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127-498: Chile did not incorporate the lands of the Araucanía Region until the 1880s, when it occupied the area to end resistance by the indigenous Mapuche by both military and political means. This opened up the area for Chilean and European immigration and settlement. In the 1900–1930 period, the population of Araucanía grew considerably, as did the economy despite recessions striking the rest of Chile. Araucanía became one of

254-429: A glacial armor . Ice can not only erode mountains but also protect them from erosion. Depending on glacier regime, even steep alpine lands can be preserved through time with the help of ice. Scientists have proved this theory by sampling eight summits of northwestern Svalbard using Be10 and Al26, showing that northwestern Svalbard transformed from a glacier-erosion state under relatively mild glacial maxima temperature, to

381-426: A considerable depth. A gully is distinguished from a rill based on a critical cross-sectional area of at least one square foot, i.e. the size of a channel that can no longer be erased via normal tillage operations. Extreme gully erosion can progress to formation of badlands . These form under conditions of high relief on easily eroded bedrock in climates favorable to erosion. Conditions or disturbances that limit

508-408: A fall in sea level, can produce a distinctive landform called a raised beach . Chemical erosion is the loss of matter in a landscape in the form of solutes . Chemical erosion is usually calculated from the solutes found in streams. Anders Rapp pioneered the study of chemical erosion in his work about Kärkevagge published in 1960. Formation of sinkholes and other features of karst topography

635-523: A few days after the founding of Temuco in the middle of Mapuche territory. The first major attack was against a caravan of carts carrying injured soldiers from Temuco to Fuerte Ñielol . The whole escort of over 40 soldiers and the 96 injured and sick soldiers were killed. In response to these attacks Gregorio Urrutia launched an attack on the Mapuche warriors of Cadena Ñielol burning in his way over 500 rukas and captured over 800 cattle and horses. On

762-518: A focus of Mapuche resistance from where warriors conducted pillaging raids or attacks against vulnerable targets. To end this activity Gregorio Urrutia established a fort in the range. Initially Mapuches offered little resistance to Chilean advance to Cautín River. Recabarren believed that Mapuches had not reacted because they expected the foundation of new forts and towns to be preceded by parliaments with Chilean authorities. Chilean victory A wave of Mapuche attacks began in late February 1881, just

889-485: A glacier-armor state occupied by cold-based, protective ice during much colder glacial maxima temperatures as the Quaternary ice age progressed. These processes, combined with erosion and transport by the water network beneath the glacier, leave behind glacial landforms such as moraines , drumlins , ground moraine (till), glaciokarst , kames, kame deltas, moulins, and glacial erratics in their wake, typically at

1016-624: A history of resistance to Spanish conquest with the area known as Araucanía remaining de facto independent through the colonial era . Following Chile's War of Independence against Spain , relations between the nascent republic and the Mapuches of Araucanía remained mostly amicable. However economic and geopolitical reasons together with increasingly negative attitudes towards the Mapuche made Chilean authorities decide to seek an incorporation of Araucanía, by force if necessary. The Mapuche chiefdoms responded in different ways, some aligned with

1143-464: A homogeneous bedrock erosion pattern, curved channel cross-section beneath the ice is created. Though the glacier continues to incise vertically, the shape of the channel beneath the ice eventually remain constant, reaching a U-shaped parabolic steady-state shape as we now see in glaciated valleys . Scientists also provide a numerical estimate of the time required for the ultimate formation of a steady-shaped U-shaped valley —approximately 100,000 years. In

1270-423: A large river can remove enough sediments to produce a river anticline , as isostatic rebound raises rock beds unburdened by erosion of overlying beds. Shoreline erosion, which occurs on both exposed and sheltered coasts, primarily occurs through the action of currents and waves but sea level (tidal) change can also play a role. Hydraulic action takes place when the air in a joint is suddenly compressed by

1397-455: A largely ethnic Italian community. Villarrica was where several thousand Afrikaners (or Dutch South Africans) settled after their expulsion from South Africa , following the Boer War (1899–1903). These towns also were influenced by early Dutch colonists in the 16th century, when the region was nicknamed New Flanders . The Netherlands later ceded it to Spanish colonial rule. During

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1524-649: A letter in March 1871 to Orozimbo Barbosa seeking for a peace agreement. No agreement took place but hostilities ceased for 10 years (1871–1881). Cornelio Saavedra renounced to the command of the Army of Operations of Araucanía ( Ejército de Operaciones en la Araucanía ) in 1871 due to political reasons. During the period following the war of 1871 Mapuches in the Chilean occupied parts suffered many abuses and even murder by settlers and Chilean military. Mapuches noticed

1651-492: A mountain mass similar to the Himalaya into an almost-flat peneplain if there are no significant sea-level changes . Erosion of mountains massifs can create a pattern of equally high summits called summit accordance . It has been argued that extension during post-orogenic collapse is a more effective mechanism of lowering the height of orogenic mountains than erosion. Examples of heavily eroded mountain ranges include

1778-577: A part of Chile ever since 1885. Following independence, the Chilean government opted for peaceful relations with the Mapuche. Effective territorial occupation did not begin until 1862. During this time, the government allowed settlers to found new towns and constructed the railroad , telegraph , and roads into the area. After an occupation and sustained military action, Araucanía was fully incorporated into Chile in 1882. Many cities and towns in Araucanía were first developed as army outposts during and after

1905-490: A peace agreement with Chile. In the summer of 1871 Quilapán amassed an army that included reinforcement of Mapuches coming from Argentina and launched a campaign against the fortified Malleco Line and the settlers around it. This attack was repulsed by the Chilean Army whose cavalry had recently changed its Minié rifles by Spencer repeating rifle giving them a distinct advantage against the Mapuches. Quilapán sent

2032-410: A report to the Chilean congress analyzing the situation in Araucanía. In his report, Varas recommended that a government regime distinct from the rest of the country should be designed for an eventual incorporation of Araucanía. Varas expressed the view that the eventual mission was to be to civilize the indigenous inhabitants by increasing their material standard of living and "raise their spirit to

2159-506: A shipment of arms seized by Argentine authorities at Buenos Aires in 1871 were ordered by Orélie-Antoine de Tounens. A French battleship, d'Entrecasteaux , that anchored in 1870 at Corral drew suspicions from Saavedra of some sort of French interference. Accordingly, there may have been substance to these fears as information given to Abdón Cifuentes in 1870 an intervention in favour of the Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia against Chile

2286-501: A wave closing the entrance of the joint. This then cracks it. Wave pounding is when the sheer energy of the wave hitting the cliff or rock breaks pieces off. Abrasion or corrasion is caused by waves launching sea load at the cliff. It is the most effective and rapid form of shoreline erosion (not to be confused with corrosion ). Corrosion is the dissolving of rock by carbonic acid in sea water. Limestone cliffs are particularly vulnerable to this kind of erosion. Attrition

2413-412: A weak bedrock (containing material more erodible than the surrounding rocks) erosion pattern, on the contrary, the amount of over deepening is limited because ice velocities and erosion rates are reduced. Glaciers can also cause pieces of bedrock to crack off in the process of plucking. In ice thrusting, the glacier freezes to its bed, then as it surges forward, it moves large sheets of frozen sediment at

2540-488: Is deposited . Erosion is distinct from weathering which involves no movement. Removal of rock or soil as clastic sediment is referred to as physical or mechanical erosion; this contrasts with chemical erosion, where soil or rock material is removed from an area by dissolution . Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, or for thousands of kilometres. Agents of erosion include rainfall ; bedrock wear in rivers ; coastal erosion by

2667-494: Is also more prone to mudslides, landslides, and other forms of gravitational erosion processes. Tectonic processes control rates and distributions of erosion at the Earth's surface. If the tectonic action causes part of the Earth's surface (e.g., a mountain range) to be raised or lowered relative to surrounding areas, this must necessarily change the gradient of the land surface. Because erosion rates are almost always sensitive to

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2794-484: Is an example of extreme chemical erosion. Glaciers erode predominantly by three different processes: abrasion/scouring, plucking , and ice thrusting. In an abrasion process, debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood. Scientists have shown that, in addition to the role of temperature played in valley-deepening, other glaciological processes, such as erosion also control cross-valley variations. In

2921-409: Is distinguished from changes on the bed of the watercourse, which is referred to as scour . Erosion and changes in the form of river banks may be measured by inserting metal rods into the bank and marking the position of the bank surface along the rods at different times. Thermal erosion is the result of melting and weakening permafrost due to moving water. It can occur both along rivers and at

3048-586: Is not part of Chile. Yes, Chile is the name of the country over where its flag waves and its laws are obeyed. The Chilean agricultural sector was badly affected by the Chilean War of Independence . Following the Chilean silver rush that began in 1832, agriculture expanded in the Norte Chico . The next major expansion of agricultural activity occurred from 1848 onwards as a result of wheat demand during

3175-405: Is of two primary varieties: deflation , where the wind picks up and carries away loose particles; and abrasion , where surfaces are worn down as they are struck by airborne particles carried by wind. Deflation is divided into three categories: (1) surface creep , where larger, heavier particles slide or roll along the ground; (2) saltation , where particles are lifted a short height into

3302-709: Is reported to have spoken against the Moluches , who wanted war, claiming that they engaged in robbery and received for that just punishments by Chileans. Historian José Bengoa claims Pehuenche neutrality was indebted to the fact that their lands in the Andes were not subject to colonization. Nevertheless, the Pehuenches ended up aiding the Arribanos by providing access to cattle from the Pampas . In 1867 Saavedra called

3429-404: Is sparse and soil is dry (and so is more erodible). Other climatic factors such as average temperature and temperature range may also affect erosion, via their effects on vegetation and soil properties. In general, given similar vegetation and ecosystems, areas with more precipitation (especially high-intensity rainfall), more wind, or more storms are expected to have more erosion. In some areas of

3556-513: Is still the main crop, but production of oats, grapes, and lupines has increased significantly, and fruit and flower growing are also emerging. The main tourism centre in the region is the Villarrica Lake and Pucón. The region consists of 38 municipalities: Occupation of Araucan%C3%ADa The Occupation of Araucanía or Pacification of Araucanía (1861–1883) was a series of military campaigns , agreements and penetrations by

3683-522: Is the heartland of the indigenous Mapuche people , who resisted both Incan and Spanish attempts at conquest. After sending many forces against the Mapuche, the Spanish would cut their losses, establishing the southern border of their colony at the northern banks of the Biobío River . Following the occupation of Araucanía by the Chilean government, which subdued the people, the territory has been

3810-457: Is the main climatic factor governing soil erosion by water. The relationship is particularly strong if heavy rainfall occurs at times when, or in locations where, the soil's surface is not well protected by vegetation . This might be during periods when agricultural activities leave the soil bare, or in semi-arid regions where vegetation is naturally sparse. Wind erosion requires strong winds, particularly during times of drought when vegetation

3937-400: Is where particles/sea load carried by the waves are worn down as they hit each other and the cliffs. This then makes the material easier to wash away. The material ends up as shingle and sand. Another significant source of erosion, particularly on carbonate coastlines, is boring, scraping and grinding of organisms, a process termed bioerosion . Sediment is transported along the coast in

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4064-467: Is white or castizo (another form of mestizo (50%) of partial European-Amerindian descent), and a large proportion of them is at least partially descended from Spanish colonists. In 1903, a fleet of 88 Canarian families—400 persons—arrived in Budi Lake (and currently have more than 1,000 modern descendants) as a response to the government's call to populate the region, and signed contracts for

4191-567: The Andes . The current population is descended mostly from internal migration from the Central Zone of Chile; to a lesser extent, it consists of descendants of European settlers who arrived during and after the "pacification of Araucanía". The region has the highest proportion of indigenous residents of any in Chile, around 25%, of which the majority is Mapuche people. About 25% of the population

4318-699: The Appalachian Mountains , intensive farming practices have caused erosion at up to 100 times the natural rate of erosion in the region. Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both "on-site" and "off-site" problems. On-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural landscapes ) ecological collapse , both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers . In some cases, this leads to desertification . Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies , as well as sediment-related damage to roads and houses. Water and wind erosion are

4445-432: The Chilean army and settlers into Mapuche territory which led to the incorporation of Araucanía into Chilean national territory. Pacification of Araucanía was the expression used by the Chilean authorities for this process. The conflict was concurrent with Argentine campaigns against the Mapuche (1878–1885) and Chile 's wars with Spain (1865–1866) and with Peru and Bolivia (1879–1883). The Mapuche people had

4572-664: The Great Plains , it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times greater in drought years than in wet years. Mass wasting or mass movement is the downward and outward movement of rock and sediments on a sloped surface, mainly due to the force of gravity . Mass wasting is an important part of the erosional process and is often the first stage in the breakdown and transport of weathered materials in mountainous areas. It moves material from higher elevations to lower elevations where other eroding agents such as streams and glaciers can then pick up

4699-737: The Timanides of Northern Russia. Erosion of this orogen has produced sediments that are now found in the East European Platform , including the Cambrian Sablya Formation near Lake Ladoga . Studies of these sediments indicate that it is likely that the erosion of the orogen began in the Cambrian and then intensified in the Ordovician . If the erosion rate exceeds soil formation , erosion destroys

4826-416: The accumulation zone above the glacial equilibrium line altitude), which causes increased rates of erosion of the mountain, decreasing mass faster than isostatic rebound can add to the mountain. This provides a good example of a negative feedback loop . Ongoing research is showing that while glaciers tend to decrease mountain size, in some areas, glaciers can actually reduce the rate of erosion, acting as

4953-487: The battles of Chorrillos and Miraflores in January 1881 Chilean authorities turned their attention to Araucanía seeking to defend the previous advances that had been so difficult to establish. The idea was not only to defend forts and settlements but also to advance the frontier all the way from Malleco River to Cautín River . Interior minister Manuel Recabarren was appointed by president Aníbal Pinto to oversee

5080-405: The impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in the soil , ejecting soil particles. The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as 0.6 m (2.0 ft) vertically and 1.5 m (4.9 ft) horizontally on level ground. If the soil is saturated , or if the rainfall rate is greater than the rate at which water can infiltrate into the soil, surface runoff occurs. If

5207-455: The lower crust and mantle . Because tectonic processes are driven by gradients in the stress field developed in the crust, this unloading can in turn cause tectonic or isostatic uplift in the region. In some cases, it has been hypothesised that these twin feedbacks can act to localize and enhance zones of very rapid exhumation of deep crustal rocks beneath places on the Earth's surface with extremely high erosion rates, for example, beneath

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5334-407: The surface runoff which may result from rainfall, produces four main types of soil erosion : splash erosion , sheet erosion , rill erosion , and gully erosion . Splash erosion is generally seen as the first and least severe stage in the soil erosion process, which is followed by sheet erosion, then rill erosion and finally gully erosion (the most severe of the four). In splash erosion ,

5461-411: The 2002 census, the most- populated cities are: Temuco (260,783, includes Padre Las Casas ), Villarrica (45,531), Angol (43,801), Victoria (23,977), Lautaro (18,808), New Imperial (14,980), Collipulli (14,240), Loncoche (14,191), and Traiguén (14,140). Until recently, Araucanía was dependent on cereal farming and was known as Chile’s granary. Agriculture has become highly diversified; wheat

5588-499: The 21st century, a strong link has been drawn between the increase in storm frequency with an increase in sediment load in rivers and reservoirs, highlighting the impacts climate change can have on erosion. Vegetation acts as an interface between the atmosphere and the soil. It increases the permeability of the soil to rainwater, thus decreasing runoff. It shelters the soil from winds, which results in decreased wind erosion, as well as advantageous changes in microclimate. The roots of

5715-424: The Chilean Army, bandits looted Mapuche property with consent of Chilean authorities. The Mapuches refused to engage in battles allowing the Chilean armies cross all over their territory. The differences in war materiel between Mapuches and the Chilean Army was huge, while Chileans used repeating rifles Mapuches had few firearms and used bolas , spears and slings . The war provoked a famine among Mapuches in

5842-544: The Chilean government refused to join the Abajino-Arribano alliance and were in 1868 killed in a malón directed at them. In 1868 the Arribano chief Quilapán , son of Mañil , attacked a Chilean outpost at Chihuaihue . A group of Chileans led by Pedro Lagos came under attack while moving to Quechereguas . Yet another party of Mapuches defeated a Chilean Army group killing 23 of 28 soldiers. In response to

5969-541: The Chilean government to approve his plans by presenting his renounce in December 1861 and again in February 1862. In 1862 Saavedra advanced with a group of 800 soldiers into the remnants of the town of Angol while other troops reinforced the defenses of Los Ángeles , Negrete , Nacimiento and Mulchén. An eventual defense of Purén and Santa Bárbara was to be made by groups of civilians. Saavedra retired from

6096-547: The Chilean military. The Mapuches responded to this by attacking the fort and village of Traiguén in September 1880. Almost thousand warriors participated in the retribution, evidence that according to José Bengoa the Mapuches had been preparing for war. The campaigns of the Argentine Army against the Mapuches in the other side of the Andes pushed in 1880 many Mapuches into Araucanía. Pehuenche chief Purrán

6223-476: The Chilean state provided almost 10,000 food rations monthly to displaced Mapuches. Mapuche poverty was recurring theme in Chilean Army memoirs from the 1880s to around 1900. Erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind ) that removes soil , rock , or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust and then transports it to another location where it

6350-455: The Consejo de Todas Las Tierras, have sought and enjoyed international support from nongovernmental and their indigenous organizations. Spanish settlers first arrived in Araucanía (one of two regional names) in the 1550s, but were unable to subdue the indigenous Mapuche. In the late 19th century, the Chilean government endorsed a large-scale immigration and settlement program for the area. At

6477-517: The Mapuche economy was further aggravated by having their lands reduced plunging many into poverty that has persisted for generations. Beginning in the second half of the 18th century Mapuche-Spanish and later Mapuche-Chilean trade increased and hostilities decreased. Mapuches obtained goods from Chile and some dressed in "Spanish" clothing. Despite close contacts Chileans and Mapuches remained socially, politically and economically distinct. During Chile's first fifty years of independence (1810–1860)

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6604-461: The Mapuche population, thus adding to the large mestizo population that exists in Chile. Smaller numbers of Arab (largely Syrian , Lebanese and Palestinian ), Chinese , Japanese , Korean and people of Euro-North American and Australian descent settled in La Araucania in the early 20th century. Temuco has a thriving Chinese, Taiwanese , and Syrian presence, and Capitán Pastene has

6731-589: The Mapuches tended to evacuate their families in advance prior to the arrivals of the looting Chilean Army. During the winter of 1870 the Chilean Army continued to burn rukas and steal livestock. These inconclusive operations were subject of ridicule in some Santiago newspapers. Despite this the situation of many Mapuche worsened; newspaper El Meteoro reported scarcity of food, livestock numbers had declined and harvest or sowing had not been possible for many Mapuches for almost three years. Domingo Melín , who went on behalf of Quilapán , sought unsuccessfully in 1870

6858-556: The Mapuches to a "parliament" where he informed them of the Chilean decision of fortifying the Malleco River line. The parliament was attended by around thousand Abajinos . The Arribanos gathered around 2000 men near the parliament but refused to attend unless the Chileans sent some men as hostages . Despite this incident the a parliament was held the next day. Mapuches are reported to have been infuriated when they discovered

6985-471: The ability to cross the Andes one of the Mapuche's principal military strengths. To block Mapuches from freely crossing the Andes and to assert sovereignty over the Andean valleys several expeditions were organized in the summer of 1882. One expedition founded the fort of Nitrito in the Andean valley of Lonquimay , another founded Cunco near Llaima Volcano and yet another expedition founded Curacautín in

7112-508: The aid of gunmen. A contrast appeared: while the Chilean economy had a booming agricultural sector, a large part of the Mapuche economy revolved around livestock operations in one of the largest territories any indigenous group had ever possessed in South America. In 1849 a ship travelling between Valdivia and Valparaíso , Joven Daniel , was wrecked at the coast between the mouths of Imperial and Toltén River . The shipwreck

7239-433: The air, and bounce and saltate across the surface of the soil; and (3) suspension , where very small and light particles are lifted into the air by the wind, and are often carried for long distances. Saltation is responsible for the majority (50–70%) of wind erosion, followed by suspension (30–40%), and then surface creep (5–25%). Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought. For example, in

7366-413: The amount of eroded material that is already carried by, for example, a river or glacier. The transport of eroded materials from their original location is followed by deposition, which is arrival and emplacement of material at a new location. While erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10–40 times the rate at which soil erosion is occurring globally. At agriculture sites in

7493-434: The approval of the chiefs. The 1859 uprising reinforced the Chilean view of Mapuches as a dangerous threat to the emerging settlements in Araucanía and influenced public opinion in Chile to push for the complete incorporation of Araucanía into Chile. These events contributed to the Chilean authorities' decision of occupying Araucanía. In 1823, Chilean minister Mariano Egaña had a project approved by Congress to colonize

7620-481: The army in January 1864 after political pressures from the ministers of President José Joaquín Pérez . The Chincha Islands War between Spain and an alliance between Chile and Peru made the government call Saavedra into the army again in 1866 in order to defend the coast of Araucanía against possible Spanish attacks. Saavedra ordered a fort to be constructed in the coast between Lebu and Imperial River . The government also granted Saavedra three steam ships to scout

7747-470: The base along with the glacier. This method produced some of the many thousands of lake basins that dot the edge of the Canadian Shield . Differences in the height of mountain ranges are not only being the result tectonic forces, such as rock uplift, but also local climate variations. Scientists use global analysis of topography to show that glacial erosion controls the maximum height of mountains, as

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7874-501: The benefit of a private company. While many Canarians obeyed their servitude, some of those who disobeyed the provisions of repopulation tried to escape their agreements and were arrested, or the indigenous Mapuche people took pity on the plight of these individuals who were on their former lands. The Mapuche welcomed some of them, and joined their demonstrations, in the so-called "revolt of the Canarians"; many Canarians integrated into

8001-467: The calls for a punitive expedition in view of its irrelevance to the eventual conquest of Araucanía. When Chilean liberals began the 1851 Revolution Mapuche chief Mañil joined the rebel army and fought with José María de la Cruz 's army against the troops of Manuel Bulnes at the Battle of Loncomilla . After defeat at Loncomilla Mañil returned south. According to historian José Bengoa Mapuches saw

8128-431: The central government, a substantial number followed the lead of the Arribanos in violently opposing the advance of Chilean settlers and soldiers into the region, while some others opted for neutrality. For the first ten years (1861−1871), the Mapuches were unable to prevent Chile from advancing its positions but at time were able to defeat in detail small detachments while avoiding large battles. Hostilities were minimal in

8255-544: The coast. In December 1866 the coastal locality of Queule was occupied by Chilean troops. In response to the Chilean advances, the Arribanos decided to go to war while the Lafquenches of Budi Lake , Toltén and Queule had a meeting where they declared themselves neutral in the conflict but still loyal to the Chilean government. The Pehuenches did also declare themselves neutral. The Pehuenche chief Pichiñán

8382-522: The coast. Rapid river channel migration observed in the Lena River of Siberia is due to thermal erosion, as these portions of the banks are composed of permafrost-cemented non-cohesive materials. Much of this erosion occurs as the weakened banks fail in large slumps. Thermal erosion also affects the Arctic coast , where wave action and near-shore temperatures combine to undercut permafrost bluffs along

8509-409: The coastline. Where there is a bend in the coastline, quite often a buildup of eroded material occurs forming a long narrow bank (a spit ). Armoured beaches and submerged offshore sandbanks may also protect parts of a coastline from erosion. Over the years, as the shoals gradually shift, the erosion may be redirected to attack different parts of the shore. Erosion of a coastal surface, followed by

8636-672: The colonization of Australia and the California Gold Rush . Despite the eventual vanishing of the Californian and Australian markets, wheat cultivation remained highly profitable. In the 1850s, with the German colonization of Valdivia, Osorno and Llanquihue and the onset of sheep farming in the Chilean territory at the Strait of Magellan , Araucanía remained the sole place for agriculture to expand. Mapuche lands around

8763-436: The decade that followed, this period was mostly peaceful but ended when the Mapuches were unable to militarily oppose a large Chilean army that in March 1881 penetrated from the north to Cautín River , putting most of the territory under Chilean rule or at least occupation. In November 1881, the Mapuches made a last-ditch effort to regain control of their territory, launching coordinated strikes against Chilean settlements across

8890-411: The direction of the prevailing current ( longshore drift ). When the upcurrent supply of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs. When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form as a result of deposition . These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and exposing parts of

9017-405: The extremely steep terrain of Nanga Parbat in the western Himalayas . Such a place has been called a " tectonic aneurysm ". Human land development, in forms including agricultural and urban development, is considered a significant factor in erosion and sediment transport , which aggravate food insecurity . In Taiwan, increases in sediment load in the northern, central, and southern regions of

9144-582: The flood regions result from glacial Lake Missoula , which created the channeled scablands in the Columbia Basin region of eastern Washington . Wind erosion is a major geomorphological force, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. It is also a major source of land degradation, evaporation, desertification, harmful airborne dust, and crop damage—especially after being increased far above natural rates by human activities such as deforestation , urbanization , and agriculture . Wind erosion

9271-514: The following points: In 1861 Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez ordered major Pedro Lagos to advance into the confluence of Mulchén River with Bureo River . A small fort was erected at the site between December 1861 and May 1862 after the local Mapuche chief Manuel Nampai handed over the land. From this fort the town of Mulchén grew. Following a custom inherited from colonial times, Saavedra assigned salaries to friendly Mapuche chiefs in zones of Mulchén. Cornelio Saavedra attempted to pressure

9398-456: The fort of Quillem . This attack put on alert all Chilean garrisons in Araucanía, settlers took refuge in the forts. On November 5 Mapuches unsuccessfully attacked Lumaco , Puerto Saavedra and Toltén . Around Tirúa Costino warriors suffered heavy casualties in two engagements with a group of more than 400 armed settlers, campesinos and some soldiers. Only Imperial was effectively overrun. The most important engagements were held at

9525-455: The fort of Ñielol and Temuco located at the heart of Araucanía. In these localities revolting Mapuches were unsuccessful in dislodging Chileans and their allies from fortified positions. The uprising was not unanimous as a number of Mapuche leaders and communities sided with Chile. After defeat uprising Mapuche chiefs were severely punished. The rukas of Ancamilla and other revolting chiefs were razed. Cornelio Saavedra had considered

9652-610: The future of the republic, has ended, happily and with costly and painful sacrifices. Today the whole Araucanía is subjugated, more than to the material forces, to the moral and civilizing force of the republic... Historian Ward Churchill has claimed that the Mapuche population dropped from a total of half a million to 25,000 within a generation as result of the occupation and its associated disease and famine. The conquest of Araucanía caused numerous Mapuches to be displaced and forced to roam in search of shelter and food. Some Chilean forts responded by providing food rations. Until around 1900

9779-473: The government in Santiago as their main enemy, explaining thus the participation of Mapuches on the side of José María de la Cruz Concepción -based revolt. The encroachment over time of settlers advancing from the north across Bío Bío River into Mapuche territory and the appearance of German settlers in the south of the Mapuche territory led chief Mañil in 1859 to call for an uprising to assert control over

9906-441: The government's relationship with the Araucanía territory was not a priority and the Chilean government prioritized the development of Central Chile over its relationship with indigenous groups. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento stated: Between two Chilean provinces ( Concepción and Valdivia ) there is a piece of land that is not a province, its language is different, it is inhabited by other people and it can still be said that it

10033-417: The growth of protective vegetation ( rhexistasy ) are a key element of badland formation. Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature. The erosion is both downward , deepening the valley , and headward , extending the valley into the hillside, creating head cuts and steep banks. In the earliest stage of stream erosion, the erosive activity is dominantly vertical,

10160-476: The initial failure commandant José Manuel Pinto launched a scorched earth strategy in Mapuche lands in the summer of 1869. In these incursions by the Chilean Armies houses and crop fields were looted and more than 2 million livestock animals stolen from Mapuches. Part of the Mapuche civil population, including women and children, were either killed or held captive. In addition to the pillaging by

10287-411: The island can be tracked with the timeline of development for each region throughout the 20th century. The intentional removal of soil and rock by humans is a form of erosion that has been named lisasion . Mountain ranges take millions of years to erode to the degree they effectively cease to exist. Scholars Pitman and Golovchenko estimate that it takes probably more than 450 million years to erode

10414-482: The landscape. Its fruit, the piñón (a type of massive pine nut , often growing to the size and weight of a basketball or a bowling ball ) is still a staple food for the indigenous Pehuenches and local residents. A large part of this natural wealth is protected in various national parks ( Nahuelbuta , Tolhuaca , Conguillío , Villarrica , and Huerquehue National Parks ) and national reserves ( Malalcahuello , Las Nalcas , and Alto Biobío ). The Araucanía region

10541-399: The large agricultural estates ( estancias ) that were established in Araucanía were cultivated in wheat, led to its being called the "Granary of Chile". With naturally fertile soil and the implementation of modern technology such as tractors, wheat harvests were extraordinarily high, but because the farmers did not perform crop rotation , and indiscriminate logging and burning of woodlands

10668-409: The local slope (see above), this will change the rates of erosion in the uplifted area. Active tectonics also brings fresh, unweathered rock towards the surface, where it is exposed to the action of erosion. However, erosion can also affect tectonic processes. The removal by erosion of large amounts of rock from a particular region, and its deposition elsewhere, can result in a lightening of the load on

10795-423: The main location of the confrontations of the ongoing Mapuche conflict , as the Mapuche have pressed their land claims against the central government. Virgin forests, featuring coigüe , raulí and tepa trees, as well as bay , Chilean laurel and cypress , criss-cross the region in all directions. The majestic conifer Araucaria araucana , or monkey-puzzle tree (known locally as pehuén ), towers above

10922-418: The material and move it to even lower elevations. Mass-wasting processes are always occurring continuously on all slopes; some mass-wasting processes act very slowly; others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results. Any perceptible down-slope movement of rock or sediment is often referred to in general terms as a landslide . However, landslides can be classified in a much more detailed way that reflects

11049-407: The material has begun to slide downhill. In some cases, the slump is caused by water beneath the slope weakening it. In many cases it is simply the result of poor engineering along highways where it is a regular occurrence. Surface creep is the slow movement of soil and rock debris by gravity which is usually not perceptible except through extended observation. However, the term can also describe

11176-438: The mechanisms responsible for the movement and the velocity at which the movement occurs. One of the visible topographical manifestations of a very slow form of such activity is a scree slope. Slumping happens on steep hillsides, occurring along distinct fracture zones, often within materials like clay that, once released, may move quite rapidly downhill. They will often show a spoon-shaped isostatic depression , in which

11303-412: The meeting could not agree on whether Saavedra should be allowed to establish a town in southern Araucanía or not. At Toltén Mapuche chiefs revealed to Saavedra that Orélie-Antoine de Tounens was once again at Araucanía. Upon hearing that his presence in Araucanía had been revealed Orélie-Antoine de Tounens fled to Argentina, having however promised Quilapán to obtain arms. There are some reports that

11430-519: The moral and religious truths". Manuel Montt , as President of Chile , passed a law on December 7 of 1852 that created the province of Arauco, a territory intended to administer all territories south of the Bío-Bío River and north of Valdivia Province. In a letter to Manuel Montt Mapuche chief Mañil denounced the plunder of graves in search of Mapuche silver , arson of Mapuche houses and other abuses against Mapuches that were happening in

11557-484: The morphologic impact of glaciations on active orogens, by both influencing their height, and by altering the patterns of erosion during subsequent glacial periods via a link between rock uplift and valley cross-sectional shape. At extremely high flows, kolks , or vortices are formed by large volumes of rapidly rushing water. Kolks cause extreme local erosion, plucking bedrock and creating pothole-type geographical features called rock-cut basins . Examples can be seen in

11684-404: The most erosion occurs during times of flood when more and faster-moving water is available to carry a larger sediment load. In such processes, it is not the water alone that erodes: suspended abrasive particles, pebbles , and boulders can also act erosively as they traverse a surface, in a process known as traction . Bank erosion is the wearing away of the banks of a stream or river. This

11811-529: The newly created province. Mañil further accused intendant Villalón con Salbo of becoming rich by cattle theft . The final planning of the occupation of Araucanía can be largely attributed to Colonel Cornelio Saavedra Rodríguez . The plan outlined by Saavedra envisaged a state-led colonization influenced by the developments of the United States frontier in sharp contrast to the old private enterprise-led Spanish colonization of Chile. The plan included

11938-434: The nutrient-rich upper soil layers . In some cases, the eventual result is desertification . Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of water bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads and houses. Water and wind erosion are the two primary causes of land degradation ; combined, they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land , making excessive erosion one of

12065-482: The occupation of Araucanía. The last portions of the region to be reached by the army were Alto Biobío and Toltén River 's lowlands. These are the regions where Mapuche communities have thrived the best since the Chilean conquest. With the construction of the Malleco Viaduct in the 1890s, the region became more accessible. Settlements in southern Chile became more consolidated. Until the mid-20th century,

12192-411: The order of a few centimetres (about an inch) or less and along-channel slopes may be quite steep. This means that rills exhibit hydraulic physics very different from water flowing through the deeper, wider channels of streams and rivers. Gully erosion occurs when runoff water accumulates and rapidly flows in narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow, removing soil to

12319-535: The other side of the Andes Pehuenches assaulted on March the Argentine outpost of Chos Malal killing the whole garrison of 25-30 soldiers. In mid-March Mapuche chiefs met to discuss the situation. They rejected the establishment of new Chilean settlements and decided to go to war. They set 5 November as the date for their uprising. A group of Arribanos attacked by mistake on wrong date, November 3,

12446-503: The past three decades, the city of Temuco has had the fastest rate of growth in Chile. According to the census of 1970, about 88,000 inhabitants lived in Temuco. In the census of 2000, 30 years later, the population had tripled to 250,000. The resort-town of Villarrica, on Lake Villarrica , has expanded rapidly. It is located next to the fast-growing resort of Pucón , now one of the four largest tourist destinations in Chile. According to

12573-481: The plans of Saavedra and that Mapuche chief Nahueltripai had allowed the Chileans to establish forts in his lands. These events lead to the formation of an alliance between the northern Abajinos and the Arribanos. As the Mapuches prepared for war many moved their families to safe sites south of Cautín River (according to El Mercurio de Valparaíso ) or to Lonquimay (according to El Ferrocarril ). The Abajino chiefs Catrileo and Pinolevi who had close ties with

12700-556: The plants bind the soil together, and interweave with other roots, forming a more solid mass that is less susceptible to both water and wind erosion. The removal of vegetation increases the rate of surface erosion. The topography of the land determines the velocity at which surface runoff will flow, which in turn determines the erosivity of the runoff. Longer, steeper slopes (especially those without adequate vegetative cover) are more susceptible to very high rates of erosion during heavy rains than shorter, less steep slopes. Steeper terrain

12827-445: The principal agricultural districts of Chile, gaining the nickname of " granary of Chile". The administrative Araucanía Region was established in 1974, in what was the core of the larger historic region of Araucanía . In the 21st century, Araucanía is Chile's poorest region in terms of GDP per capita . About a third of the region's population is ethnic Mapuche, the highest proportion of any Chilean region. The Araucanía Region has been

12954-455: The process from the town of Angol . Colonel Gregorio Urrutia was summoned from Chilean-occupied Lima to Araucanía to take charge of the Army of the South. On March 28 Gregorio Urrutia founded the town of Victoria at the shores of Traiguén River. Recabarren personally led a large column that established the forts of Quillem , Lautaro and Pillalelbún . In this last place Recabarren

13081-407: The region . With most of these attacks repelled and Mapuche forces defeated within a matter of days, Chile went on to consolidate its conquests in the years that followed. The conflict led to the deaths of thousands of Mapuche by warfare and disease, primarily smallpox . Many Mapuches faced hardship from the widespread pillaging of the Chilean army, bandits and inability to cultivate. Disruption of

13208-413: The relief between mountain peaks and the snow line are generally confined to altitudes less than 1500 m. The erosion caused by glaciers worldwide erodes mountains so effectively that the term glacial buzzsaw has become widely used, which describes the limiting effect of glaciers on the height of mountain ranges. As mountains grow higher, they generally allow for more glacial activity (especially in

13335-828: The rolling of dislodged soil particles 0.5 to 1.0 mm (0.02 to 0.04 in) in diameter by wind along the soil surface. On the continental slope , erosion of the ocean floor to create channels and submarine canyons can result from the rapid downslope flow of sediment gravity flows , bodies of sediment-laden water that move rapidly downslope as turbidity currents . Where erosion by turbidity currents creates oversteepened slopes it can also trigger underwater landslides and debris flows . Turbidity currents can erode channels and canyons into substrates ranging from recently deposited unconsolidated sediments to hard crystalline bedrock. Almost all continental slopes and deep ocean basins display such channels and canyons resulting from sediment gravity flows and submarine canyons act as conduits for

13462-515: The runoff has sufficient flow energy , it will transport loosened soil particles ( sediment ) down the slope. Sheet erosion is the transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow. Rill erosion refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths which function as both sediment source and sediment delivery systems for erosion on hillslopes. Generally, where water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are active. Flow depths in rills are typically of

13589-666: The sea and waves ; glacial plucking , abrasion , and scour; areal flooding; wind abrasion; groundwater processes; and mass movement processes in steep landscapes like landslides and debris flows . The rates at which such processes act control how fast a surface is eroded. Typically, physical erosion proceeds the fastest on steeply sloping surfaces, and rates may also be sensitive to some climatically controlled properties including amounts of water supplied (e.g., by rain), storminess, wind speed, wave fetch , or atmospheric temperature (especially for some ice-related processes). Feedbacks are also possible between rates of erosion and

13716-538: The shoreline and cause them to fail. Annual erosion rates along a 100-kilometre (62-mile) segment of the Beaufort Sea shoreline averaged 5.6 metres (18 feet) per year from 1955 to 2002. Most river erosion happens nearer to the mouth of a river. On a river bend, the longest least sharp side has slower moving water. Here deposits build up. On the narrowest sharpest side of the bend, there is faster moving water so this side tends to erode away mostly. Rapid erosion by

13843-584: The shrinking of Chilean garrisons as Chile sent troops northwards to fight Peru and Bolivia during the War of the Pacific (1879–1883). The apparent weakening of Chilean military presence in Araucanía and the many abuses caused the Mapuches to start planning rebellion. A case of horse theft in 1880 caused chief Domingo Melín to be escorted by Chilean troops to Angol in order to stand trial. Before reaching Angol Domingo Melín and some of his relatives were killed by

13970-593: The soil. Lower rates of erosion can prevent the formation of soil features that take time to develop. Inceptisols develop on eroded landscapes that, if stable, would have supported the formation of more developed Alfisols . While erosion of soils is a natural process, human activities have increased by 10-40 times the rate at which erosion occurs globally. Excessive (or accelerated) erosion causes both "on-site" and "off-site" problems. On-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and (on natural landscapes ) ecological collapse , both because of loss of

14097-518: The south of the Bío-Bío River began to be bought by non-Mapuches in the late 18th century, and by 1860 land between Bío-Bío and Malleco River was mostly under control of Chileans. The Chilean wheat boom increased pressure to acquire lands in Araucanía by Chileans and led to numerous scams and frauds against Mapuches. A limited number of speculators obtained control over vast lands through frauds and maintained control over their assets with

14224-433: The terminus or during glacier retreat . The best-developed glacial valley morphology appears to be restricted to landscapes with low rock uplift rates (less than or equal to 2mm per year) and high relief, leading to long-turnover times. Where rock uplift rates exceed 2mm per year, glacial valley morphology has generally been significantly modified in postglacial time. Interplay of glacial erosion and tectonic forcing governs

14351-429: The territory between Imperial River and Bío Bío River , establishing a series of forts on the northern shores of Imperial and Cautín Rivers in the middle of Araucanía. Chilean president Ramón Freire adopted the project initially but was later convinced to focus instead on the expulsion of the Spanish from Chiloé Archipelago , leaving the Araucanía issue pending. In 1849, Chilean minister Antonio Varas delivered

14478-410: The territory. Most Mapuches responded to the call, except the communities at Purén , Choll Choll , and the southern coastal Mapuches who had strong links with Valdivia . The towns of Angol , Negrete and Nacimiento were attacked. A peace proposal made by settlers was accepted in 1860 during a meeting of several Mapuche chiefs. The agreement established that land transfers could only be made with

14605-580: The time, Chile often endorsed land allotment advertisement to Europeans, notably in Germany , Austria , and Switzerland , from where most of the new arrivals came. Beginning in the mid-19th century, with the German Revolutions , immigrants were often fleeing political upheaval and poor economies, seeking a new place to live. Other immigrants included Basques , from the northern Spanish border with southwest France, and some Argentines from across

14732-409: The transfer of sediment from the continents and shallow marine environments to the deep sea. Turbidites , which are the sedimentary deposits resulting from turbidity currents, comprise some of the thickest and largest sedimentary sequences on Earth, indicating that the associated erosional processes must also have played a prominent role in Earth's history. The amount and intensity of precipitation

14859-563: The two primary causes of land degradation ; combined, they are responsible for about 84% of the global extent of degraded land, making excessive erosion one of the most significant environmental problems worldwide. Intensive agriculture , deforestation , roads , anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on stimulating erosion. However, there are many prevention and remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of vulnerable soils. Rainfall , and

14986-422: The upper course of Cautín River . On January 1, 1883, Chile re-founded the old city of Villarrica ending thus formally the process of occupation of Araucanía. Six months later, on June 1, president Domingo Santa María declared: The country has with satisfaction seen the problem of the reduction of the whole Araucanía solved. This event, so important to our social and political life, and so significant for

15113-427: The valleys have a typical V-shaped cross-section and the stream gradient is relatively steep. When some base level is reached, the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion, which widens the valley floor and creates a narrow floodplain. The stream gradient becomes nearly flat, and lateral deposition of sediments becomes important as the stream meanders across the valley floor. In all stages of stream erosion, by far

15240-433: The winter of 1869, with the situation being worsened by a smallpox epidemic. Some Mapuches sold their few remaining livestock and their silver adornments in the towns of La Frontera to obtain food. In late 1869 and early 1870 Saavedra arranged two parliaments; one at Toltén and another at Ipinco. At Toltén Saavedra attempted to make agreements with the southern chiefs in order to isolate Quilapán. The chiefs attending

15367-554: The world (e.g. western Europe ), runoff and erosion result from relatively low intensities of stratiform rainfall falling onto the previously saturated soil. In such situations, rainfall amount rather than intensity is the main factor determining the severity of soil erosion by water. According to the climate change projections, erosivity will increase significantly in Europe and soil erosion may increase by 13–22.5% by 2050 In Taiwan , where typhoon frequency increased significantly in

15494-491: The world (e.g. the mid-western US ), rainfall intensity is the primary determinant of erosivity (for a definition of erosivity check, ) with higher intensity rainfall generally resulting in more soil erosion by water. The size and velocity of rain drops is also an important factor. Larger and higher-velocity rain drops have greater kinetic energy , and thus their impact will displace soil particles by larger distances than smaller, slower-moving rain drops. In other regions of

15621-447: Was approached by some Mapuche chiefs who asked him to not advance beyond Cautín River. Recabarren answered by telling them that the whole territory was being occupied. At the founding of Temuco in the northern shores of Cautín River Recabarren met chief Venacio Coñoepán and other chiefs from Choll-Choll who asked him to not advance further. With the Chilean advance to Cautín River a small mountain range called Cadena de Ñielol remained

15748-628: Was discussed in Napoleon III 's Conseil d'État. At the parliament of Ipinco the Abajinos rejected all the points proposed by Saavedra. The parliament did nevertheless serve to weaken the Abajino–Arribano alliance. In 1870 the Chilean Army resumed its operations against the Mapuches. José Manuel Pinto formally declared war to the Mapuches on behalf of Chile in May 1870. In the 1870-1871 period

15875-489: Was looted by a local Mapuche tribe and some of the survivors were killed. These events became first known in Valdivia and later in Santiago where they fuelled a strong anti-Mapuche sentiment and reaffirmed prejudiced views that the Mapuches were brutal barbarians. President Manuel Bulnes 's opposition called for a punitive expedition and Mapuches prepared for a confrontation with the Chilean Army. Bulnes however dismissed

16002-608: Was permitted, soils were prone to extensive erosion . They lost their fertility and much topsoil was lost to erosion. Beginning in the 1930s, Villarrica Lake was developed as a tourism area. With the return of democracy in Chile in 1990, Mapuche organizations renewed their land claims on certain territories. Rising violence has accompanied what is now called the Mapuche conflict . Coordinadora Arauco-Malleco and similar activist groups have sometimes used arson attacks and death threats to back up their claims; other organizations, such as

16129-598: Was taken prisoner by the Argentine Army and the Argentine Army penetrated in the valley of Lonquimay which Chile considered part of its legal territory. The fast Argentine advance alarmed Chilean authorities and contributed to the Chilean-Mapuche confrontations of 1881. In January 1881 the Mapuches of the Malleco zone rose against the Chilean occupation. The town and forts of Traiguén , Lumaco and Collipulli were attacked. Having decisively defeated Peru in

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