Austrian victory
88-768: Aftermath The Neapolitan War , also known as the Austro-Neapolitan War , was a conflict between the Napoleonic Kingdom of Naples and the Austrian Empire . It started on 15 March 1815, when King Joachim Murat declared war on Austria, and ended on 20 May 1815, with the signing of the Treaty of Casalanza . The war occurred during the Hundred Days between Napoleon 's return from exile and before he left Paris to be decisively defeated at
176-489: A copyright law and freedom of the press. With them came a host of courtiers, secretaries, civil servants and ladies to enjoy the magnificent social life of the Austrian court. The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke of an attendee, it danced a lot but did not move forward. On the other hand, the possibilities for informal gatherings created by this "side program" may have helped ensure
264-944: A costly siege . On 8 April, Murat attempted to cross the Po River and finally set foot in Austrian-controlled Italy. Murat had received little reinforcement from the Italian populace up to this point, but he hoped he would find more support north of the Po River, which was under direct Austrian rule. The region had once been part of the Kingdom of Italy , a French client republic, and it had been reported that about 40,000 men, mostly veterans of Napoleon's campaigns, were ready to join Murat once he arrived in Milan. He chose
352-598: A crossing at the town of Occhiobello . It was there that Murat finally engaged with the bulk of the Austrian army under the command of Frimont. Meanwhile, the two Guard Divisions Murat had sent into the Papal States had passed unmolested into Tuscany, and by 8 April they had occupied Florence , the capital of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. The Grand Duke fled to Pisa , while the Austrian garrison in Florence, under
440-638: A crossing of the Panaro but was repelled. However, only two days later, Murat and his army retreated from Bologna, which was quickly retaken by the Austrians. In Tuscany , meanwhile, Murat's two Guard Divisions also inexplicably retreated without being harassed in any way by Nugent . By 15 April, the Austrians had retaken Florence , and when the news reached Murat, he ordered a general retreat of his main force back to their original headquarters in Ancona . With
528-643: A cumbersome process that required much in the way of time and transportation. The format set at the Congress of Vienna would serve as inspiration for the 1856 peace conference brokered by France (the Congress of Paris ) that settled the Crimean War . The Congress of Vienna settlement gave birth to the Concert of Europe , an international political doctrine that emphasized the maintaining of political boundaries,
616-784: A desire for Italian unification . Indeed, some consider the Rimini Proclamation to be the start of the Risorgimento . The intervention of Austria only heightened the fact that the Habsburgs were the single most powerful opponent to unification, which would eventually lead to three wars of independence against the Spanish Bourbons Austrians. Kingdom of Naples (Napoleonic) The Kingdom of Naples ( Italian : Regno di Napoli ; Neapolitan : Regno 'e Napule ; French : Royaume de Naples )
704-587: A large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls. Four great powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition , a covenant of nations allied in the war against France. On the verge of Napoleon's defeat they had outlined their common position in the Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814), and negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) with the Bourbons during their restoration : These parties had not been part of
792-554: A man trying to save his crown rather than a beacon of Italian unification. By now, the number of Austrian troops in Lombardy had swelled to 60,000, and the commander entrusted with the force to confront Murat was Baron Frimont . The army was originally intended to invade southern France after Napoleon's return, but now had to be diverted to face the approaching Neapolitan army. Frimont moved his headquarters to Piacenza in order to block any potential advance on Milan . Meanwhile, on
880-735: A model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945. Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace. Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all
968-587: A significant role in European wars for several hundred years: the Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently. During the wars, Portugal had lost its town of Olivenza to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivenza decreed in Article CV of the General Treaty of
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#17327725840501056-589: A treaty on 3 January 1815 , among only the three of them, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition. When the Tsar heard of the treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw as a "Kingdom of Poland" – called Congress Poland , with
1144-417: Is going to Vienna." Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 afrancesados – Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to Joseph Bonaparte , nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain. The most complex topic at
1232-535: The Austrians and British , Murat signed a treaty with the Austrians on January 11, 1814 in which, in return for renouncing his claims to Sicily and providing military support to the Allies in the war against his former Emperor, Austria would guarantee his continued possession of Naples. Marching his troops north, Murat's Neapolitans joined the Austrians against Napoleon's stepson, Eugène de Beauharnais , Viceroy of
1320-551: The Battle of Scapezzano and was approaching. Sensing the inevitable, Murat ordered a retreat. The battle had severely damaged the morale of the Neapolitan troops, and many senior officers had been casualties in the battle. The battered Neapolitan army fell back in disarray. On 5 May, a joint Anglo -Austrian fleet began a blockade of Ancona , eventually taking the entire garrison of the city as prisoners. By 12 May, Bianchi, who
1408-525: The Battle of Waterloo ). Its provisions included: Representatives of Austria, France, Portugal , Prussia, Russia, Sweden-Norway , and Britain signed the Final Act. Spain did not sign, but ratified the outcome in 1817. Subsequently, Ferdinand IV , the Bourbon King of Sicily, regained control of the Kingdom of Naples after Joachim Murat , the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in
1496-608: The Battle of Waterloo . The war was triggered by a pro-Napoleon uprising in Naples and ended with a decisive Austrian victory at the Battle of Tolentino , after which Bourbon monarch Ferdinand IV was reinstated as King of Naples and Sicily. However, the intervention by Austria caused resentment in Italy, which further spurred on the drive towards Italian unification . Before the French Revolutionary Wars , Naples
1584-573: The Chaumont agreement , but had joined the Treaty of Paris (1814) : Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress. In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding
1672-899: The Congress of Vienna progressed, Murat's position became less and less secure as there was growing support to restore Ferdinand to the throne. The most vocal of all Murat's opponents was the United Kingdom , which had never recognised Murat's claim to the throne and, moreover, had been guarding Ferdinand in Sicily, ensuring he retained the Sicilian throne. When Murat was informed of Napoleon's plan to escape from exile in Elba on 1 March 1815, Murat sided with him once more and declared war on Austria as soon as he learned of Napoleon's return to France. Joachim Murat declared war on Austria on 15 March 1815, five days before Napoleon's return to Paris and
1760-655: The Duchy of Parma ). The Papal States were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of Genoa . In Southern Italy, Napoleon's brother-in-law, Joachim Murat , was originally allowed to retain his Kingdom of Naples , but his support of Napoleon in the Hundred Days led to the restoration of the Bourbon Ferdinand IV to
1848-528: The French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars through negotiation. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace, being at the same time shepherds for the smaller powers. More generally, conservative leaders like Metternich also sought to restrain or eliminate republican , liberal , and revolutionary movements which, from their point of view, had upended
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#17327725840501936-483: The Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Modena . Murat was hoping that an Austrian army in Naples would prove too much and that the Italian population would rise up in support of his cause. However, no such general insurrection occurred, as any unrest was quickly quashed by the Austrian authorities, and Murat found few Italians outside Naples who were willing to take up arms and join his cause. Many saw Murat as
2024-431: The Hundred Days and started the 1815 Neapolitan War by attacking Austria. The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795 and 1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris , were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw ) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and
2112-410: The Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress's agreement was signed nine days before Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Some historians have criticised the outcomes of the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of national, democratic, and liberal movements, and it has been seen as a reactionary settlement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. Others have praised
2200-462: The Kingdom of Italy . After initially opening secret communications with Eugène to explore his options of switching sides again, Murat finally committed to the allied side and attacked Piacenza . Upon Napoleon's abdication on 11 April 1814 and Eugène's armistice, Murat returned to Naples. However, his new allies did not trust him, and he became convinced they were about to depose him. Upon Napoleon's return in 1815, Murat struck out from Rimini at
2288-580: The River Po proved unsuccessful, and after two days of heavy fighting, the Neapolitans fell back after suffering over 2,000 casualties. To make matters worse, the United Kingdom declared war on Murat and sent a fleet over to Italy. Meanwhile, Frimont had ordered a counterattack to try to relieve the garrison in Ferrara . He ordered a corps under the command of Bianchi to advance on Carpi , which
2376-407: The Treaty of Casalanza with the Austrians, bringing the war to an end. On 23 May, the main Austrian army entered Naples and restored King Ferdinand to the Neapolitan throne. Murat, meanwhile, would attempt to reclaim his kingdom. Coming back from exile, he landed with 28 men at Pizzo, Calabria on 8 October 1815. However, unlike Napoleon months earlier, Murat was not greeted with a warm welcome and
2464-593: The Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition , and the Treaty of Kiel that covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia . The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress" should be held in Vienna and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war". The opening was scheduled for July 1814. The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however,
2552-407: The constitutional order of the European ancien régime . At the negotiation table, the position of France was weak in relation to that of Britain , Prussia , Austria , and Russia , partly due to the military strategy of its leader, Napoleon Bonaparte , over the previous two decades, and his recent defeat. In the settlement the parties did reach, France had to give up all recent conquests, while
2640-516: The 20th century, however, historians and politicians looking backward came to praise the Congress as well, because they saw it did prevent another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914) and a significant step in the transition to a new international order in which peace was largely maintained through diplomatic dialogue. Among these is Henry Kissinger , who in 1954 wrote his doctoral dissertation , A World Restored , on it and Paul Schroeder. Historian and jurist Mark Jarrett argues that
2728-417: The Austrian forces in northern Italy in what he considered a pre-emptive attack. The powers at the Congress of Vienna assumed he was in concert with Napoleon, but this was, in fact, the opposite of the truth, as Napoleon was then seeking to secure recognition of his return to France through promises of peace, not war. On 2 April, Murat entered Bologna without a fight. Still, soon he was in headlong retreat as
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2816-522: The Austrians crossed the Po at Occhiobello , and his Neapolitan forces disintegrated at the first sign of a skirmish. Murat withdrew to Cesena , then Ancona , then Tolentino . At the Battle of Tolentino on 3 May 1815, the Neapolitan army was swept aside. Though Murat escaped to Naples, his position was irrecoverable, and he soon continued his flight, leaving Naples for France. Ferdinand IV & III
2904-712: The Concert of Europe was built on came about through closed-doors dealing among the five Great Powers – Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia and France. The first four of the five dominant peacemakers held sway simply because they brought to the table "negotiating power" that came of hard-won victory in the Napoleonic Wars; France enjoyed her advantageous position largely through the brilliant diplomatic maneuvering by senior statesman Talleyrand . Lesser powers, like Spain, Sweden, and Portugal, were given few opportunities to advocate their interests and only occasionally partook in
2992-534: The Congress for protecting Europe from large and widespread wars for almost a century. The name "Congress of Vienna" was not meant to suggest a formal plenary session , but rather the creation of a diplomatic organizational framework bringing together stakeholders of all flocks to enable the expression of opinions, interests and sentiments and facilitate discussion of general issues among them. The Congress format had been developed by Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens von Metternich , assisted by Friedrich von Gentz , and
3080-529: The Congress was the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would like to become king of Poland. Austria analysed, this could make Russia too powerful, a view which was supported by Britain. The result was a deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations signed
3168-470: The Congress's success. Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand
3256-526: The Final Act, which stated that "The Powers, recognizing the justice of the claims of ... Portugal and the Brazils, upon the town of Olivenza, and the other territories ceded to Spain by the Treaty of Badajoz of 1801 ". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted
3344-543: The Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years. Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent some 30 years later . Some authors have suggested that the Congress of Vienna may provide a model for settling multiple interlocking conflicts in Eastern Europe that arose after
3432-549: The French, was an armed land force that took part, alongside the Grande Armée , in many of the major campaigns of the Napoleonic wars. With the Napoleonic occupation and the creation of the new kingdom in 1806, the Neapolitan throne was initially entrusted to Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother. In 1808, until 1815, the Neapolitan throne was occupied instead by Joachim Murat, one of the most brilliant military commanders of
3520-670: The German Kingdoms of Hanover (which gained East Frisia from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and Bavaria (which gained the Rhenish Palatinate and territories in Franconia ). The Duchy of Lauenburg was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania . Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played
3608-663: The Ionian Islands . The Congress of Vienna has been criticized by 19th century and more recent historians and politicians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent. It was an integral part in what became known as the Conservative Order , in which democracy and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized. In
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3696-461: The Napoleonic empire. Following the execution of Murat, this army was not dissolved, but amalgamated with the other army that the Bourbons had kept during their exile in Sicily. Congress of Vienna The Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after
3784-673: The Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivenza and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and, to the present day, this issue remains unresolved. The United Kingdom received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon and the Cape Colony as well as Malta and Heligoland . Under the Treaty of Paris (1814) Article VIII France ceded to Britain
3872-516: The anti-clerical sentiment of the Revolution , church property was confiscated en masse and auctioned off as biens nationaux (in compensation for the loss of feudal privileges, the nobles received a certificate which could be exchanged for such properties). However, not all church land was sold immediately, with some retained to support charitable and educational foundations. Most monastic orders were also suppressed and their funds transferred to
3960-490: The balance of powers, and respecting spheres of influence and which guided foreign policy among the nations of Europe until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. To reach amiable consensus among the many different nations holding great interest in the settlement proceedings, informal, face-to-face deliberative sessions were held where opinions and proposed solutions could be inventoried. The policy work on which
4048-479: The beginning of his Hundred Days . The Austrians were prepared for war after their suspicions were raised when Murat applied for permission weeks earlier to move his troops through Austrian land in order to attack the south of France. Austria had reinforced her armies in Lombardy under the command of Bellegarde prior to war being declared. At the start of the war, Murat reportedly had 82,000 men in his army, including 7,000 cavalry and 90 cannon, although this figure
4136-426: The command of General Nugent , was forced to retreat to Pistoia , with the Neapolitan army in pursuit. But with reinforcements arriving from the north and his army in a strong defensive position, Nugent was able to turn and halt the Neapolitan pursuit. Murat and the Neapolitans had reached the zenith of their campaign. The Battle of Occhiobello proved to be the turning point of the war. Murat's attempts to cross
4224-558: The countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression" as divided into seven parts: Lombardy–Venetia , Modena , Naples–Sicily , Parma , Piedmont–Sardinia , Tuscany , and the Papal States under the control of different powers. Poland remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created Kingdom of Poland , remaining under Russian control. The arrangements made by
4312-430: The diaries of the master of affairs Von Gentz that diplomatic tactics possibly included bribing. He notes that at the Congress he received £22,000 through Talleyrand from Louis XVIII , while Castlereagh gave him £600, accompanied by " les plus folles promesses " ("the wildest promises"); his diary is full of such entries. The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (nine days before
4400-509: The diplomatic congress format marked "the true beginning of our modern era". To his analyses the Congress organisation was deliberate conflict management and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready," Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution." Historian Paul Schroeder argues that
4488-581: The downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte . Participants were representatives of all European powers (other than the Ottoman Empire ) and other stakeholders. The Congress was chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich , and was held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from
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#17327725840504576-639: The formal union did not happen until 1816. King Ferdinand IV of Naples and III of Sicily would become King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies , a Spanish Bourbon monarch. Meanwhile, the Austrians consolidated their gains in Northern Italy into the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia . Although Joachim Murat failed to save his crown or start a popular nationalist movement with the Rimini Proclamation , he indirecly and unintentionally ignited
4664-467: The former Dutch Seven Provinces together with formerly Austrian territory, and was meant to serve as a buffer between the German Confederation and France. The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814 , which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Remarkably, negotiations continued unaffected despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's return from exile and resumption of power in France during
4752-412: The islands of " Tobago and Saint Lucia , and of the Isle of France and its dependencies, especially Rodrigues and Les Seychelles ", and under the Treaty between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands (signed in Paris on 5 November 1815), as one of the treaties signed during the Peace of Paris (1815) , Britain obtained a protectorate over the United States of
4840-401: The king of Denmark-Norway to the king of Sweden . This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Norway on 17 May 1814 and the subsequent personal Union with Sweden . Austria gained Lombardy–Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , the Duchy of Modena , and
4928-469: The main Austrian force under Bianchi in pursuit, Murat was forced to call off the action on 16 May. Soon afterwards, the Austrian armies united near Calvi and began the march on Naples. Murat was forced to flee to Corsica and later Cannes disguised as a sailor on a Danish ship after a British fleet blockaded Naples and destroyed all the Neapolitan gunboats in the harbour. On 20 May, Neapolitan Generals Pepe and Carrascosa sued for peace and concluded
5016-579: The meetings held between the great powers. However, because all representatives were gathered in one city it was relatively easy to communicate, to hear and spread news and gossip, and to present points of view for both powerful and less powerful nations. Also of great importance to the parties convened in Vienna were the opportunities presented at wine and dinner functions to establish formal relationships with one another and build-up diplomatic networks. The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by
5104-447: The more important Congress of Vienna. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades. Other partial settlements had already occurred at
5192-423: The nobility suppressed. The practice of tax farming was also ended. The collection of all taxes slowly brought under direct central control as the government brought out the contractors and compensated those who had lost their feudal tax-collecting privileges with bonds . The first public street-lighting system, modelled on that of Paris, was also installed in the city of Naples during Joseph's reign. Continuing
5280-440: The northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Austria. Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the Treaty of Kiel , Norway had been ceded by
5368-416: The old formulae for " balance of power " were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe , which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as
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#17327725840505456-462: The other three main powers made major territorial gains around the world. Prussia added territory from smaller states: Swedish Pomerania , most of the Kingdom of Saxony , and the western part of the former Duchy of Warsaw . Austria gained much of northern Italy . Russia added the central and eastern parts of the Duchy of Warsaw. All agreed upon ratifying the creation of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands , which had been created just months before from
5544-499: The parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s . Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony, much of which became part of the new Province of Saxony from 1816 (the now-Prussian parts of Lower Lusatia and some other areas instead became part of the Province of Brandenburg , with Prussian Upper Lusatia becoming part of the Province of Silesia by 1825); the remainder of Saxony returned to King Frederick Augustus I as his Kingdom of Saxony . It can be learned from
5632-574: The procedure we have adopted and soundly [be]rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget." The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador. Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain. Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately,
5720-523: The pursuit at the Ronco and Savio rivers. But the Austrian advanced guard caught the retreating Neapolitan force twice by surprise, at Cesenatico and Pesaro . Murat hurried his retreat, and by late April, his main force had arrived safely in Ancona , where he was reunited with his two Guard Divisions. Meanwhile, Bianchi 's corps had made swift progress. Arriving in Florence on 20 April, they had reached their target of Foligno by 26 April and now threatened Murat 's line of retreat. Neipperg 's corps
5808-414: The road to Florence now clear and the Italian peninsula opening up in front of him, Frimont ordered two corps south to deal with Murat once and for all. Bianchi's corps was ordered to march towards Foligno via Florence in an attempt to threaten the rear of the Neapolitans and to cut off their line of direct retreat, whilst Neipperg's corps was sent into direct pursuit of Murat as he retired to Ancona. With
5896-478: The road towards Bologna . On 30 March, Murat had arrived in Rimini , where he gave the famous Rimini Proclamation , inciting all Italian nationalists to war. The Italian population was mostly wary of Habsburg Austria, as they feared the increasing Austrian influence in Italy. Under the terms settled by the Congress of Vienna , direct Austrian rule was restored in the Duchy of Milan 19 years after Napoleon's invasion . Habsburg princes had also been reinstated in
5984-458: The royal treasury; the Benedictines and Jesuits were dissolved, but Joseph preserved the Franciscans . In 1808 Joachim Murat , husband of Napoleon 's sister Caroline , was granted the crown of Naples by the Emperor after Joseph had reluctantly accepted the throne of Spain . Murat joined Napoleon in the disastrous campaign of 1812 and, as Napoleon's downfall unfolded, increasingly sought to save his kingdom. Opening communications with
6072-433: The same day that Murat gave the Rimini Proclamation , the Austrian advance guard, under the command of General Bianchi , was beaten back at an engagement near Cesena . Bianchi retreated towards Modena and took up a defensive line behind the River Panaro , allowing Murat to take Bologna on 3 April. Murat engaged Bianchi again at the Battle of the Panaro ; the Austrians were defeated and driven back. The Austrian vanguard
6160-407: The same legal and social system used in France, whilst still participating in Napoleon's campaigns. But following the disastrous Battle of Leipzig , Murat abandoned La Grande Armée to try to save his throne. As defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition loomed, Murat increasingly moved away from Napoleon, eventually signing a treaty with Austria in January 1814 and joining the Allied side. But as
6248-404: The throne. A large United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed for the Prince of Orange , including both the old United Provinces and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands, which gave way to the formation of a democratic state, formally headed by a constitutional monarch . Other, less important, territorial adjustments included significant territorial gains for
6336-460: The town of Tolentino , but on 29 April, Bianchi's advance guard succeeded in driving out the small Neapolitan garrison there. Bianchi, having arrived first, then formed a defensive position around the hills to the east of Tolentino. With Neipperg's army approaching from his rear, Murat was forced to give battle at Tolentino on 2 May 1815. After two days of inconclusive fighting, Murat learned that Neipperg had outmanoeuvred and defeated Carrascosa at
6424-457: The tsar as a king ruling it independently of Russia. However, the majority of Greater Poland and Kuyavia , as well as the Chełmno Land , were given to Prussia and mostly included within the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen ( Poznań ), while Kraków became a free city as a shared protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia. Furthermore, the tsar was forbidden from uniting his new realm with
6512-512: The war turning in Austria's favour, Frimont was ordered back to Lombardy to oversee the army that was now amassing in preparation for an invasion of France. A large portion of the Austrian force was also recalled, leaving only three Austrian corps totalling around 35,000 men in Italy. Murat, who placed too much faith in his Guard Divisions, believing they would be able to halt the advance of Bianchi and Nugent, retreated slowly, even turning to check
6600-677: Was a French client state in southern Italy created in 1806 when the Bourbon Ferdinand IV & III of Naples and Sicily sided with the Third Coalition against Napoleon and was in return ousted from his kingdom by a French invasion . Joseph Bonaparte , elder brother of Napoleon, was installed in his stead: Joseph conferred the title "Prince of Naples" to be hereditary on his children and grandchildren. When Joseph became king of Spain in 1808, Napoleon appointed his brother-in-law Joachim Murat to take his place. Murat
6688-646: Was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it, once again abandoning his allies. The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on the protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquess of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on 30 September 1814. Congress Secretary Friedrich von Gentz reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against
6776-473: Was confined to the mainland Kingdom of Naples alone while Ferdinand continued to reside in and rule the Kingdom of Sicily . In the modernising spirit of the French Revolution , the regimes of Joseph and Murat implemented a programme of sweeping reforms to the organisation and structure of the ancient feudal kingdom. On 2 August 1806, feudalism was abolished, and all the rights and privileges of
6864-463: Was forced to retreat to Borgoforte , allowing the Neapolitans to advance on Modena. Following the battle, the division under the command of General Carrascosa immediately occupied Modena, Carpi , and Reggio Emilia , while Murat moved against Ferrara . However, the garrison in Ferrara withstood the best efforts of the Neapolitans to take the citadel, tying up a large number of Neapolitan troops in
6952-468: Was grossly exaggerated to try to encourage Italians to join his cause. The real number was somewhere in the region of 50,000 men. Leaving behind a reserve Army of the Interior in case of an invasion from Sicily, he sent his two elite Guard Divisions through the Papal States , forcing the Pope to flee to Genoa. With the remainder of his army, Murat established his headquarters at Ancona and advanced on
7040-505: Was guarded by a brigade under the command of Guglielmo Pepe . Another column was ordered to cut off Pepe's line of retreat. However, Carrascosa , who was in command of the Neapolitan troops around Modena, saw the Austrian trap and ordered a retreat to a defensive line behind the Panaro , where he was joined by the remainder of his division, which had been evacuated from Reggio Emilia and Modena . But even after Carrascosa's retreat, Murat
7128-530: Was later deposed by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 after striking at Austria in the Neapolitan War , in which he was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tolentino . Although the Napoleonic kings were officially styled King of Naples and Sicily , British domination of the Mediterranean made it impossible for the French to gain control of Sicily , where Ferdinand had fled, and French power
7216-522: Was now in command of both his and Neipperg's corps, had taken the town of L'Aquila along with its castle. The main Austrian army was now marching on Popoli . During this time, General Nugent had continued to advance from Florence. Having arrived in Rome on 30 April, allowing the Pope to return, Nugent advanced towards Ceprano . By mid-May, Nugent had intercepted Murat at San Germano (now Cassino ). Here, Murat attempted to check Nugent's advance, but with
7304-526: Was ruled by Bourbon King Ferdinand IV . Ferdinand was a natural opponent of Napoleon and was allied with the Third Coalition against him. However, after defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz and the Treaty of Pressburg , Ferdinand was forced to cede Naples to the French in early 1806. Initially, Napoleon's brother, Joseph Bonaparte , ruled Naples. Then in 1808, Joseph was made King of Spain, and Napoleon installed his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat , as King of Naples. Murat originally ruled Naples following
7392-537: Was soon captured by Bourbon troops. Five days after he landed at Pizzo, he was executed in the town's castle, exhorting the firing squad to spare his face. This ended the final chapter of the Neapolitan Wars. Shortly after the end of the war, the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were finally united to create the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies . Although the two kingdoms had been ruled by the same king since 1735,
7480-563: Was soon restored, and the Napoleonic kingdom came to an end. The Congress of Vienna confirmed Ferdinand in possession of both his ancient kingdoms, Naples and Sicily, which were united in 1816 as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , which would survive until 1861. The Army of the Kingdom of Naples, active during the French period , or the decade when the Bourbon kingdom was conquered and ruled by
7568-487: Was still in a position to continue the siege at Ferrara. In response, Frimont ordered a corps under the command of General Neipperg to attack his entrenched right flank. On 12 April, after bitter fighting at the Battle of Casaglia , the Neapolitan troops were driven from their entrenched positions. Murat was forced to lift the Siege of Ferrara and retreat back on the road to Bologna . On 14 April, Frimont attempted to force
7656-487: Was still in pursuit, and by 29 April, his advanced guard had arrived in Fano , just two days' march away. However, the two Austrian armies were separated, and Murat hoped to quickly defeat Bianchi before turning on Neipperg. Much like Napoleon's tactics before Waterloo, Murat sent a division under Carrascosa north to stall Neipperg while his main force headed west to face Bianchi. Murat originally planned to face Bianchi near
7744-402: Was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives and other stakeholders came together in one city at the same time to discuss and formulate the conditions and provisions of treaties. Before the Congress of Vienna the common method of diplomacy involved the exchange of notes sent back and forth among the several capitals and separate talks in different places,
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