race was of dual origin, consisting of early dolichocephalic (e.g. Galley Hill , Combe-Capelle , Téviec ) and Neolithic Mediterranean Homo sapiens (e.g. Muge , Long Barrow , Corded ), as well as Neanderthal-influenced brachycephalic Homo sapiens dating to

798-818: The Indians are extremely thick as the Spanish conquerors found out when their blades shattered on them. Meiners also claimed the skin of a Native American is thicker than an ox. Meiners wrote that the noblest race was the Celts , and they were able to conquer various parts of the world, were more sensitive to heat and cold and their delicacy is shown by the way they are selective about what they eat. Meiners claimed Slavs are an inferior race, "less sensitive and content with eating rough food”; he described stories of Slavs eating poisonous fungi without coming to any harm. He claimed that their medical techniques were also backwards such as

840-462: The Negro felt less pain than any other race and lacked in emotions. Meiners wrote that the Negro had thick nerves and thus was not sensitive like the other races, he went as far to say that the Negro has “no human, barely any animal feeling” he described a story where a Negro was condemned to death by being burned alive, halfway through the burning the Negro asked to smoke a pipe and smoked it like nothing

882-502: The Negro's poor diet, mode of living and lack of morals he said. Meiners also claimed Native Americans were an inferior stock of people. He claimed that Indians cannot adapt to different climates, different types of food or modes of life and that when they are exposed to these new conditions they lapse into a “deadly melancholy”. Meiners studied the diet of the Indians and said that they can feed off any kind of “foul offal” and that they consume huge amounts of alcohol. According to Meiners

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924-514: The Slavs baking sick people in ovens then making them roll in the snow. Below the Slavs are the peoples of the Middle East and Asia, all limited in intelligence and of an evil disposition, which goes together with lack of adaptability and insensitivity. In Meiners large work entitled Researches on the variations in human nature (1815), he studied the sexology of each race and claimed that

966-518: The anthropologist Georges Cuvier , Blumenbach classified the Caucasian race by cranial measurements and bone morphology in addition to skin pigmentation. Following Meiners, Blumenbach described the Caucasian race as consisting of the native inhabitants of Europe, West Asia, the Indian peninsula, and North Africa. This usage later grew into the widely used color terminology for race , contrasting with

1008-450: The anti- Kantian journal Philosophische Bibliothek . He wrote on comparative history and cultural history . He is now known mostly for his critical attitude towards Immanuel Kant , Mary Wollstonecraft and the concept of Enlightenment . He died in Göttingen . He later became the favorite intellectual ancestor of the Nazis . Meiners was a polygenist : he believed that each race had

1050-551: The arrival of Aryan Celts from the direction of central Europe. The "Northcaucasian race" is a sub-race proposed by Carleton S. Coon (1930). It comprises the native populations of the North Caucasus , the Balkars , Karachays and Vainakh ( Chechens and Ingushs ). An introduction to anthropology, published in 1953, gives a more complex classification scheme: Besides its use in anthropology and related fields,

1092-660: The author, including but not limited to Mediterranean , Atlantid , Nordic , East Baltic , Alpine , Dinaric , Turanid , Armenoid , Iranid , Indid , Arabid , and Hamitic . Some authors also proposed a Pamirid race (or Pamir-Fergana race ) in Central Asia, named after the Pamir range and the Fergana valley . H.G. Wells argued that across Europe, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Asia, Central Asia and South Asia,

1134-498: The boundary of the distribution of the Mongoloid and Europid "great races". There was no universal consensus of the validity of the "Caucasoid" grouping within those who attempted to categorize human variation. Thomas Henry Huxley in 1870 wrote that the "absurd denomination of 'Caucasian ' " was in fact a conflation of his Xanthochroi (Nordic) and Melanochroi (Mediterranean) types. The postulated subraces vary depending on

1176-470: The capacity and disposition towards virtue, the more they lack adaptability; and not only that, but the less sensitive are their bodies, the more can they tolerate extreme pain or the rapid alteration of heat and cold; when they are exposed to illnesses, the more rapid their recovery from wounds that would be fatal for more sensitive peoples, and the more they can partake of the worst and most indigestible foods ... without noticeable ill effects. Meiners claimed

1218-490: The populations of the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Central Asia and South Asia. He counted as "white" only European peoples and their descendants, as well as a few populations in areas adjacent to or opposite southern Europe, in parts of Anatolia and parts of the Rif and Atlas mountains. In 1939, Coon argued that the Caucasian race had originated through admixture between Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens of

1260-492: The racial categorizations of color established by Meiners' and Blumenbach's works, along with many other early steps of anthropology, well into the late 19th and mid-to-late 20th centuries, increasingly used to justify political policies, such as segregation and immigration restrictions, and other opinions based in prejudice. For example, Thomas Henry Huxley (1870) classified all populations of Asian nations as Mongoloid. Lothrop Stoddard (1920) in turn classified as "brown" most of

1302-535: The region's indigenous Nilo-Saharan speakers, the Nilotes , thereby producing an Afro-Arab hybrid type. Caucasian race Introduced in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen school of history , the term denoted one of three purported major races of humankind (those three being Caucasoid, Mongoloid , and Negroid ). In biological anthropology , Caucasoid has been used as an umbrella term for phenotypically similar groups from these different regions, with

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1344-636: The stereotypical " Circassian beauties " and the Georgian people ; both Georgia and Circassia are in the Caucasus region. The "Circassian beauty" stereotype had its roots in the Middle Ages, while the reputation for the attractiveness of the Georgian people was developed by early modern travellers to the region such as Jean Chardin . The term Caucasian as a racial category was introduced in

1386-533: The term Hispanic is rarely used. The United States National Library of Medicine often used the term "Caucasian" as a race in the past. However, it later discontinued such usage in favor of the more narrow geographical term European , which traditionally only applied to a subset of Caucasoids. Christoph Meiners Christoph Meiners (31 July 1747 – 1 May 1810) was a German racialist, philosopher, historian, and writer born in Warstade . He supported

1428-1004: The term "Caucasian" has often been used in the United States in a different, social context to describe a group commonly called " white people ". "White" also appears as a self-reporting entry in the U.S. Census. Naturalization as a United States citizen was restricted to "free white persons" by the Naturalization Act of 1790 , and later extended to other resident populations by the Naturalization Act of 1870 , Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 and Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 . The Supreme Court in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923) decided that Asian Indians were ineligible for citizenship because, though deemed "Caucasian" anthropologically, they were not white like European descendants since most laypeople did not consider them to be "white" people. This represented

1470-466: The terms Negroid , Mongoloid , and Australoid . There was never consensus among the proponents of the "Caucasoid race" concept regarding how it would be delineated from other groups such as the proposed Mongoloid race. Carleton S. Coon (1939) included the populations native to all of Central and Northern Asia, including the Ainu people , under the Caucasoid label. However, many scientists maintained

1512-441: The three great races of humankind, alongside Mongoloid and Negroid . The taxon was taken to consist of a number of subtypes. The Caucasoid peoples were usually divided into three groups on ethnolinguistic grounds, termed Aryan ( Indo-European ), Semitic ( Semitic languages ), and Hamitic (Hamitic languages i.e. Berber - Cushitic - Egyptian ). 19th century classifications of the peoples of India were initially uncertain if

1554-417: The white race as beautiful. He considered ugly races as inferior, immoral, and animal-like. He claimed that the black ugly peoples are distinct from the white beautiful peoples by their sad lack of virtue and their terrible vices. According to Meiners: The more intelligent and noble people are by nature, the more adaptable, sensitive, delicate, and soft is their body; on the other hand, the less they possess

1596-452: Was Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, a colleague of Meiners', who later came to be considered one of the founders of the discipline of anthropology , who gave the term a wider audience, by grounding it in the new methods of craniometry and Linnean taxonomy . Blumenbach did not credit Meiners with his taxonomy, although his justification clearly points to Meiners' aesthetic viewpoint of Caucasus origins. In contrast to Meiners, however, Blumenbach

1638-407: Was a monogenist—he considered all humans to have a shared origin and to be a single species. Blumenbach, like Meiners, did rank his Caucasian grouping higher than other groups in terms of mental faculties or potential for achievement despite pointing out that the transition from one race to another is so gradual that the distinctions between the races presented by him are "very arbitrary". Alongside

1680-473: Was given wider circulation in the 1790s by many people. Meiners imagined that the Caucasian race encompassed all of the ancient and most of the modern native populations of Europe, the aboriginal inhabitants of West Asia (including the Phoenicians, Hebrews and Arabs), the autochthones of Northern Africa (Berbers, Egyptians, Abyssinians and neighboring groups), the Indians, and the ancient Guanches . It

1722-404: Was happening while he continued to be burned alive. Meiners studied the anatomy of the Negro and came to the conclusion that the Negro have bigger teeth and jaws than any other race, as the Negro are all carnivores . Meiners claimed the skull of the Negro was larger but the brain of the Negro was smaller than any other race. Meiners claimed the Negro was the most unhealthy race on earth because of

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1764-608: Was that the human species had its origin in the region of the Caucasus Mountains . This view was based upon the Caucasus being the location for the purported landing point of Noah's Ark – from whom the Bible states that humanity is descended – and the location for the suffering of Prometheus , who in Hesiod 's myth had crafted humankind from clay. In addition, the most beautiful humans were reputed by Europeans to be

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