Arnold Air Force Base (Arnold AFB) ( ICAO : KAYX , FAA LID : AYX ) is a United States Air Force base located in Coffee and Franklin counties, Tennessee , adjacent to the city of Tullahoma . It is named for General Henry "Hap" Arnold , the father of the U.S. Air Force.
127-649: The airfield was closed in 2009 but has since reopened. The first landing since 2009 took place in May 2023. Army aviation assets (helicopters) continue to utilize Arnold as part of missions supporting Fort Campbell, Kentucky or the Tennessee Army National Guard . The base is home to the Arnold Engineering Development Complex (AEDC), the most advanced and largest complex of flight simulation test facilities in
254-1096: A president of the United States in Congress Assembled to preside over its deliberation as a neutral discussion moderator . Unrelated to and quite dissimilar from the later office of president of the United States, it was a largely ceremonial position without much influence. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak and their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another. They witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates , and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest. Civil and political unrest loomed. Events such as
381-511: A "disruptive" erosion of his ability to govern. Ford failed to win election to a full term and his successor, Jimmy Carter , failed to win re-election. Ronald Reagan , who had been an actor before beginning his political career, used his talent as a communicator to help reshape the American agenda away from New Deal policies toward more conservative ideology. With the Cold War ending and
508-635: A decade of change at AEDC. From opening its doors to commercial customers to "reengineering", the center's people explored better ways of doing business. Early in the decade, the center signed formal, long-term working alliances with several commercial aerospace organizations ( Boeing , General Electric , Lockheed , McDonnell Douglas , Pratt & Whitney ) to steady the workload and to offset dwindling defense budgets. That led to companies like Pratt & Whitney and Boeing bringing projects that were strictly commercial to AEDC. AEDC leaders began to emphasize strategic management, meeting in focus groups to consider
635-709: A defining event in late 20th Century America. It also showed the world what AEDC had been doing in the 1980s. As people around the world watched from their living rooms, people saw the US score victories in Desert Storm . They also saw the end product of what AEDC people had been working on throughout the decade. From the Patriot Air Defense Missile to the F-117A Nighthawk stealth fighter, AEDC people worked on every aerospace system deployed to
762-524: A delegate for Virginia. When the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance ( Rhode Island did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by
889-463: A dominant figure in American politics. Historians believe Roosevelt permanently changed the political system by strengthening the presidency, with some key accomplishments including breaking up trusts, conservationism, labor reforms, making personal character as important as the issues, and hand-picking his successor, William Howard Taft . The following decade, Woodrow Wilson led the nation to victory during World War I , although Wilson's proposal for
1016-545: A good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid, interference or consent from Congress". Bill Wilson , board member of Americans for Limited Government , opined that the expanded presidency was "the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule". Article I, Section 1 of the Constitution vests all lawmaking power in Congress's hands, and Article 1, Section 6, Clause 2 prevents
1143-466: A month after taking office. Presidents often grant pardons shortly before leaving office, like when Bill Clinton pardoned Patty Hearst on his last day in office; this is often controversial . Two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege , which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to
1270-550: A multi-faceted role in supporting the Apollo Program . Apollo tests included aerodynamic assessments of the Apollo capsule and tests of Saturn V rocket upper stage engines. Some new test facilities came on line to help turn numerous aerospace system ideas into reality. The J-4 Large Rocket Engine Test Facility was dedicated in 1964. PWT got an addition in 1968 when the 4-foot (1.2 m) Transonic Tunnel came on line, which
1397-970: A number of issues, including representation and voting, and the exact powers to be given the central government. Congress finished work on the Articles of Confederation to establish a perpetual union between the states in November 1777 and sent it to the states for ratification . Under the Articles, which took effect on March 1, 1781, the Congress of the Confederation was a central political authority without any legislative power. It could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, and could not impose any taxes or enforce local commercial regulations upon its citizens. This institutional design reflected how Americans believed
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#17327655753511524-512: A partially wooded field. The Sabalauski Air Assault School , named after Command Sergeant Major Walter James Sabalauski is located on Fort Campbell. Courses taught include Air Assault , Pathfinder , Pre-Ranger, Jumpmaster Refresher, and Rappel Master. FRIES/SPIES Master courses are also taught. The school is also home to the Division's Parachute Demonstration Team. Kentucky has limited rights to taxation: Individuals performing services on
1651-590: A photographic exposure equivalent to 20 billionths of a second. A heritage for environmental stewardship and uniqueness was born in 1976 when the Department of the Interior registered AEDC as a unique natural area. The honor recognized AEDC's superior management of fish and wildlife resources, conservation practices and environmental achievement. In a decade when the nation became energy conscious, AEDC helped to explore alternative energy sources. A 750-ton magnet
1778-431: A presidential veto, it requires a two-thirds vote of both houses, which is usually very difficult to achieve except for widely supported bipartisan legislation. The framers of the Constitution feared that Congress would seek to increase its power and enable a "tyranny of the majority", so giving the indirectly elected president a veto was viewed as an important check on the legislative power. While George Washington believed
1905-438: A sexual harassment suit could proceed without delay, even against a sitting president. The 2019 Mueller report on Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election detailed evidence of possible obstruction of justice , but investigators declined to refer Donald Trump for prosecution based on a United States Department of Justice policy against indicting an incumbent president. The report noted that impeachment by Congress
2032-612: A sitting American president led troops in the field", though James Madison briefly took control of artillery units in defense of Washington, D.C. , during the War of 1812 . Abraham Lincoln was deeply involved in overall strategy and in day-to-day operations during the American Civil War , 1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such as Ulysses S. Grant . The present-day operational command of
2159-527: A sports arena and a 9-hole golf course. William Northern Field , an air training base, was an addition for war preparation. The field was used as a training site for crews of multi-engined B-24 Liberator bombers of the Army Air Forces . Camp Forrest officially became a Prisoner of War Camp on May 12, 1942. The camp received, housed, secured, and administrated Italian, Japanese and German POWs. Prisoners were processed as laborers at Camp Forrest,
2286-550: A state visit by a foreign head of state, the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn , a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961. This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening. As a national leader, the president also fulfills many less formal ceremonial duties. For example, William Howard Taft started
2413-413: Is head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed". The executive branch has over four million employees, including the military. Presidents make political appointments . An incoming president may make up to 4,000 upon taking office, 1200 of which must be confirmed by the U.S. Senate . Ambassadors , members of
2540-516: Is located in Kentucky). Fort Campbell is home to the 101st Airborne Division and the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment . The fort is named in honor of Union Army Brigadier General William Bowen Campbell , the last Whig Governor of Tennessee . The site for Mid-Campbell was selected on September 9, 1941, and the Title I Survey was completed November 15, 1941, coincidentally the same time
2667-421: Is significantly shaped by the outcome of presidential elections, with presidents taking an active role in promoting their policy priorities to members of Congress who are often electorally dependent on the president. In recent decades, presidents have also made increasing use of executive orders , agency regulations, and judicial appointments to shape domestic policy. The president is elected indirectly through
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#17327655753512794-721: Is the 46th and current president, having assumed office on January 20, 2021. President-elect Donald Trump is scheduled to be inaugurated as the 47th president on January 20, 2025. During the American Revolutionary War , the Thirteen Colonies , represented by the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia , declared themselves to be independent sovereign states and no longer under British rule. The affirmation
2921-571: Is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States. ... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces ... while that [the power] of the British king extends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies, all [of] which ... would appertain to the legislature. [Emphasis in
3048-774: Is used largely to test store separations. With several test facilities running at maximum, the pace of testing increased. Among the systems tested during the decade were the F-105 Thunderchief , C-141 Starlifter and C-5 Galaxy cargo planes, the E-3 Sentry , Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS), the TF-39 engine for the C-5 and the upper-stage rocket motors for the Minuteman III Intercontinental Ballistic Missile . In
3175-644: The Boeing 777 and F-119 engines for the F-22 and Joint Strike Fighter, the Boeing 747 and 767 and the RL-10 rocket engine. The center's workload consolidated to two divisions — test and support — in the mid-1990s, with Sverdrup as test support contractor and ACS as center support contractor. ACS is a joint venture of Computer Sciences Corp., DynCorp and General Physics. In September 2002, a $ 10.4 million test facility upgrade
3302-535: The Cabinet , and various officers , are among the positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation. The power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove executive officials at will. However, Congress can curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute . To manage
3429-573: The Electoral College to a four-year term, along with the vice president . Under the Twenty-second Amendment , ratified in 1951, no person who has been elected to two presidential terms may be elected to a third. In addition, nine vice presidents have become president by virtue of a president's intra-term death or resignation . In all, 45 individuals have served 46 presidencies spanning 58 four-year terms. Joe Biden
3556-523: The Japanese Imperial Fleet was leaving Japanese home waters for the attack on Pearl Harbor . Construction of Camp Campbell began on January 12, 1942. Within a year, the reservation designated as Camp Campbell was developed to accommodate one armored division and various support troops, with a total size of 102,414 acres (414 km ), and billets for 2,422 officers and 45,198 enlisted personnel. Due to its close proximity to Nashville,
3683-763: The League of Nations was rejected by the Senate. Warren Harding , while popular in office, would see his legacy tarnished by scandals, especially Teapot Dome , and Herbert Hoover quickly became very unpopular after failing to alleviate the Great Depression . The ascendancy of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 led further toward what historians now describe as the Imperial presidency . Backed by enormous Democratic majorities in Congress and public support for major change, Roosevelt's New Deal dramatically increased
3810-660: The Newburgh Conspiracy and Shays' Rebellion demonstrated that the Articles of Confederation were not working. Following the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 in Annapolis, Maryland , with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When
3937-588: The Persian Gulf . It was the first time technology showed up so dramatically in a real-world conflict, and it was a testament to the test and development work Arnold, von Karman and Wattendorf envisioned would be performed at AEDC. The 1980s also marked the addition of the world's largest jet engine testing facility, the Aero-propulsion Systems Test Facility , to the center's aerospace flight simulation test facilities. For
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4064-709: The Space Shuttle , the F-15 Eagle , F-16 Fighting Falcon , B-1 Lancer bomber, A-10 Thunderbolt II , Pratt & Whitney F100 engine, MX missile , Sidewinder missile , Navy Tomahawk Cruise Missile , Air Force Air-Launched Cruise Missile and the Global Positioning Satellite . AEDC developed Laser-Illuminated Photography during the decade to better study projectiles in the center's ballistic Range G that would be traveling up to 20,000 mph (32,000 km/h). The technique provided
4191-559: The Supreme Court of the United States . However, these nominations require Senate confirmation before they may take office. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts , presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of senatorial courtesy . Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves . Gerald Ford pardoned Richard Nixon
4318-588: The U.S. Constitution emerged. As the nation's first president, George Washington established many norms that would come to define the office. His decision to retire after two terms helped address fears that the nation would devolve into monarchy, and established a precedent that would not be broken until 1940 and would eventually be made permanent by the Twenty-Second Amendment . By the end of his presidency, political parties had developed, with John Adams defeating Thomas Jefferson in 1796,
4445-543: The Vietnam War . Despite the turndown and a corresponding reduction by the government in funding for AEDC and the number of its employees, the pace of testing held steady as nearly 3,000 test projects were completed in the decade. The list of systems tested during the decade read like a who's who of aerospace. Included on that list were the Space Transportation System, which would later be called
4572-610: The Watergate scandal , Congress enacted a series of reforms intended to reassert itself. These included the War Powers Resolution , enacted over Nixon's veto in 1973, and the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 that sought to strengthen congressional fiscal powers. By 1976, Gerald Ford conceded that "the historic pendulum" had swung toward Congress, raising the possibility of
4699-636: The Watergate scandal , the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon , 418 U.S. 683 (1974), that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal , the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones , 520 U.S. 681 (1997), that
4826-490: The convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, Alexander Hamilton of New York led the Annapolis delegates in a call for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring in Philadelphia . Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington 's attendance to Philadelphia as
4953-525: The 101st command group opted to form a full-time parachute team, known as the "Screaming Eagles" . The "Screaming Eagles" perform more than 60 parachute demonstrations each year in front of an average viewing audience of 5,000 spectators. The team has a diverse background of Army Military Occupational Specialties (MOS) and at this time has seven members. The team has one Light Wheeled Mechanic, two Combat Medics , three Infantrymen , and one Parachute Rigger most of whom have combat experience. Collectively,
5080-585: The 1830s and 1840s until debates over slavery began pulling the nation apart in the 1850s. Abraham Lincoln 's leadership during the Civil War has led historians to regard him as one of the nation's greatest presidents. The circumstances of the war and Republican domination of Congress made the office very powerful, and Lincoln's re-election in 1864 was the first time a president had been re-elected since Jackson in 1832. After Lincoln's assassination, his successor Andrew Johnson lost all political support and
5207-757: The 2009 team has more than 40 years of skydiving experience and more than 6,000 skydives. Other facilities include Blanchfield Army Community Hospital, Sabalauski Air Assault School and the SSG John W. Kreckel NCO Academy. Residents are zoned to Department of Defense Education Activity (DoDEA) schools. Elementary schools are as follows: Hammond Heights is divided among several elementary schools: Barkley and Marshall schools as well as Collins, Gorgas, and Hollis elementary schools. All residents of Fort Campbell are zoned to Mahaffey Middle School, and Fort Campbell High School . In 2015 Jackson Elementary School and Lincoln Elementary School closed. Barkley Elementary
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5334-670: The Armed Forces is delegated to the Department of Defense and is normally exercised through the secretary of defense . The chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Combatant Commands assist with the operation as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP). The president has the power to nominate federal judges , including members of the United States courts of appeals and
5461-536: The Army Wilber M. Brucker and the Army Chief of Staff, General Maxwell D. Taylor , presented the colors of the 101st Airborne Division to MG T.L. Sherbourne , the first commander of the new, previously experimental, ROTAD (Reorganization Of The Airborne Division) division. This ceremony officially reactivated the famed "Screaming Eagles" of World War II. On May 2, 1966, Third Army General Order 161 directed
5588-477: The Constitution grants to the president as commander-in-chief has been the subject of much debate throughout history, with Congress at various times granting the president wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that authority. The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explained this in Federalist No. 69 : The President
5715-714: The Engine Test Facility, the von Karman Gas Dynamics Facility and the Propulsion Wind Tunnel Test Facility. The first jet engine test equipment installed at the center was acquired from the Bavarian Motor Works in Munich , Germany. It took 58 railroad cars and two barges with another 450 tons by truck to move the equipment. After refurbishment, this equipment became the cornerstone for the Engine Test Facility, which
5842-886: The J-4 Liquid Rocket Engine Test Facility, the Aeropropulsion Test Unit and the Engine Test Facility. PWT also saw a major sustainment and modernization program begin. A number of major aerospace programs came to AEDC for testing, including the F-22 Raptor , the Joint Strike Fighter , the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet , the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber, the Pratt & Whitney 4000 series engines for
5969-754: The Kentucky portion of Fort Campbell only pay taxes to the state where they are residents, refer to US Code Title 4, Chapter 4, §115 . Tennessee has no state income tax on wages but a higher retail sales tax than Kentucky. The Fort Campbell parachute demonstration team was established in 1958 during the infancy of precision freefall as the Army's first such team—pre-dating the Golden Knights, United States Army Parachute Team , by one year. Early team members were soldiers who volunteered their free time in order to perform quality parachute demonstrations. In 1984,
6096-455: The Propulsion Wind Tunnel Test Facility at the end of the decade. PWT's huge wind tunnels have become hallmarks of the center and are perhaps the most heavily used facilities on base. As the space race intensified, so did AEDC's workload. PWT was used to investigate configurations for the Mercury space capsule . The center was a key player in supporting Project Gemini , and the center played
6223-418: The Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy. However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds 345 U.S. 1 (1953), where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege. Before the September 11 attacks , use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency. Since 2001, the government has asserted
6350-436: The United States ( POTUS ) is the head of state and head of government of the United States of America . The president directs the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces . The power of the presidency has grown substantially since the first president, George Washington , took office in 1789. While presidential power has ebbed and flowed over time,
6477-483: The United States and other countries. Such agreements, upon receiving the advice and consent of the U.S. Senate (by a two-thirds majority vote), become binding with the force of federal law. While foreign affairs has always been a significant element of presidential responsibilities, advances in technology since the Constitution's adoption have increased presidential power. Where formerly ambassadors were vested with significant power to independently negotiate on behalf of
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#17327655753516604-578: The United States becoming the world's undisputed leading power, Bill Clinton , George W. Bush , and Barack Obama each served two terms as president. Meanwhile, Congress and the nation gradually became more politically polarized, especially following the 1994 mid-term elections that saw Republicans control the House for the first time in 40 years, and the rise of routine filibusters in the Senate in recent decades. Recent presidents have thus increasingly focused on executive orders , agency regulations, and judicial appointments to implement major policies, at
6731-423: The United States, presidents now routinely meet directly with leaders of foreign countries. One of the most important of executive powers is the president's role as commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces . The power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, but the president has ultimate responsibility for the direction and disposition of the military. The exact degree of authority that
6858-435: The War Department on March 7, 1941, designated Tennessee as the official address of the new camp. This caused a great deal of confusion. While the headquarters and a great majority of the base's acreage was in Tennessee, the base's post office was in Kentucky. After many months of mail delivery problems, Colonel Guy W. Chipman requested that the address be changed to Camp Campbell, Kentucky. The War Department officially changed
6985-402: The White House". Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it. This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional. Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an "increasingly swollen executive branch" and "the eclipse of Congress". To allow
7112-452: The activation of a Basic Combat Training Center at Fort Campbell. On July 6, barely two months after its activation, Fort Campbell's Army Training Center received its first 220 newly inducted soldiers. Basic Combat Training began on schedule July 11 with a full complement of 1,100 trainees. The Training Center operated until April 15, 1972, when it was deactivated. The 1st Brigade was sent for duty in Vietnam in July 1965. Soon thereafter, upon
7239-423: The address on September 23, 1942. Early in the summer of 1942, the post's initial cadre, one officer and 19 enlisted men , arrived from Fort Knox , Kentucky. From that time until the end of World War II , Camp Campbell was the training ground for the 12th , 14th and 20th Armored divisions , Headquarters IV Armored Corps and the 26th Infantry Division . Several formations were sent to Camp Campbell after
7366-549: The airfield, across farmland, several dozen trees were downed, two barns were heavily damaged, three power poles were blown down, and some shingles were blown off of a house. The tornado was rated EF3 on the Enhanced Fujita scale . Nine soldiers in the 101st Airborne Division were killed during a helicopter training on March 29, 2023. Happening around 10 p.m. local time, two HH-60 Black Hawk medical evacuation aircraft crashed into each other, while pilots were using night vision goggles. Their helicopters crashed west of Fort Campbell in
7493-468: The camp remained after the war. After the war, in 1946, Camp Forrest and Northern Field were declared surplus property. Buildings were sold at auction, torn down and carted away. Water, sewage and electrical systems were sold as salvage. All that remains are roads, brick chimneys and concrete foundations. Soon after the close of the camp, the area was selected for the site of an Air Engineering Development Center. In 1949, Congress authorized $ 100 million for
7620-544: The center was designated as one of the Department of Defense's High-Performance Computing Centers, making funding available to augment the center's supercomputing capability making AEDC the 9th largest computer center in DoD. The Navy docked at AEDC when its engine test facilities at Trenton NJ were transferred to AEDC as part of DoD consolidations under the Base Realignment and Closure Act . The move added four engine test facilities (SL-2, SL-3, T-11, T-12) and about 10 Navy personnel. The Air Force and Navy quickly integrated, making
7747-496: The center's current test capabilities of Mach 4.1 or nearly 3,100 mph (5,000 km/h). AEDC test experts can run at Mach 8 for three to six minutes, which allows them to test an object across the full-duration mission profile. The project also calls for adding an improved air ejector system to allow the APTU to simulate higher altitude conditions while minimizing air usage. Installing the high-pressure air storage tanks and new liquid oxygen and isobutane systems are also included in
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#17327655753517874-417: The center's vice commander and other slots Navy positions. Later in the decade, on Oct. 1, 1997, AEDC assumed management for the former Navy Hypervelocity Wind Tunnel 9 in White Oak, Md. Other facilities that came on line during the decade included J-6 — the world's largest solid rocket motor test facility — and DECADE, a nuclear weapons effects facility. Among facilities that saw significant modernization were
8001-474: The cessation of hostilities in Vietnam. The ceremonies were attended by Vice President Spiro T. Agnew and General William C. Westmoreland , Army Chief of Staff. Fort Campbell had a children's theatre program until it closed down in 1983. On December 12, 1985, 246 servicemembers died with eight aircrews shortly after takeoff from Gander, Newfoundland , Canada, during a return from peacekeeping duties in Egypt . A memorial grove of trees and monument are near
8128-417: The construction of the Air Engineering Development Center . A site was selected for the new center at the Army's old Camp Forrest near Tullahoma and Manchester, Tennessee . The site was chosen for its abundance of land, water and power. Land was needed to buffer surrounding communities from potential test hazards and noise. Water was needed to cool rapidly flowing air and hot exhaust gases. Abundant electricity
8255-485: The death of William Henry Harrison and subsequent poor relations between John Tyler and Congress led to further weakening of the office. Including Van Buren, in the 24 years between 1837 and 1861, six presidential terms would be filled by eight different men, with none serving two terms. The Senate played an important role during this period, with the Great Triumvirate of Henry Clay , Daniel Webster , and John C. Calhoun playing key roles in shaping national policy in
8382-457: The deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion : a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire. The states were out from under any monarchy and assigned some formerly royal prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress; the remaining prerogatives were lodged within their own respective state governments. The members of Congress elected
8509-438: The escalation of hostilities in Southeast Asia, the rest of the division arrived. Also in response to the military buildup, the 6th Infantry Division was reactivated at Fort Campbell on November 24, 1966, and inactivated July 25, 1968. In September 1971, the 173rd Airborne Brigade returned to Fort Campbell and conducted its official homecoming ceremonies, which were presided over by Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird . The 173rd
8636-461: The executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. Additionally, the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made. Many laws enacted by Congress do not address every possible detail, and either explicitly or implicitly delegate powers of implementation to an appropriate federal agency. As
8763-407: The expense of legislation and congressional power. Presidential elections in the 21st century have reflected this continuing polarization, with no candidate except Obama in 2008 winning by more than five percent of the popular vote and two, George W. Bush and Donald Trump , winning in the Electoral College while losing the popular vote. The nation's Founding Fathers expected the Congress , which
8890-504: The federal government by issuing various types of directives , such as presidential proclamation and executive orders . When the president is lawfully exercising one of the constitutionally conferred presidential responsibilities, the scope of this power is broad. Even so, these directives are subject to judicial review by U.S. federal courts, which can find them to be unconstitutional. Congress can overturn an executive order through legislation. Article II, Section 3, Clause 4 requires
9017-401: The first U.S. president, firmly established military subordination under civilian authority . In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militia to quell the Whiskey Rebellion , a conflict in Western Pennsylvania involving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay an excise tax on spirits. According to historian Joseph Ellis , this was the "first and only time
9144-462: The first time in the center's history, more than one major contractor performed work on base. The center's workload split into three contracts — support, propulsion testing and aerodynamics testing. In 1981, Pan Am World Services became the support contractor, Sverdrup Technology, Inc. took over propulsion testing and Calspan Corp . began aerodynamics testing. In 1985, Schneider Services International replaced Pan Am as support contractor. The 1990s were
9271-536: The first truly contested presidential election. After Jefferson defeated Adams in 1800, he and his fellow Virginians James Madison and James Monroe would each serve two terms, eventually dominating the nation's politics during the Era of Good Feelings until Adams' son John Quincy Adams won election in 1824 after the Democratic-Republican Party split. The election of Andrew Jackson in 1828
9398-417: The government to act quickly in case of a major domestic or international crisis arising when Congress is not in session, the president is empowered by Article II, Section 3 of the Constitution to call a special session of one or both houses of Congress. Since John Adams first did so in 1797, the president has called the full Congress to convene for a special session on 27 occasions. Harry S. Truman
9525-661: The growing federal bureaucracy, presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States . Within the Executive Office, the president's innermost layer of aides, and their assistants, are located in the White House Office . The president also possesses the power to manage operations of
9652-474: The head of the executive branch, presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress. In the 20th century, critics charged that too many legislative and budgetary powers that should have belonged to Congress had slid into the hands of presidents. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a "virtual army of 'czars'—each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for
9779-401: The hospitals, and in the local community on farms. In 1945, the US government implemented an Intellectual Diversion Program which would enlighten Germany on the American way of life and increase their appreciation for the United States. This program used educational and recreational media to change views of POWs. The program was successful with many prisoners. Tullahoma was greatly affected by
9906-523: The installation of Camp Forrest. Because of maneuvers and operations, civilians became accustomed to blocked roads, traffic jams, crowded stores, the absence of mail delivery, and driving at night without lights. Soldiers camped out on lawns and fields. Many crops and fences were destroyed. In 1940, the population in Tullahoma was 4,500. By the end of the war the population had grown to 75,000. Many military people who moved in for construction and operation of
10033-466: The leader of the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP , the president possesses significant domestic and international hard and soft power . For much of the 20th century, especially during the Cold War , the U.S. president was often called "the leader of the free world". Article II of the Constitution establishes the executive branch of the federal government and vests executive power in
10160-422: The legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature. New York offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter. It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in
10287-509: The long-term health of the center. An outgrowth was reengineering the center, an ongoing process that seeks to streamline operations and standardize maintenance processes. It was also a decade that saw the center break new ground on the computational front. Computational Fluid Dynamics, using computers to simulate flight, saw an increasing role in many major test programs. Using CFD and traditional ground testing together, helped hold down costs and provide more reliable data to test customers. In 1998,
10414-510: The middle of the decade, the University of Tennessee and AEDC worked together in founding the University of Tennessee Space Institute . The institute became a place for AEDC engineers and scientists to further their education, and for students and professors to work on research projects to help AEDC. There came a natural turndown in the pace of aerospace after the Moon landing and the end of
10541-453: The office as a position of global leadership. His successors, Harry Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower , each served two terms as the Cold War led the presidency to be viewed as the " leader of the free world ", while John F. Kennedy was a youthful and popular leader who benefited from the rise of television in the 1960s. After Lyndon B. Johnson lost popular support due to the Vietnam War and Richard Nixon 's presidency collapsed in
10668-604: The old Camp Peay. The camp was a training area for infantry, artillery, engineer, and signal organizations. It also served as a hospital center and temporary encampment area for troops during maneuvers. Major General George S. Patton brought his 2nd Armored Division , "Hell on Wheels", from Fort Benning , Georgia, for maneuvers. Incoming troops were provided with amenities such as service clubs, guest houses, library, post exchanges, post office, hospital, religious services, theaters, showers, Red Cross, and Army emergency relief. Recreation facilities included swimming, archery, tennis,
10795-423: The original.] In the modern era, pursuant to the War Powers Resolution , Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual. Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation. Presidents have historically initiated
10922-771: The post museum. As a result of the tornado outbreak of December 9–10, 2023 , about 250 Army families were displaced from their homes. The damage was especially severe in Clarksville, the town outside of the base, where an EF3 tornado with estimated winds of 150 miles per hour (240 km/h) killed 6 people there and in neighbouring areas. There were no reported fatalities among Fort Campbell personnel or their families. Roughly 1,100 Fort Campbell soldiers and family members were without critical services such as water, heat or electricity. Fort Campbell sustained no obvious significant damage. On July 5, 1999, Private First Class Barry Winchell , 21, of 2nd Battalion, 502nd Infantry Regiment,
11049-412: The presidency has played an increasingly significant role in American political life since the beginning of the 20th century, carrying over into the 21st century with notable expansions during the presidencies of Franklin D. Roosevelt and George W. Bush . In modern times, the president is one of the world's most powerful political figures and the leader of the world's only remaining superpower . As
11176-524: The president (and all other executive branch officers) from simultaneously being a member of Congress. Nevertheless, the modern presidency exerts significant power over legislation, both due to constitutional provisions and historical developments over time. The president's most significant legislative power derives from the Presentment Clause , which gives the president the power to veto any bill passed by Congress . While Congress can override
11303-406: The president believes are needed. Additionally, the president can attempt to shape legislation during the legislative process by exerting influence on individual members of Congress. Presidents possess this power because the Constitution is silent about who can write legislation, but the power is limited because only members of Congress can introduce legislation. The president or other officials of
11430-461: The president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed the privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay 's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain . While not enshrined in the Constitution or any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. When Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during
11557-556: The president is authorized to adjourn Congress if the House and Senate cannot agree on the time of adjournment; no president has ever had to exercise this power. Suffice it to say that the President is made the sole repository of the executive powers of the United States, and the powers entrusted to him as well as the duties imposed upon him are awesome indeed. Nixon v. General Services Administration , 433 U.S. 425 (1977) ( Rehnquist, J. , dissenting ) The president
11684-422: The president personally has absolute immunity from court cases is contested and has been the subject of several Supreme Court decisions. Nixon v. Fitzgerald (1982) dismissed a civil lawsuit against by-then former president Richard Nixon based on his official actions. Clinton v. Jones (1997) decided that a president has no immunity against civil suits for actions taken before becoming president and ruled that
11811-505: The president to "receive Ambassadors." This clause, known as the Reception Clause, has been interpreted to imply that the president possesses broad power over matters of foreign policy, and to provide support for the president's exclusive authority to grant recognition to a foreign government. The Constitution also empowers the president to appoint United States ambassadors, and to propose and chiefly negotiate agreements between
11938-516: The president to recommend such measures to Congress which the president deems "necessary and expedient". This is done through the constitutionally-based State of the Union address, which usually outlines the president's legislative proposals for the coming year, and through other formal and informal communications with Congress. The president can be involved in crafting legislation by suggesting, requesting, or even insisting that Congress enact laws that
12065-494: The president's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act . The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override
12192-508: The president. The state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security . Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States 92 U.S. 105 (1876), when
12319-493: The president. The power includes the execution and enforcement of federal law and the responsibility to appoint federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory, and judicial officers. Based on constitutional provisions empowering the president to appoint and receive ambassadors and conclude treaties with foreign powers, and on subsequent laws enacted by Congress, the modern presidency has primary responsibility for conducting U.S. foreign policy. The role includes responsibility for directing
12446-404: The previous thirty years worked towards "undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies". She criticized proponents of the unitary executive theory for expanding "the many existing uncheckable executive powers—such as executive orders, decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing statements—that already allow presidents to enact
12573-424: The privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve
12700-515: The privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit 's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc. Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions. The degree to which
12827-500: The process for going to war, but critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903, the Korean War , the Vietnam War , and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1989. The amount of military detail handled personally by the president in wartime has varied greatly. George Washington,
12954-493: The size and scope of the federal government, including more executive agencies. The traditionally small presidential staff was greatly expanded, with the Executive Office of the President being created in 1939, none of whom require Senate confirmation. Roosevelt's unprecedented re-election to a third and fourth term, the victory of the United States in World War II , and the nation's growing economy all helped established
13081-622: The tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium , Washington, D.C., on the Washington Senators's Opening Day . Every president since Taft, except for Jimmy Carter , threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the All-Star Game , or the World Series , usually with much fanfare. Every president since Theodore Roosevelt has served as honorary president of
13208-579: The upgrade. Spring 2004 was the targeted completion date. Arnold Air Force Base has its own post office with zip code 37389. A wetland within Arnold Air Force is the only documented location of Gopher Frog in the state of Tennessee. Fort Campbell, Kentucky Fort Campbell is a United States Army installation located astride the Kentucky – Tennessee border between Hopkinsville , Kentucky and Clarksville , Tennessee (post address
13335-407: The veto by its ordinary means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York , 524 U.S. 417 (1998), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional. For most of American history, candidates for president have sought election on the basis of a promised legislative agenda. Article II, Section 3, Clause 2 requires
13462-528: The veto should only be used in cases where a bill was unconstitutional, it is now routinely used in cases where presidents have policy disagreements with a bill. The veto – or threat of a veto – has thus evolved to make the modern presidency a central part of the American legislative process. Specifically, under the Presentment Clause, once a bill has been presented by Congress, the president has three options: In 1996, Congress attempted to enhance
13589-652: The war and deactivated, one being the 5th Infantry Division in September 1946. In the spring of 1949, the 11th Airborne Division arrived at Campbell following occupation duty in Japan . The 11th was in residence there until early 1956. By April 1950, the post had evolved from a wartime training camp to a permanent installation and was renamed Fort Campbell. From 1950 to 1962, the post operated an Airborne Course which trained nearly 30,000 soldiers as paratroopers before its inactivation. On September 21, 1956, Secretary of
13716-449: The world's most expensive military , which has the second-largest nuclear arsenal . The president also plays a leading role in federal legislation and domestic policymaking. As part of the system of separation of powers , Article I, Section 7 of the Constitution gives the president the power to sign or veto federal legislation. Since modern presidents are typically viewed as leaders of their political parties, major policymaking
13843-492: The world. The center operates 58 aerodynamic and propulsion wind tunnels , rocket and turbine engine test cells, space environmental chambers, arc heaters, ballistic ranges and other specialized units. AEDC is an Air Force Test Center organization. The commander of Arnold Engineering Development Center is Col. Scott A. Cain, and Mark A. Mehalic is the executive director. Camp Forrest , located in Tullahoma, Tennessee ,
13970-569: Was a significant milestone, as Jackson was not part of the Virginia and Massachusetts elite that had held the presidency for its first 40 years. Jacksonian democracy sought to strengthen the presidency at the expense of Congress, while broadening public participation as the nation rapidly expanded westward. However, his successor, Martin Van Buren , became unpopular after the Panic of 1837 , and
14097-444: Was announced. When completed, the upgrade would make Arnold Engineering Development Center a "one-stop" shopping center for aerodynamic and propulsion test customers by providing Mach 8 capability. The Mach 8 milestone, which equates to objects traveling about 6,000 mph (9,700 km/h), comes as workers install a new high-temperature and high-pressure burner in the center's Aerodynamic and Propulsion Test Unit . This nearly doubles
14224-517: Was available as a remedy. As of October 2019, a case was pending in the federal courts regarding access to personal tax returns in a criminal case brought against Donald Trump by the New York County District Attorney alleging violations of New York state law. As head of state , the president represents the United States government to its own people and represents the nation to the rest of the world. For example, during
14351-566: Was bludgeoned to death with a baseball bat in his barracks. The murder was committed by Private Calvin Glover, who was egged on by Specialist Justin Fisher. Apparently the motive was punishing Winchell for falling in love with Calpernia Addams , a transsexual showgirl. Winchell died at Vanderbilt University Medical Center in Nashville. Glover was later convicted for the murder, while Fisher
14478-601: Was completed in 1953. By May 1954, the facility was put to work, testing the General Electric J-47 engine for the B-47 Stratojet bomber. A flight dynamics facility for testing aerospace designs at high speeds was built and dedicated to Dr. Theodore von Kármán in 1959. Operations began with a prototype test cell called E-1, which was used to test the Falcon guided missile. Construction was completed on
14605-534: Was constructed as one of the Army's largest training bases during the World War II period between 1941 and 1946. The camp, named after Confederate American Civil War cavalryman Nathan Bedford Forrest , was originally named Camp Peay. Camp Peay was named after 1920s Tennessee Governor Austin Peay and built east of Tullahoma as a National Guard Camp in 1926. Camp Peay covered 1,040 acres (4.2 km). Camp Forrest covered 85,000 acres (340 km) located just beyond
14732-598: Was convicted of attempted premeditated murder and sentenced to 25 years imprisonment . Early on April 26, 2011 , a strong tornado struck the Campbell Army Airfield at Fort Campbell, destroying one building and causing heavy damage to several others, all of which were large and well-constructed. Large doors were blown in on these buildings as well. Several other smaller buildings received minor to major damage, and numerous heavy vehicles were damaged, with at least three being flipped over. Immediately north of
14859-507: Was convicted of lesser crimes. Fisher was released to a halfway house in August 2006 and was later released from all custody. Glover received a life sentence and is eligible for parole after 15 years. On October 13, 2005, Fort Campbell made international headlines when Private Nicholas Mikel opened fire on a group of soldiers training at the base. Private Mikel was arrested soon thereafter and charged with attempted murder. In April 2006 he
14986-520: Was dedicated in 2018. Of the students, the percentage who attend for all four years total at FCHS is 10. There were plans for a new middle school, but in 2019 the funds were instead designated for a wall along the Mexico-United States border . 36°39′N 87°28′W / 36.650°N 87.467°W / 36.650; -87.467 President of the United States [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The president of
15113-414: Was formed by Sverdrup and Parcel to become that contractor work force. Part of the rationale was to maintain a stable work force that came to accumulate a volume of experience with the test facilities that were to be built. That idea would make the center a model for outsourcing for the Department of Defense by the 1990s. The 1950s saw the development of three major test facilities that remain active today —
15240-629: Was made in the Declaration of Independence , which was written predominantly by Thomas Jefferson and adopted unanimously on July 4, 1776, by the Second Continental Congress. Recognizing the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British , the Continental Congress simultaneously began the process of drafting a constitution that would bind the states together. There were long debates on
15367-539: Was nearly removed from office, with Congress remaining powerful during the two-term presidency of Civil War general Ulysses S. Grant . After the end of Reconstruction , Grover Cleveland would eventually become the first Democratic president elected since before the war, running in three consecutive elections (1884, 1888, 1892) and winning twice. In 1900, William McKinley became the first incumbent to win re-election since Grant in 1872. After McKinley's assassination by Leon Czolgosz in 1901, Theodore Roosevelt became
15494-683: Was needed to power huge testing systems. Construction on the center started in 1950. On June 25, 1951, a year after General Arnold's death, President Harry S. Truman dedicated the Air Engineering Development Center in Arnold's honor, naming it the Arnold Engineering Development Center . One of the government's early decisions concerning the center was to employ a primarily contractor work force. The Arnold Research Organization (ARO)
15621-489: Was the first branch of government described in the Constitution , to be the dominant branch of government; however, they did not expect a strong executive department. However, presidential power has shifted over time, which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful, unchecked, unbalanced, and "monarchist" in nature. In 2008 professor Dana D. Nelson expressed belief that presidents over
15748-752: Was the most recent to do so in July 1948, known as the Turnip Day Session . In addition, prior to ratification of the Twentieth Amendment in 1933, which brought forward the date on which Congress convenes from December to January, newly inaugurated presidents would routinely call the Senate to meet to confirm nominations or ratify treaties. In practice, the power has fallen into disuse in the modern era as Congress now formally remains in session year-round, convening pro forma sessions every three days even when ostensibly in recess. Correspondingly,
15875-402: Was then inactivated on 14 January 1972 and its personnel and the equipment used to rebuild the 3rd Brigade, 101st Airborne Division (Airmobile) . The 3rd Brigade remained on jump status until April 1974, when its jump status was terminated and the division became entirely airmobile. On April 6, 1972, the 101st Airborne Division (Airmobile) was officially welcomed back to its home station after
16002-559: Was to have a new building. Wassom Middle School closed in 2017. Mahaffey Middle School and Wassom Middle School formerly served separate areas. Mahaffey Middle's boundary included Cole Park, Drennan Park, Gardner Hills, Harper Village, New Drennan, Stryker Village, Turner Loop, Werner Park, and Woodlands. Wassom's boundary included Barker Court, Hammond Heights, LaPointe, Lee Park, McAuliffe Park, New Hammond Heights, Pierce Village, Summer Park, Taylor Village, and Zahn Park. The high school first opened in 1962. The current high school building
16129-470: Was used as part of a magnetohydrodynamics research demonstration at the center, sponsored by the Department of Energy . The demonstration assessed the effectiveness of using a large MHD generator to boost coal's efficiency in producing electricity. AEDC later transferred the project to the University of Tennessee Space Institute . The conflict in the Persian Gulf at the beginning of the 1990s became
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