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64-616: Asoro , also known as General Asoro was a war chief in the Kingdom of Benin who served as the sword bearer to Oba Ovonramwen (the Oba of Benin ) during the 1897 British expedition to Benin . He participated in the defense of Benin against the British expeditionary force that aimed to capture the Oba. Asoro's statement "no other person [should] pass this road except the Oba" (So kpon Oba) resulted in

128-400: A construction date of 1450–1500. It has been estimated that, assuming a ten-hour work day, a labour force of 5,000 men could have completed the walls within 97 days, or by 2,421 men in 200 days. However, these estimates have been criticized for not taking into account the time it would have taken to extract earth from an ever deepening hole and the time it would have taken to heap the earth into

192-528: A high bank. It is unknown whether slavery or some other type of labour was used in the construction of the walls. The walls were built of a ditch and dike structure; the ditch dug to form an inner moat with the excavated earth used to form the exterior rampart. The Benin Walls were partially demolished by the British in 1897 during their 1897 punitive expedition . Scattered pieces of the structure remain in Edo, with

256-481: A major calamity or national disaster was also an occasion for sacrifices. Humans were sacrificed in an annual ritual in honour of the god of iron, where warriors from Benin City would perform an acrobatic dance while suspended from the trees. The ritual recalled a mythical war against the sky. Sacrifices of a man, a woman, a goat, a cow and a ram were also made to a god called "the king of death". The god, named Ogiuwu,

320-558: A reply from the Foreign Office to his request where he stated that: F.O. 2/I02, Phillips to F.O. no. 105 of i6 Nov 1896. Phillips wrote that 'there is nothing in the shape of a standing army. ... and the inhabitants appear to be if not a peace-loving at any rate a most unwarlike people whose only exploits during many generations had been an occasional quarrel with their neighbours about trade or slave raiding and it appears at least improbable that they have any arms to speak of except

384-479: A resistance to the disease. The original name of the kingdom of Benin, at its creation some time in the first millennium CE, was Igodomigodo , as its inhabitants called it. Their ruler was called Ogiso – the ruler of the sky. The Ogiso began to use the Ada and Eben sceptres as symbols of their authority from around ~16AD. A series of walls marked the incremental growth of the city from 850 AD until its decline in

448-477: A specialized unit of the Benin army. Archers and crossbowmen were trained in target and field archery . In 1514 or 1516, the Oba of Benin seized a Portuguese bombard for use. Benin's tactics were well organized, with preliminary plans weighed by the Oba and his sub-commanders. Logistics were organized to support missions from the usual porter forces, water transport via canoe, and requisitioning from localities

512-588: A vague clause about ensuring "the general progress of civilization". A British delegation departed from the Oil Rivers Protectorate in 1897 with the stated aim of negotiating with the Oba of Benin regarding the trade agreement, which they felt he was not keeping. The leader of the delegation, James Robert Phillips , had asked his superiors in the British Foreign Office for permission to lead an armed British expedition to depose

576-426: A very high bulwark, very thick of earth, with a very deep broad ditch, but it was dry, and full of high trees... That gate is a reasonable good gate, made of wood in their manner, which is to be shut, and there always there is watch holden. Estimates for the initial construction of the walls range from the first millennium to the mid-fifteenth century. According to Connah, oral tradition and travelers' accounts suggest

640-462: A week. Ewuare also added great thoroughfares and erected nine fortified gateways. Excavations at Benin City have revealed that it was already flourishing around 1200–1300 CE. In 1440, Oba Ewuare , also known as Ewuare the Great, came to power and expanded the borders of the former city-state. It was only at this time that the administrative centre of the kingdom began to be referred to as Ubinu after

704-485: Is 80 leagues [ sic ] long by 40 leagues [ sic ] broad, is always at war with its neighbours from whom it obtains captives, whom we buy at from 12 to 15 brass or copper manillas. Another description given around 1600, one hundred years after Pereira's description, is by the Dutch explorer Dierick Ruiters. Pereira's account of the walls is as follows: This city is about a league long from gate to gate; it has no wall but

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768-512: Is a kingdom within what is now southern Nigeria. It has no historical relation to the modern republic of Benin , which was known as Dahomey from the 17th century until 1975. The Kingdom of Benin's capital was Edo, now known as Benin City in Edo State , Nigeria . The Benin Kingdom was "one of the oldest and most developed states in the coastal hinterland of West Africa ". It grew out of

832-782: Is credited with turning Benin City into a city-state from a military fortress built by the Ogisos, protected by moats and walls. It was from this bastion that he launched his military campaigns and began the expansion of the kingdom from the Edo-speaking heartlands. Excavations also uncovered a rural network of earthen walls 6,000 to 13,000 km (4,000 to 8,000 mi) long that would have taken an estimated 150 million man-hours to build and must have taken hundreds of years to build. These were apparently raised to mark out territories for towns and cities. Thirteen years after Ewuare's death, tales of Benin's splendors lured more Portuguese traders to

896-510: Is inconsistent with the perception of Phillips as a man of peace in January 1897. Igbafe posits that Phillips was going on a reconnaissance mission and that Phillips' haste to Benin can be explained by a belief that nothing bad would happen to him or his party. The expeditionary force also took the palace art as war booty. The looted portrait figures, busts, and groups created in iron, carved ivory, and especially in brass (conventionally termed

960-468: Is situated in, helped in the development of the city because of its vast resources – fish from rivers and creeks, animals to hunt, leaves for roofing, plants for medicine, ivory for carving and trading, and wood for boat building – that could be exploited. However, domesticated animals, from the forest and surrounding areas, could not survive, due to a disease spread by tsetse flies ; after centuries of exposure, some animals, such as cattle and goats, developed

1024-482: Is surrounded by a large moat, very wide and deep, which suffices for its defence. The archaeologist Graham Connah suggests that Pereira was probably mistaken with his description by saying that there was no wall. Connah says, "[Pereira] considered that a bank of earth was not a wall in the sense of the Europe of his day." Ruiters' account of the walls is as follows: At the gate where I entered on horseback, I saw

1088-539: The Portuguese word and corrupted to Bini by the Itsekhiri , Urhobo and Edo who all lived together in the royal administrative centre of the kingdom. The Portuguese who arrived in an expedition led by João Afonso de Aveiro  [ pt ] in 1485 would refer to it as Benin and the centre would become known as Benin City. The Oba had become the mount of power within the region. In the 15th century, Oba Ewuare

1152-582: The " Benin Bronzes ") were sold off to defray the cost of the expedition and some were accessioned to the British Museum ; most were sold elsewhere and are now on display in various museums around the world. In March 2021, institutions in Berlin, Germany and Aberdeen, Scotland announced decisions to return Benin Bronzes in their possession to their place of origin. The British occupied Benin, which

1216-522: The "Queen's Own". The Metropolitan and Royal regiments were relatively stable semi-permanent or permanent formations. The Village Regiments provided the bulk of the fighting force and were mobilized as needed, sending contingents of warriors upon the command of the king and his generals. Formations were broken down into sub-units under designated commanders. Foreign observers often commented favorably on Benin's discipline and organization as "better disciplined than any other Guinea nation", contrasting them with

1280-491: The 14th century. The Walls of Benin are a series of earthworks made up of banks and ditches, called I ya in the Edo language in the area around present-day Benin City , the capital of present-day Edo , Nigeria . They consist of 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) of city iya and an estimated 16,000 kilometres (9,900 miles) in the rural area around Benin. Some estimates suggest that the walls of Benin may have been constructed between

1344-403: The 16th century. To enclose his palace he commanded the building of Benin's inner wall, and 11-kilometre-long (7 mi) earthen rampart girded by a moat 6 m (20 ft) deep. This was excavated in the early 1960s by Graham Connah . Connah estimated that its construction if spread out over five dry seasons, would have required a workforce of 1,000 laborers working ten hours a day, seven days

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1408-410: The 19th century, Britain desired a closer relationship with the Kingdom of Benin; as British officials were increasingly interested in controlling trade in the area and in accessing the kingdom's palm oil, kola nut, ivory and potentially rubber resources, following the introduction of Hevea brasiliensis saplings, via Kew Gardens in 1895. Several attempts were made to achieve this end beginning with

1472-441: The Benin territory was partially agricultural; and it became primarily agricultural by around 500 AD, but hunting and gathering still remained important. Also by 500, iron was in use by the inhabitants of the Benin territory. Benin City (formerly Edo) sprang up by around 1000, in a forest that could be easily defended. The dense vegetation and narrow paths made the city easy to defend against attacks. The rainforest, which Benin City

1536-484: The British and Benin. The British officials said they wanted to discuss trade issues, but their unauthorized entry and the subsequent violence led to more conflicts. After the British defeated the Benin Empire and captured Oba Ovonramwen , Asoro refused to accept the exile order. During the British attack on Benin led by James Robert Phillips , Asoro protected the road used by the British force. He stated that only

1600-555: The British. The British burnt down numerous towns, and destroyed farms in an attempt to starve the rebels into submission. After the 1899 expedition, military resistance in the former Kingdom of Benin against the British occupation ceased. Below are several notable figures of the Kingdom of Benin Forty-one female skeletons thrown into a pit were discovered by the archaeologist Graham Connah . These findings indicate that human sacrifice or execution of criminals took place in Benin in

1664-549: The Department of Archaeology and Palaeoanthropology. In the 1990s he was visiting fellow, at the Humanities Research Centre, Australian National University and School of Archaeology and Anthropology, Faculty of Arts, Australian National University; and the Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Sweden. Connah's main research field was African archaeology, concentrating on

1728-524: The Edo people. In all, they are four times longer than the Great Wall of China , and consumed a hundred times more material than the Great Pyramid of Cheops . They took an estimated 150 million hours of digging to construct, and are perhaps the largest single archaeological phenomenon on the planet. Ethnomathematician Ron Eglash has discussed the planned layout of the city using fractals as

1792-595: The Empire. While the treaty itself contains text suggesting Ovonramwen sought Benin to become a protectorate, this was contrasted by Gallwey's own account, which suggests the Oba was hesitant to sign the treaty. Although some suggest that humanitarian motivations were driving Britain's actions, letters written between colonial administrators suggest that economic motivations were predominant. The treaty itself does not explicitly mention anything about Benin's "bloody customs" that Burton had written about, and instead only includes

1856-680: The Oba could use that road, which was later named "Sakponba". A statue of General Asoro stands on this road in Benin City to honour his deeds. Asoro died at the place where he had fought against the British expedition. This spot is now marked by the Oba Ovonramwen Square, located at the start of Sakponba Road in Benin City . Kingdom of Benin The Kingdom of Benin , also known as Great Benin or Benin Kingdom

1920-532: The Oba of Benin not long before the expedition, but left for Benin City with a diplomatic delegation (or a reconnaissance mission disguised as a peaceful diplomatic delegation) before receiving a reply to his request. Perceiving this to be an attempt to depose the Oba, the Oba's generals unilaterally ordered an attack on the delegation as it was approaching Benin City (which included eight unknowing British representatives and hundreds of African porters and labourers) all but two of whom were killed. A punitive expedition

1984-502: The army passed through. Movement of troops via canoes was critically important in the lagoons, creeks and rivers of the Niger Delta , a key area of Benin's domination. Tactics in the field seem to have evolved over time. While the head-on clash was well known, documentation from the 18th century shows greater emphasis on avoiding continuous battle lines, and more effort to encircle an enemy ( ifianyako ). Graham Connah Connah

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2048-469: The basis, not only in the city itself and the villages but even in the rooms of houses. He commented that "When Europeans first came to Africa, they considered the architecture very disorganised and thus primitive. It never occurred to them that the Africans might have been using a form of mathematics that they hadn’t even discovered yet." Military operations relied on a well trained disciplined force. At

2112-460: The city gates. In the early 16th century, Oba Esigie expanded the kingdom eastwards, after defeating an invasion and attempted conquest of Benin by the Igala kingdom. Benin gained political strength and ascendancy over much of what is now mid-western Nigeria. Its wealth grew through its extensive trade, especially with the interior of the region, although the trade with Europeans that developed from

2176-536: The end of the eighteenth century, three to four people were sacrificed at the mouth of the Benin River annually, to attract European trade, according to one source. The monarchy of Benin was hereditary ; the eldest son was to become the new Oba. In order to validate the succession of the kingship, the eldest son had to bury his father and perform elaborate rituals. If the eldest son failed to complete these tasks, he might be disqualified from becoming king. After

2240-597: The entire coastline from the Western Niger Delta, through Lagos reaching almost Accra in the West. The state developed an advanced artistic culture, especially in its famous artifacts of bronze, iron and ivory. These include bronze wall plaques and life-sized bronze heads depicting the Obas and Iyobas of Benin. These plaques also included other human and animal figures as well as items like ceremonial belts. Ivory

2304-459: The following year, he moved to Australia to take a position at the University of New England, Armidale, NSW, as lecturer in the Department of Classics and Ancient History. He became the head of the Department of Prehistory and Archaeology at UNE in 1974 after the previous head of Archaeology Isabel McBryde shifted to ANU at the end of 1973. In 1985 he was made foundation professor and head of

2368-558: The head of the host stood the Oba of Benin . The monarch of the realm served as supreme military commander. Beneath him were subordinate generalissimos, the Ezomo , the Iyase , and others who supervised a Metropolitan Regiment based in the capital, and a Royal Regiment made up of hand-picked warriors that also served as bodyguards. Benin's queen mother, the Iyoba , also retained her own regiment –

2432-500: The kingship. The Oba was shrouded in mystery; he only left his palace on ceremonial occasions. It was previously punishable by death to assert that the Oba performed human acts, such as eating, sleeping, dying or washing. The Oba was also credited with having magical powers. He also controlled a powerful bureaucratic apparatus whose decrees were obeyed to the letter. The Impluvium was used in Benin architecture to store rainwater. Among

2496-578: The late 15th century onwards in pepper, slaves, cloth, and ivory provided a smaller, additional supplement to Benin's wealth and its economy. Benin ruled over the tribes of the Niger Delta including the Western Igbo Tribes, Ijaw , Itshekiri , Isoko and Urhobo amongst others. It also held sway over the Eastern Yoruba tribes of Ondo, Ekiti, Mahin/Ugbo, and Ijebu. At its height in the 16th century, Benin dominated trade along

2560-440: The mission to Benin without much weaponry. Some have argued he was going on a peaceful mission. Such commentators argue that the message from the Oba that his festival would not permit him to receive European visitors touched the humanitarian side of Phillips's character because of an incorrect assumption that the festival included human sacrifice. According to Igbafe, this does not explain why Phillips set out before he had received

2624-473: The naming of a road in Benin as "Sakponba". General Asoro was from Iguogho in present-day Ovia North-East Local Government Area of Edo State. In January 1897, during a religious festival, a British expedition led by Acting Consul General James Philips attempted to enter Benin without the permission of Oba Ovonramwen . Asoro and other warriors resisted the British officials, causing them to retreat and killing some of them. This incident increased tensions between

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2688-480: The official visit of Richard Francis Burton in 1862 when he was consul at Fernando Pó . Following that came attempts to establish a treaty between Benin and the United Kingdom by Hewtt, Blair and Annesley in 1884, 1885 and 1886 respectively. However, these efforts did not yield any results. The kingdom resisted becoming a British protectorate throughout the 1880s, but the British remained persistent. Progress

2752-460: The origins of urbanism and state in Nigeria and Uganda over the last 6000 years. African Civilizations is his best known work on this topic. He was also one of the pioneers of Australian historical archaeology, with his major contribution being The Archaeology of Australia’s History . He was founding editor of the journal Australasian Historical Archaeology from 1983 to 1988), and President of

2816-464: The previous Edo Kingdom of Igodomigodo around the 11th century AD, and lasted until it was annexed by the British Empire in 1897. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the kingdom reached the height of its prosperity, expanding its territory, trading with European powers, and creating a remarkable artistic legacy in cast bronze, iron, carved ivory, and other materials. By the 1st century BC,

2880-500: The previously dominant pepper and ivory as trade commodities. A civil war broke out around 1689, around the time that Oba Ewuakpe ascended to the throne. Iyase Ode and lower-ranked members of the royal administration revolted against their superiors attempts to control them. The Oba brought in troops from another city but could not defeat the rebels, and Benin city was sacked. The war continued for roughly 10 years before negotiations brought them to an end. Ewuakpe's succession, however,

2944-454: The residences of the nobility, a compluvium channeled the rainwater into the impluvium in order to permit light and air through the walls since windows were absent among these structures. The stored rainwater in the impluvium was discharged out of the house through a drainage system beneath the floor. Archaeological works from the mid 20th century has revealed the existence of edge-laid potsherd pavements in Benin city, dated around or prior to

3008-536: The slacker troops from the Gold Coast. Until the introduction of guns in the 15th century, traditional weapons like the spear, short sword, and bow held sway. Efforts were made to reorganize a local guild of blacksmiths in the 18th century to manufacture light firearms, but dependence on imports was still heavy. Before the coming of the gun, guilds of blacksmiths were charged with war production—particularly swords and iron spearheads. In addition, crossbowmen formed

3072-412: The son was installed as king, his mother – after having been invested with the title of Iyoba – was transferred to a palace just outside Benin City, in a place called Uselu. The mother held a considerable amount of power; she was, however, never allowed to meet her son – who was now a divine ruler – again. In Benin, the Oba was seen as divine . The Oba's divinity and sacredness was the focal point of

3136-600: The thirteenth and mid-fifteenth century CE and others suggest that the walls of Benin (in the Esan region) may have been constructed during the first millennium AD. The Benin City walls have been known to Westerners since around 1500. Around 1500, the Portuguese explorer Duarte Pacheco Pereira , briefly described the walls during his travels. In Pereira's Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis , 1505, we read: The houses are built of sun-dried bricks covered with palm leaves. Benin, which

3200-508: The thirteenth century AD. From the early days, human sacrifices were a part of the state religion. But many of the accounts of the sacrifices, says historian J. D. Graham, are exaggerated or based on rumour and speculation. He says that all of the evidence "points to a limited, ritual custom of human sacrifice, many of the written accounts referring to the human sacrifices describe them as actually being executed criminals". Edo historian Professor Philip Igbafe states that in pre-colonial Benin,

3264-399: The tradition was that only slaves could be sacrificed. This could include hardened criminals and those who had committed serious crimes, who would either be executed or sold into slavery. Sacrifices were made at the anniversary of the Oba's father, at the annual bead ceremony, and to propitiate the gods when poor weather threatened crops or when an epidemic threatened. In addition, the threat of

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3328-548: The usual number of trade guns... When Captain Gallwey visited the city the only canon he saw were half a dozen old Portuguese guns. They were lying on the grass unmounted'. Compare this with the opinion of his immediate predecessor, Ralph Moor, who was convinced that 'the people in all the villages are no doubt possessed of arms' (F.O. 2/84, Moor to F.O. no. 39 of I2 Sept. 1895). Igbafe also points to Phillips' November 1896 advocacy of military force regarding Benin, arguing that this

3392-470: The vast majority of them being used by the locals for building purposes. What remains of the wall itself continues to be torn down for real estate developments in Nigeria. Fred Pearce wrote in New Scientist: They extend for some 16,000 km in all, in a mosaic of more than 500 interconnected settlement boundaries. They cover 2,510 sq. miles (6,500 square kilometres) and were all dug by

3456-436: The west. The end of his reign saw a rise in the power of prominent officials, and during the following decades many Oba's enjoyed short and turbulent reigns as various branches of the royal family fought for position. The death of Oba Ohuan in 1641 may have marked the end of the direct father-to-son line of succession going back to Eweka I . Officials also increasingly controlled the military and trade, as cloth came to replace

3520-626: Was absorbed into the British Niger Coast Protectorate and eventually into British colonial Nigeria . A general emancipation of slaves followed in the wake of British occupation but Britain also imposed a system of forced labour in Benin and in surrounding areas, as they did throughout other parts of southern Nigeria. The British launched an additional operation in 1899, called the "Benin Territories Expedition", against rebels still holding out against

3584-410: Was also used, as seen in the carving of ivory into ornate boxes, combs and armlets. The most well-known artifact is based on Queen Idia , now known as the Benin ivory mask . Ivory masks were meant to be worn around the waist of kings. Ruling in the late 16th century, Oba Ehengbuda was the last of the warrior kings; after his reign the empire gradually shrank in size, losing control over territories in

3648-768: Was born in Cheshire, UK on 11 August 1934, and educated at Wirral Grammar School, and Cambridge University, receiving a PhD in 1959, after which he was a research assistant until 1961. Among his influences were David Clarke and Paul Ashby. In 1961 he obtained a position as archaeologist in the Department of Antiquities, with the Federal Government of Nigeria. He next served as a research fellow, Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan, Nigeria in 1964; then senior research fellow, Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan in 1968; and senior lecturer, Department of Archaeology, University of Ibadan in 1970. In

3712-464: Was coveted by an influential group of investors for its rich natural resources such as palm-oil, and ivory. After British consul Richard Burton visited Benin in 1862 he wrote of Benin's as a place of "gratuitous barbarity which stinks of death", a narrative which was publicized in Britain and increased support for the territory's colonization. In spite of this, the kingdom maintained its independence and

3776-457: Was disputed between his two sons Ozuere and Akenzua. Akenzua and his close ally, a traditional chief who bore the title Ezomo , eventually prevailed over the younger Ozuere and his ally, the Iyase Ode in a decisive battle in 1721. Cleanup and reconquest of rebel areas, however, took another 10 years. With renewed stability in the kingdom and, Oba Akenzua benefited from trade with Europeans and

3840-459: Was launched in response, and a 1,200-men strong force, under the command of Sir Harry Rawson , captured Benin City. They deliberately sought out and destroyed certain areas of the city, including those thought to belong to the chiefs responsible for the ambush of the British delegation, and in the process a fire burnt the palace and surrounding quarters, which the British claimed was accidental. There has much debate of why James Phillips set out on

3904-426: Was made 1892 during the visit of Vice-Consul Henry Gallwey . This mission was the first official visit after Burton's. Moreover, it would also set in motion the events to come that would lead to Oba Ovonramwen's fall from power. In the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Benin managed to retain its independence and the Oba exercised a monopoly over trade which British merchants in the region found irksome. The territory

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3968-611: Was not visited by another representative of Britain until 1892 when Henry Gallwey , the British Vice-Consul of the Oil Rivers Protectorate (later the Niger Coast Protectorate ), visited Benin City hoping to open up trade and ultimately annex Benin Kingdom and transform it into a British protectorate . Gallwey was able to get Omo n’Oba ( Ovonramwen ) and his chiefs to sign a treaty which gave Britain legal justification for exerting greater influence over

4032-412: Was to be one of the richest obas in the kingdom's history. Benin's economy was thriving in the early to mid 19th century with the development of the trade in palm oil, and the continuation of the trade in textiles, ivory and other resources. To preserve the kingdom's independence, the Oba gradually banned the export of goods from Benin, until the trade was exclusively in palm oil. By the latter half of

4096-405: Was worshipped at a special altar in the centre of Benin City. There were two separate annual series of rites that honored past Obas. Sacrifices were performed every fifth day. At the end of each series of rites, the current Oba's deceased father was honored with a public festival. During the festival, twelve criminals, chosen from a prison where the worst criminals were held, were sacrificed. By

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